INTRODUCTION TO THE RESEARCH
American Higher Education system is a direct result of European education models it seems to be counterintuitive that this is a system exclusively associated with the
The history of Higher Education institutions has been extensively researched, with scholars like John Thelin (2011) focusing on the development of the university system in the early United States However, much of this research tends to overlook significant cultural and societal factors, prioritizing quantifiable data such as economics and politics Additionally, historians often concentrate on the specific histories of individual fraternities and sororities, which can limit their findings to particular organizations or campuses This narrow focus results in biased research that is often not applicable to broader studies within the field of Higher Education.
Education and American History Research has been exceedingly wanton in the areas of examining the cultural influences which developed within the American Fraternity and Sorority System
This article explores the historical influences of European institutions on the American Higher Education system, emphasizing the interconnectedness between American colleges and the fraternity and sorority culture It also examines student life in both European and American universities, providing a comprehensive understanding of these educational environments.
Additionally, this study seeks to add to existing research surrounding the application of
“the scientific method in an analysis of esoteric fraternalism” (Gist, 1940, p.10) by looking into the cultural markers of these collegiate fraternal organizations
This research study aims to investigate the presence of American college fraternities and explore any potential European influences on their structure, operations, and future developments Greek Life is often regarded as a distinctive aspect of the American collegiate experience, making it essential to understand its origins and evolution By employing comparative and historical research methodologies, this study seeks to analyze existing literature to identify the characteristics of these fraternal organizations, ultimately revealing possible European counterparts and legacies.
This study aims to provide a comprehensive analysis of collegiate organizations by examining a variety of primary and secondary texts from multiple countries To effectively address the research questions, the study will adopt a linear approach, starting with the most accessible inquiries and progressively delving deeper into the analysis By conducting an analytical comparison of historical texts, this research seeks to answer key questions related to the evolution and impact of these organizations.
1 What characterizes an “American college fraternity” and what differentiates it from other social organizations?
2 What aspects of the American college contributed to the formation of these organizations?
3 In what ways did European models of Higher Education shape the American university?
4 How did the transmutation of Fraternalism across these environments shape American fraternities and sororities?
To effectively address the research questions, a qualitative research design was essential, as it allows for a deeper exploration of historical accounts that constitute the majority of source documents Given the historical and retrospective nature of the inquiries, a quantitative approach would not have effectively highlighted cultural markers or their significance within the organizations The researcher deliberately chose to focus on the fraternity and sorority system, systematically analyzing the various layers of influence that shape this context.
The historical development of these organizations has been studied separately, yet the broader context of their establishment and the cultural influences within them remain overlooked Given that the foundation of higher education in the United States is rooted in European educational systems, it is plausible that certain European structures are integrated within these organizations.
Examining historical, cultural, and societal factors enhances our understanding of the history of American colleges and universities, as well as the social fraternities and sororities on their campuses This research enables historians and educators to recognize trends that could influence the functioning of these institutions.
To ensure clarity in this study, it is essential to define key terms used within the fraternity and sorority system, given the complex and interchangeable nature of terminology that has evolved over years of research.
Fraternalism is a cultural concept defined by a symbolic relationship that is maintained through rituals and imagery, alongside the tangible realities of daily interactions These interactions are both interpreted and created for its members through the rituals associated with fraternalism (Clawson, 1985, p.689).
In this study, the term "American" specifically refers to the United States of America, acknowledging its varied interpretations based on geographic context This choice aligns with the usage found in most historical sources, despite the inherent ambiguity of the term.
A fraternity is a secret social organization for college men, typically represented by Greek letters that symbolize secret words disclosed to members during initiation The term "fraternity" originated with the founding of Phi Beta Kappa in 1776 at the College of William & Mary, marking the beginning of these exclusive groups in higher education.
A sorority is a secret social organization for women, a term introduced in 1874 by Frank Smalley, a professor at Syracuse University, through the Gamma Phi Beta Sorority Before this, women's collegiate secret societies were commonly known as "women's fraternities."
The North-American Interfraternity Conference (NIC), founded in 1910, serves as the governing body for national member fraternities Over the years, it has expanded to represent a total of 69 national and international fraternities, highlighting its significant role in the fraternity community.
National Panhellenic Conference (NPC) - This governing conference represents all national sororities, of which there are 26 member organizations
The National Pan-Hellenic Council (NPHC) serves as the governing body for five historically black fraternities and four historically black sororities, promoting the interests of its member organizations While four of the five fraternities are also part of the North-American Interfraternity Conference (NIC), the NPHC focuses on collective initiatives that support and advocate for the unique needs and goals of its members.
A chapter refers to a specific fraternity or sorority group formed by students at a particular higher education institution When affiliated with a national organization, these chapters are typically assigned a Greek letter designation, which is usually given in a sequential order.
CULTURAL MARKERS OF FRATERNITIES AND SORORITIES
To understand the influence on the American fraternity and sorority system, it's essential to first identify its unique cultural markers According to Wissler (1923), an anthropological analysis requires a comprehensive list of the culture's defining traits Benedict (1923) further emphasizes that human culture is constructed from various elements, which are continuously combined and recombined He argues that recognizing this complexity is crucial for achieving an objective view of our cultural life and effectively managing its expressions.
An in-depth evaluation of social fraternities and sororities reveals distinct characteristics that set them apart from other college organizations in America Originating with the first American fraternity, Phi Beta Kappa, essential traits include a secrecy oath, distinctive badges, Greek and Latin mottoes, a formal code of laws, elaborate initiation processes, a seal, and a unique handshake This chapter will outline these key characteristics and highlight their significance within American fraternities and sororities.
Ritual and Oath of Secrecy
Collegiate fraternities and sororities are well-known for their private initiation rituals, which serve as a significant transition for new members from novices to full-fledged participants While the specifics of these rituals vary by organization and campus, they are characterized by a strong sense of secrecy, known only to members and often shielded from scholarly examination Typically, these rituals involve dramatic reenactments of Biblical or Classical stories, imparting moral lessons to participants and observers alike Once initiated, new members assume a role in subsequent ceremonies, which often feature distinctive costumes, such as robes, and symbols that reflect the organization’s values and history.
Initiation rituals are the most significant unifying element for fraternity and sorority members, consistently performed across all chapters regardless of time or location Many of these rituals have been preserved since the organizations' 19th-century origins Although the rituals are documented in books provided by the national organization, they often exclude critical details, such as the meanings of the Greek names, which are traditionally shared orally among members If a chapter disbands due to low membership or disciplinary issues, it is required to return its ritual regalia and memorabilia to the national organization, typically retrieved by a representative in cases of disciplinary action.
The fraternity and sorority system is characterized by a strong affinity for symbols, with each Greek organization and Panhellenic sorority adopting a unique representative emblem Common symbols like hearts and stars embody the core values of these organizations, making their representation vital to members For instance, Zeta Tau Alpha sorority is symbolized by a five-pointed crown, while Alpha Sigma Alpha sorority uses a four-pointed crown Although these crowns may appear similar to outsiders, members are expected to recognize and distinguish between them, highlighting the significance of their symbols within the Greek community.
Fraternities and sororities are identifiable by their unique colors, which play a significant role in their marketing, symbolism, and member attire The interpretation of these colors can vary widely among organizations, with some, like Alpha Delta Pi, providing clear explanations of their meanings on their official websites.
Alpha Delta Pi proudly represents azure blue and white as its official colors The blue signifies friendship, which is the foundational spirit of the sorority, while white embodies sincerity and truth These values are essential qualities that Alpha Delta Pi strives to cultivate in all its members.
Many organizations, particularly those within the NPHC, maintain a strict secrecy regarding their colors, which are legally tied to their identity This legal distinction means that these organizations cannot be represented by any other colors, fostering a culture of uniformity As a result, members can be recognized by subtle items, such as a pink and green bag, even if it does not explicitly reference their organization.
Fraternities and sororities often use crests or coats of arms to symbolize their national identity, alongside their distinctive colors and symbols These crests typically blend organizational colors and symbols to convey both hidden and visible meanings Incorporating elements of traditional heraldry, these crests can be utilized in both formal and informal settings.
Many organizations use crests adorned with Greek or Latin mottos that reflect their public values, particularly within the Fraternity and Sorority system However, Alpha Omicron Pi Sorority stands out by opting for a rose as its primary symbol instead of a traditional crest This choice highlights a departure from medieval and English symbolism, aligning more closely with the sorority's unique identity and heritage.
In addition to the colors and symbols representing a social fraternity or sorority, physical items play a significant role in expressing membership, with the member's badge being the most traditional emblem According to Baird's Manual of American College Fraternities, these badges serve as a tangible connection to one's affiliation and heritage within the organization.
Fraternity badges are categorized into three distinct types: the first type features a gold shield or plate that showcases the fraternity name along with meaningful symbols, often worn as a pin or pendant, with the most exquisite examples being jeweled The third type includes symbols that represent the society's name or its various degrees, such as a skull, harp, or key.
Membership badges are significant symbols of fraternity or sorority affiliation, typically transitioning from a new member pin to a formal badge after initiation The new member pin signifies a commitment to the organization and marks the individual's journey towards full membership, often featuring unique symbolism relevant to the group In contrast, the formal membership badge is more elaborate and holds greater importance within the society.
The organizational handshake is one of the most challenging aspects of American fraternities and sororities to study objectively, as it serves as a physical expression that remains concealed from non-members Historically, these handshakes played a crucial role in verifying membership during a time when rosters were difficult to access To confirm someone's affiliation, a member would issue a "challenge" before revealing any secrets, often accompanied by intricate verbal exchanges However, the complexity and lack of discretion in these challenges have diminished their relevance in contemporary contexts.
To establish legitimacy and control in their formative years, fraternities and sororities developed by-laws and constitutions that governed their membership These foundational documents outlined the reporting hierarchy, the procedures for recording organizational business, and the protocols for extending membership invitations Additionally, constitutions defined the governing structure by creating chapter officers and judicial boards (Baird, 1905) Unique titles were often assigned to these officers, such as “Archon” for the president of Pi Kappa Phi, meaning “Chief Magistrate” in Greek, and “Quaestor” for the treasurer in Sigma Chi (Sigma Chi, 2016).
EUROPEAN FRATERNALISM
In the early days of America, secret fraternalism primarily originated from England, with the first grand Masonic lodge established in London in 1717 Within ten years, the Masonic order expanded throughout the UK and Continental Europe, reaching the American colonies by 1730.
European fraternalism can be traced back to the trade groups or guilds that flourished during the medieval and early modern periods These guilds united individuals with a shared goal of advancing their craft, while also fostering a mentorship system where guild masters trained apprentices This dual-purpose mentorship not only ensured the survival of the trade but also established an expectation for apprentices to eventually become full members of the guild.
Innovation, and the European Economy 1400-1800 refer to this investment as the
The training of human capital through apprenticeship programs significantly expanded the reach of guilds within their communities, ensuring a sustainable future for their membership Guilds played a crucial role in passing down essential technical knowledge, which would have been challenging to acquire without the mentorship of experienced guild masters However, these organizations often faced distrust due to misconceptions about their secretive operations Contrary to popular belief, the so-called "mystery" of guilds was actually the tacit knowledge that could not be easily articulated and required personal transmission Despite the misunderstanding regarding the nature of their teachings, the stereotype of secrecy persisted throughout the history of the guild system.
Fraternal organizations largely trace their origins to the Freemasons, who are renowned as the most famous secret society globally Despite their notoriety, the Freemasons have successfully maintained their secrecy for centuries, embodying a unique contradiction in their existence.
Elliot and Daniels (2006) highlight that Freemasonry has been a dominant and influential secular voluntary organization in English towns since the 1720s, inspiring numerous imitative and parodic fraternal groups; however, our understanding of Freemasonry itself remains superficial.
Freemasonry is one of the oldest examples of fraternalism, with a history that combines documented trade training in Masonry and lore linked to the Temple of Solomon While Freemasons assert that their organization dates back to ancient Egypt, the modern history truly begins with the establishment of the Grand Lodge of England in London in 1717 This formation was a direct response to the Enlightenment ideals of the time, as highlighted in David Hacket’s 2014 work, "That Religion in Which All Men."
Agree: Freemasonry in American Culture:
The founders of the modern Grand Lodge in 1717 embodied the cultural shift of their era, merging Enlightenment ideals of order, rationality, and science with a profound yearning for the ancient wisdom and deeper truths of the past.
The lodge of 1717 marked a significant shift in Freemasonry, transitioning from a craft-focused organization akin to early-modern European guilds to a more philosophical and Enlightenment-oriented direction This change reflected the broader mission of the Enlightenment, allowing Freemasonry to evolve and embrace new ideas beyond technical teachings.
Freemasonry, rooted in Stuart traditions, focused on liberating individuals from the constraints of Feudalism and the influence of religion, which often supports the existing government and legal systems (Ratton, 1913, p.258).
Freemasonry is distinguished from other guilds by its mystical tradition, which emphasizes the significance of their craft through historical practices, such as banquets on their patron saint’s day and the initiation of new members into a fictive brotherhood With the rise of Enlightenment thought, the membership evolved from primarily skilled tradesmen to include non-operative noblemen and gentry, allowing for a broader exchange of ideas and fraternal philosophies Despite this increased accessibility, entry remained selective, requiring candidates to seek membership with a genuine desire for knowledge and a commitment to serving others, supported by a current member's endorsement Ultimately, Freemasonry served as a means to elevate individuals morally, enabling them to contribute positively to their families, communities, and nations.
Masonic lodges, such as the Grand Lodge of England, fostered collaborative thought and the transmission of wisdom under the guise of brotherhood While they became centers of European intellectualism, their primary role was to initiate new members through Masonic rituals Initially, these rituals included two rites for recognizing new members, but they later expanded to encompass three degrees of Masonry: Entered Apprentice, Fellow Craftsman, and Master Mason, collectively known as Craft Masonry Each degree featured its own secretive initiation ritual, which contributed to a general mistrust of Freemasons among non-members To address this scrutiny, Master Mason William Preston published a text in 1772, aiming to elucidate the moral and ethical lessons of the initiation ceremonies without revealing confidential details.
Masonry is recognized as a valuable and expansive art form that involves a certain level of mystery, which can only be unraveled through a gradual accumulation of knowledge Achieving skill in any art, including masonry, requires significant practice and instruction Therefore, without dedicated study and engagement with the diverse topics covered in masonry lectures, one cannot fully appreciate its true worth.
Masonic initiation degrees not only introduce new members but also involve all lodge members present during the ceremony Each participant wears specific attire that reflects their rank and the degree they have achieved within Masonry, signifying their status The lodge leaders play a crucial role in the initiation ceremony by explaining the significance of Masonry and the symbolism associated with their orders.
Freemasonry not only guided the operations of the lodge but also influenced the personal lives of its members, as illustrated in the "Charge on the Behaviour of Masons" found in William Preston's 1887 explanatory text.
When the Lodge is closed, members are encouraged to engage in lighthearted enjoyment while avoiding excess It is important to respect each brother's choices and refrain from any actions or words that may cause offense Conversations should remain free and easy, yet must uphold a standard of propriety, steering clear of immoral or obscene topics, thereby maintaining the dignity of one's character.
FRATERNALISM AND THE EUROPEAN UNIVERSITY
Whenever bodies of young men have been gathered together, more or less permanently, they have tended to separate into groups based on kindred tastes, aims, interests or other causes This was so even in the mediaeval universities, where the students were separated into ‘nations,’ as they were called, drawn together by race or clan ties In German universities, it takes the form of various associations: in Oxford and Cambridge, of the fellowship of the Common Room
In this country, it early developed through various kinds of societies, the most permanent of which have been the college secret societies or fraternities
With their centuries of organized systems for Higher Education, the European university was the perfect breeding ground for collegiate fraternalism After sorting out the remnants of the pugnacious medieval period, European nations sought to establish themselves as formidable educational forces, educating the brightest and most capable scholars These students were nearly exclusively trained in theology due to the centralized control of the church at the time, but there did exist an opportunity for the development of a fraternal spirit: the collegiate residence In the earliest years of their existence, institutions were not able to lodge their students in exclusive university facilities, and as such they sought out “hospitia or inns” (Sheldon, 1901, p.8) surrounding their campuses to serve as student housing These hospitia quickly began to show the first signs of a fraternal spirit as noted by Sheldon (1901) “the scholars in the hospitia formed an independent democratic community, which elect a principal and invested him with certain limited powers” (p.8) Following the English civil war of the seventeenth century the hospitia became less important to Oxford which then had the funds to establish their own residences, but the spirit of student engagement would remain
“An American observer has said that nowhere has the art of social intercourse been carried to such perfection as in some of the Oxford colleges” (Sheldon, 1901, p.44) These colleges–which housed, fed, entertained and educated its students–are one of the most unique aspects of the English education academic model, especially when compared to American systems These colleges provided their own clubs, choirs, rowing teams and tutors who would ensure that the years that students spent under their tutelage was properly utilized Every student admitted to Oxford or Cambridge would be assigned to one of the academic colleges based on their initial application Each Oxbridge college also featured its own initiatory ceremony, referred to as “salting” (Bowers, 1942), at which senior members of the house regaled incoming freshmen with tales of their times in the college all while consuming extraordinary amounts of alcohol Within the college, social stratification existed not only in terms of academia, but also in terms of financial dependence In examining the financial requirements associated with study within
Oxbridge colleges in the eighteenth century, three student classifications emerge– scholars, pensioners, and “sizars” The first status was a “scholar,” or a student whose full university tuition of 2 pounds and 10 pense tuition was supplemented with
In the realm of student classifications, there are three distinct categories First, some students receive considerable financial assistance from their college (Searby, 1997, p.70) The second category includes pensioners, who are required to pay full tuition but often seek external financial support to cover these costs Lastly, the lowest classification is the "sizar," derived from the term sizarius, referring to students who receive free commons and only pay for their sizings, which are provisions from the kitchen (Mahaffy).
In 1905, sizars were students who received reduced tuition in exchange for serving as waiters or assistants in college food services (Searby, 1997) Despite the servitude linked to their role, sizars did not face any noticeable social stigma that separated them from their fellow students.
The collegiate model emphasizes the importance of close relationships among friends and fellow students, with informal gatherings within academic colleges recognized as vital interactions at prestigious institutions like Oxford and Cambridge.
A gathering among friends transcends formalities, resembling a casual smoke session or a lively symposium filled with music and card games This setting embodies the essence of college life, where the joy of camaraderie allows for open discussions on topics close to one's heart, be it athletics, literature, or social philosophy.
The Oxbridge colleges are characterized by their collegial atmosphere and a fierce rivalry, not only between Oxford and Cambridge but also among the individual colleges within each university This competition is particularly evident in events like bunting and barge racing, where teams navigate their vessels down the Thames Each barge is elaborately designed, featuring vibrant colors, intricate carvings, and coats of arms, topped with a striking flag made of silk and gold that resembles a campaign banner.
1894, p 112) These dramatic displays of collegiate pride characterized student life at Oxford and Cambridge
Despite their esteemed reputations, Oxford and Cambridge faced significant tensions between students and local residents, often referred to as the "town versus gown" conflict Both universities had the financial means to build private accommodations for students, yet their central locations in town led to frequent clashes Students often expressed their dissatisfaction with administrative decisions made by the universities and local governments, exacerbating tensions Moreover, the unique legal protections students enjoyed, which allowed them to be tried in university courts for offenses rather than local authorities, contributed to resentment among townspeople This dynamic frequently resulted in confrontations between the communities and the students.
Despite a few confrontations with angry locals, the overall atmosphere of English collegiate life was largely laid-back The student experience on campus evolved to be less rigid and more open to new ideas, reflecting a shift towards greater acceptance.
The emergence of a social atmosphere reminiscent of coffee houses and clubs within college campuses fostered a spirit of open-mindedness, leading to the formation of new student organizations at Oxbridge Among these, political clubs gained significant prominence, particularly during the politically charged environment of the eighteenth century in England Notable examples include the True Blue Club at Cambridge, which symbolically opposed King William II's orange, and the Tory Club at Oxford, which enhanced its political activities by hosting an annual ball, thereby expanding its social influence.
The Oxford and Cambridge campuses experienced a significant growth in societies, particularly with the establishment of literary, debate, and poetic clubs Alongside their regular weekly events, some English clubs, like one at Cambridge, incorporated showmanship into their activities, enhancing the overall experience for members.
The twelve members of the group appeared in coats of bright green, lined and bound with buff silk, with buttons made expressly for them upon which ‘Sans
The waistcoat, adorned with frogs and elegantly engraved with 'Souci', was made of buff material, complemented by matching knee-breeches (Sheldon, 1901, p 41) These organizations functioned as social tools for students, providing a means to pursue leisure through membership rather than having a fixed purpose.
In stark contrast to the levity associated with the English college social system, the German system seem plagued by corrosive division Following the lead of the
University of Paris, the German institutions divided their students into four nations– representing the nationalities of the region– “Southern, Saxon, Bohemian, and
Despite its success in France, the division among Germans led to increased factional disputes (Sheldon, 1901) German institutions created bursae, which were forcibly taken dining facilities that served as communal spaces for students (Hartson, 1911) During this transitional period, German students sought to revive the concept of nations from earlier German universities, ultimately transforming it into a network of secret student societies.
FRATERNALISM AND THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY
To understand the evolution of fraternities and sororities, it is essential to explore their historical ties to American colleges and universities These organizations often thrive within the academic environment, making it crucial to analyze their relationship with higher education institutions This chapter will investigate how interactions with American colleges and universities have influenced the development of fraternities and sororities into the entities recognized today.
Foundation for the Colonial Colleges
The history of higher education in the United States began with the founding of Harvard University in 1636, marking the emergence of the nation's first institution of higher learning Although its original purpose differs significantly from contemporary educational institutions, Harvard's role in advancing higher education and its impact on researchers and professionals in the field remains profoundly significant.
The Massachusetts Bay Colony established Harvard to educate young men in theology, becoming the first of its kind in English America Despite the challenges it faced, educational researchers have identified key strengths that contributed to Harvard's development and success.
The leaders of the Colony, many of whom were graduates of British universities, recognized the critical need for a trained civil service and an educated ministry They emphasized the importance of understanding the Bible, which necessitated education in the classics and Hebrew Influential and wealthy individuals in England viewed this Puritan college as a unique institution where truth was taught Additionally, one of the Colony's main goals was to propagate the Gospel to the Indians, highlighting the need for both Indigenous peoples and their educators to receive proper education.
The collective belief in the significance of universities in a developing America led to the establishment of numerous institutions across New England over the next 133 years Known as the colonial colleges, these universities possess a rich history and highlight various aspects of early American higher education Founded on the educational frameworks of British universities like Cambridge and Oxford, institutions such as Harvard and Yale adopted a strong ecclesiastical focus, a curriculum influenced by scholasticism, and a disciplined, almost monastic lifestyle.
New American institutions emerged as residential colleges, where students lived, studied, and dined with faculty, fostering a close-knit educational environment (Birdseye, 1907) This arrangement led to the development of the in loco parentis theory, allowing faculty to assume parental roles in students' education and discipline At Harvard, the initial residents occupied simple homes with limited amenities (Bunting & Floyd, 1985, p.2) The first purpose-built educational structure began construction in 1638 and became the largest building in the English colonies upon its completion (Bunting & Floyd).
In 1671, Harvard's overseers petitioned potential donors in England to support the institution, emphasizing the benefits of cohabitation for scholarly communication among students (Bunting & Floyd, 1985) This initiative helped solidify Harvard Hall as the focal point for lectures, religious ceremonies, and college events, enhancing the educational experience Over the next century, Harvard expanded its campus with new buildings, driven by necessity and a growing student population, all designed around a central quadrangle This architectural choice was vital for early colonial colleges, as it reinforced the comprehensive nature of a residential college experience (Bunting & Floyd, 1985).
Student Classes at the Colonial Colleges
While fraternities were not in existence prior to Phi Beta Kappa’s formation in
In 1776, social classification was prevalent in colonial colleges, with student life being highly structured to fulfill the goal of training future clergy Harvard's 1647 governing laws mark one of the earliest instances of student classification, recognizing a "class" of students This term initially referred to groups studying the same coursework but later evolved to denote students from the same entry year Over time, this classification system became stratified by social class, as evidenced by Dexter's 1894 analysis, which highlighted that Harvard and Yale catalogues organized students not alphabetically or by merit, but in a manner reflecting the social standing of their families.
The stratifications observed among Harvard students are believed to stem from the insights of the university's founders and administrators during their experiences in England A significant aspect influencing the economic ranking of these students is that the data was reportedly self-disclosed, adding complexity to the evaluation process.
Upon enrollment, students established their own status based on the fees they paid, reflecting their financial capability and social standing This self-determined distinction contrasts with any classifications imposed by the College itself.
The physical representation of social hierarchy among students highlights their awareness of privilege and the necessity for transparency This acknowledgment of the harsh realities of college social dynamics may shed light on why lower-class students often accept inferior treatment In colonial colleges, it was customary for freshmen and other lower-class members to assist their upper-class peers, reflecting the entrenched social divisions of the time.
The "Freshmen Law," also known as "Freshmen Servitude," is detailed in B.H Hall's abridged version of the "Ancient Customs of Harvard College," which outlines the various restrictions imposed on freshmen students Established by the college's governing body, these laws set specific guidelines that freshmen must adhere to during their first year at Harvard, highlighting the traditions and expectations of the institution.
3 Freshmen are to consider all the other classes as their seniors
4 No freshmen shall speak to a Senior with his hat on, or have it on in a Senior’s chamber, or in his own, if a Senior be there
Freshmen are required to run errands for Seniors, Graduates, or Undergraduates at any time, except during study hours or after 9 PM.
9 No Freshmen, when sent on an errand, shall make any unnecessary delay, negly to make due return, or go away till dismissed by the person who sent him
13 When any person knocks at a Freshmen’s door, except in studying time, he shall immediately open the door, without inquiring who is there
16 The Freshmen shall furnish bats, balls, and footballs for the use of the students, to be kept at the Buttery (Hall, 1851, p 139-140)
These laws, while not issued by the administration, were not rebuffed by the administrations of most colonial colleges – Dartmouth College did abolish the custom in
In 1797, shortly after the freshmen class completed their year, Yale implemented restrictive laws that further diminished freshmen's rights These regulations mandated that freshmen yield the right of way to upperclassmen in confined spaces, such as stairwells and gates, extending their authority beyond the campus to the entire city of New Haven (Hall, 1851) Interestingly, these laws fostered a sense of camaraderie among the freshmen through enforced servitude.
The class also encouraged strong friendships through proximity:
The class bond has emerged as a defining characteristic of American college life, evolving into various athletic and social rivalries At Harvard, this bond has endured despite changes such as the elective study system, the proliferation of clubs, and a diverse student body.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
Discussing the magnitude and rise of fraternalism in the United States, Gist
Fraternalism has deeply influenced various segments of American society, impacting individuals across age, gender, and socioeconomic status This concept embodies a significant aspect of American civilization, comprising a diverse array of both material and non-material traits that contribute to a unique cultural framework.
This quote highlights the complex nature of Fraternalism and its significant presence in American society To thoroughly understand Fraternalism's impact on the formation of American Fraternities and Sororities, it is essential to explore the various cultural factors that contribute to its influence.
The Cultural Dissemination of Fraternalism
This chapter applies the Cultural Dissemination theory by Hazelrigg (1969) to explore the widespread presence of fraternalism in different contexts The analysis focuses on how cultural markers are transmitted over time, drawing on Hazelrigg's interpretation of Simmel's (1906) work on the sociology of secrecy and the significance of hidden social dynamics.
According to Hazelrigg (1969), a secret society is defined as an interactional unit where members' reciprocal relations are governed by secrecy (p.324) For values to be effectively disseminated among organization members, it is crucial that both the environment and its inhabitants view these values positively; members seek to protect ideas and sentiments that they find rewarding (Hazelrigg, 1969, p.324) Conversely, if individuals or the culture perceive a value as unimportant or hostile, it is likely that the society will adopt a negative interpretation of that value.
To understand the influence of conceptual Fraternalism on the development of American fraternities and sororities, it is essential to analyze its effects on the historical contexts that shaped them Key values associated with fraternalism include Affiliation, Financial Requirement, Camaraderie, Environmental Response, Regalia, Classification, Structure, Ritual, Proximity, and Pageantry These elements collectively highlight the foundational principles that contributed to the establishment of these organizations.
This article employs the cultural dissemination theory (Hazelrigg, 1969) to analyze the development of specific markers within various educational environments, focusing on iterations that emerged within those systems The environments under consideration are categorized into European Fraternalism, the European University system (including both German and English higher education), the American University, and the American Fraternity and Sorority System To understand the factors that shaped the American college fraternity, the analysis is limited to influences that occurred before 1776.
Fraternalism is primarily characterized by the existence of fraternal organizations, which consist of like-minded individuals united by a common goal These groups foster interpersonal affiliations, leading to the formation of larger communal organizations, whether secretive or not The origins of such assemblies can be traced back to the medieval period, with trade guilds being the first to gather individuals around shared interests This unique structure in Europe transcended traditional boundaries, including nationality and religion.
European Fraternalism should be analyzed in relation to Freemasonry and its lodges, highlighting a dual affiliation Members aligned themselves with the broader principles of Freemasonry while also connecting to a specific local lodge This expectation of loyalty, where Masons were anticipated to remain committed to their chosen lodge, underscores the importance of affiliation from the very beginning.
In the European Higher Education sector, there is a strong emphasis on student affiliation, akin to the broader European Fraternal movement However, the approaches to affiliation differ notably between German and English university systems In Germany, the Landsmannschaften have emerged as a particularly vibrant and active student group, highlighting the unique ways students connect and engage within their universities.
As mentioned in Chapter 4, these organizations represented the home regions from which the students hailed and as such were fixed at each institution This allowed for the
German collegiate affiliations differ from those of their Masonic predecessors, as members of one Landsmannschaften can easily and amicably transfer their membership to another This flexibility stems from the fact that affiliation is rooted in home regions rather than personal traits, which diminishes interpersonal connections and emphasizes regional ties.
In the English collegiate system, affiliation is examined through college membership and participation in voluntary organizations like political clubs At institutions like Oxford and Cambridge, college membership is automatic, making it challenging to use this as a cultural marker Instead, we should focus on the political organizations within the colleges, which play a crucial role in university life by requiring active participation for membership A student's choice of organization not only reflects their involvement but also reveals their personal ideologies Since these organizations are integrated within the colleges, switching affiliations between different political clubs is rare, indicating that once a student commits to a particular group, their political alignment is likely to remain stable.
In the early American Higher Education system, the emergence of debate clubs and literary societies marked a significant shift in student affiliation While these organizations mirrored their European counterparts, they served distinct purposes driven by the unique needs of American college students Membership in these groups not only provided a social outlet but also enriched academic experiences by offering additional educational resources beyond the university's reach Although debate club membership was faculty-regulated, literary societies showcased how affiliation acted as a cultural influence, shaping both social interactions and academic growth among students.
Fraternities and sororities serve as significant cultural markers within American collegiate life, embodying a voluntary affiliation model that combines elements from previous organizational structures These extra-curricular groups reflect aspects of both Masonic and German traditions, allowing members to transfer between institutions while retaining their affiliation, akin to the privileges of German Landsmannschaften However, if a member moves to a school without an existing chapter, they cannot join a different organization, highlighting the importance of established lines of affiliation.
Once a fraternal organization is established, the next step is to seek admission into the group This membership process serves as a significant cultural marker, analyzed through the dissemination model illustrated in Figure 6.2 Although each fraternal structure has its unique membership procedures, there are common characteristics that define this process across different organizations.
Freemasonry, often viewed as exclusive, actually offers an accessible admission process that invites interested individuals to join As highlighted in Chapter 3, the organization does not actively seek members, allowing ordinary men the opportunity to pursue Masonic membership Mason George Smith (1866) emphasizes the value of Freemasonry, reinforcing the idea that it is open to those who show genuine interest.