As published in Addiction 109(3):345-351, 2014 Legalising a market for cannabis for pleasure: Colorado, Washington, Uruguay and beyond Robin Room Centre for Alcohol Policy Research, Turning Point Alcohol & Drug Centre; Melbourne School of Population & Global Health, University of Melbourne; Centre for Social Research on Alcohol & Drugs, Stockholm University Robin Room Turning Point Alcohol & Drug Centre 55-62 Gertrude St Fitzroy, Vic 3065, Australia Running head: Legalising a market for cannabis Word count: 3339 words Conflict of interest: none Abstract: Colorado, Washington state and Uruguay are currently designing legal nonmedical markets for cannabis These clearly contravene the 1961 and 1988 drug conventions; options for what may happen next are discussed The current provisions in the three regulatory schemes are summarised From a public health perspective, the emphasis should be on holding down consumption with regulatory measures, but the public health agenda does not seem to be a strong consideration in the implementation of the US schemes, and they are paying little attention to what can be learned from the history of alcohol and tobacco regulation While alternative paths to a cannabis market under the conventions are noted, the legalisation initiatives underline the need to revise the drug conventions, making prohibition of domestic markets an optional matter Such changes would also ease the path for including alcohol under the conventions, which would be an important step forward in global health Key words: cannabis, marijuana, drug prohibition, regulated market, drug conventions, drug control, alcohol control Concise statement: Moves to legalise nonmedical cannabis markets point to the need for revision of the drug conventions Allowing regulated domestic markets under the conventions would also make it possible to bring alcohol under them Protecting public health interests should be a priority in such regulated markets Legalising a market for cannabis for pleasure: Colorado, Washington, Uruguay and beyond Robin Room The three pathbreakers In November, 2012, voters in Colorado and Washington state voted for the state to set up a legal market in cannabis for nonmedical use It is expected that other US states with provisions for popular initiative will vote on similar measures in November 2014 and at the presidential election in November 2016.[1] In the U.S as a whole, opinion polls now show for the first time a majority of adults are in favour of such measures.[2] On the initiative of its president, Uruguay is also considering legislation for a regulated domestic market for nonmedical cannabis.[3] On 31 July, the bill was narrowly approved in the lower legislative house [4], and is expected to pass in the upper house in October.[4] Without question, implementing these measures will contravene UN drug treaties – specifically, the 1961 Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, and also Article of the 1988 Convention For the US states, it is well established that treaties “are superior to state law” [5], and there is also a conflict between federal and state laws As of September 2013, no injunctions or lawsuits had been filed about these conflicts, and the federal Attorney-General has issued instructions indicating that the federal administration will not seek to nullify or disrupt the nascent state regimes, but reserves the right to so in the future.[6] Apart from litigation in US courts, or administrative actions by US federal agencies, there is the possibility of a case before the International Court of Justice But no such case has ever been filed concerning the drug treaties, and a number of countries (including the US for the 1988 treaty) filed a reservation against the jurisdiction of the Court when they acceded to drug treaties.[7] It is worth noting that, while medical use of cannabis is permitted under the Conventions, many of the US schemes for medical marijuana, which have existed now for up to 17 years in US states (currently 20 states plus the District of Columbia),[8] are also clearly in contravention of the 1961 Convention, for instance concerning the treaty’s requirement (under Articles 23 and 28) that the cannabis supply for such purposes be through a government agency at the wholesale level Though US federal government agencies have acted against individual growers, suppliers and dispensaries in these state schemes, there has been no attempt to get injunctions or rulings in US courts or internationally to close any of these schemes down It is possible that the route of turning a blind eye to the conflicts with international treaties may also be followed for the new schemes for legal markets in cannabis for pleasure Still in the middle of the process As of September 2013, the three jurisdictions moving toward a legal nonmedical market are in the middle of lawmaking and regulatory processes In Uruguay, where nearly two-thirds of the public are opposed to the legalisation [9], the ruling coalition’s bill permits three forms of cultivation: up to plants at home, through users’ cooperatives with up to 45 members, and for licensed producers who must sell to the government Buyers of the commercially-produced cannabis, which will be sold over-the-counter through pharmacies, will have to sign up on a confidential registry, and purchases will be capped at 40 grams per month.[3] An Institute for Regulation and Control of Cannabis is set up to run the registry, as well as to issue and enforce regulations controlling the market, and to advise the government All advertising and promotion of cannabis products in any medium are to be prohibited Taxes, although not mentioned in the current bill, are likely to be imposed In Colorado, the Department of Revenue, which is also in charge of alcohol and tobacco licensing and enforcement, and has run the medical marijuana system there (though without the resources to it well [10]), has charge of developing the legislation for the retail marijuana market, which is to start operating in early 2014 The constitutional amendment passed by the voters (Amendment 64) provides a good deal of autonomy for localities to set regulations on the “time, place, manner and number of marijuana establishment operations”, and provides that they may prohibit local stores and cultivation operations,[11] so that marijuana stores are likely to be concentrated in only about 20 cities or counties.[12] After an Implementation Task Force presented a 164-page report on March 13, the department issued Emergency Retail Marijuana Rules (64 pages) on July 1, and proposed permanent rules (68 pages) on July 15, to be subject to hearings and public comments in August.[13] Five “stakeholder working groups”, with between 10 and 16 named members, are also involved in “in depth discussion about the permanent rules” The draft permanent rules set up a system of licenses for growers, manufacturers, producers, and for transport and storage and for testing facilities The nonmedical retail stores cannot sell any other goods, except they may (with some conditions) be combined with medical marijuana dispensaries No on-premise consumption will be allowed, and each sale will be limited to one ounce to a Colorado resident and ¼ ounce to a non-resident Product containers will be required to carry specified warning statements – a generalised health warning, that the product is not intended for those under 21, and that it is unlawful outside Colorado – along with a listing of THC content (milligrams in each gram), and a “cannabinoid potency profile” of the percentage of each of at least named cannabinoids Some limits on advertising are contemplated, but they not seem to extend beyond “a prohibition on mass-market campaigns that have a high likelihood of reaching minors”.[14] Separate legislation proposes a total of up to 30% taxes on marijuana, to be considered by voters in November 2013.[15] Meanwhile, retail regulation is also under development at the local level The Denver city council, for instance, has proposed a local sales tax, initially at 3.5%, to be voted on in November, and in September will vote on provisions for a 7pm closing time, and which would allow recreational marijuana sales to be licensed for the first two years only at existing medical marijuana dispensaries (there are 200 in Denver).[16] In Washington state, where the market was also supposed to be functioning at the beginning of 2014 (the date seems to have set back to June 2014 [17]), the rule-making process is being run by the state Liquor Control Board (LCB) Apart from its liquor licensing functions in the alcohol market, the LCB used to run the state’s monopoly alcohol retail stores, which were abolished by a November, 2011 initiative proposition sponsored primarily by Costco, the second-largest retailer in the United States As a result, the number of stores selling spirits in the state increased from 330 to about 1500, with an increase in the amount sold in spite of higher prices in the privatised system.[18] In its work on the regulations for the marijuana market, the LCB is assisted by BOTEC, a “think-tank specializing in crime and drug policy” Mark Kleiman and Jonathan Caulkins are key staff on the project, and many other leading U.S drug policy researchers were listed on its proposal.[19] The initiative to legalise recreational marijuana in Washington ran 64 pages, and spells out some aspects of the regulatory regime.[20] For instance, licenses shall not be issued for sales premises within 1000 feet of a list of 10 types of places where children might congregate, ranging from “public transit center” to “game arcade”, and neither can advertisements be placed within 1000 feet of a similar list of places As in Colorado, retail outlets for marijuana shall not sell anything else, and onpremise consumption is not allowed (though alcohol bars in both states are already testing limits by providing an alternative for on-premise marijuana use [21]) The initiative provides that the LCB may decide on a limit on the number of marijuana retail shops for each county in the state It also provides that driving with more than 5.0 nanograms per millilitre concentration of THC in the blood will be a new offense of “driving under the influence of marijuana” It sets taxes on sales of 25% at the producer level, another 25% of the wholesale price and a further 25% of the retail price, and earmarks specific portions of the money thus raised for education, research, and treatment related to marijuana issues Many aspects of the proposed Washington regulations are similar to those in Colorado.[22] For instance, there is a good deal of specification of what should be on the packets, although the Washington version, while requiring the “cannabinoid potency profile”, does not appear to require specification of the THC content in milligrams per gram There seems to be more attention to license suspension and violation penalties, and to processes of objection to a license But, unlike in Colorado, there does not appear to be a provision for a city, county or tribal government to opt out of having marijuana shops Allowable opening hours for shops in Washington will be 8am to 12 midnight The impression left in a comparison of the websites is that the rule generation process in Washington is less rigorous than in Colorado The BOTEC consultants have mostly been asked to provide analyses of technical issues not related to issues of public health and order The main exception is a paper developing and comparing five methods of deciding how many stores to license in each county.[23] But even here, the paper does not really discuss what is at stake in allocating a larger or smaller number of stores, other than mentioning the issues of effectively competing with the black market and of equity between counties The issue of whether restricting the number of stores may reduce rates of problems from cannabis use is not mentioned Losing sight of the public health agenda In its tight control provisions, including individual purchaser permits with a monthly maximum, the Uruguay legislation resembles some of the systems set up 80-100 years ago for a legal market in alcoholic beverages, as an alternative to and often a successor to alcohol prohibition.[24] The alcohol control systems, however, have been much weakened over the decades since by the ratchet mechanism of the influence of commercial market interests, among other forces A speeded-up version of this ratchet process is presently operating in Colorado and Washington: the existing medical marijuana commercial interests are playing a major role in the consultations on the details of the systems not seeking to disrupt the existing systems (as Costco disrupted the Washington liquor control system), but pushing always to “grow” them In part because of this, the Colorado and Washington cannabis control systems are more like the much looser alcohol control systems of today, which often serve private interests more than public health Among psychoactive substances, cannabis is one of the less inherently harmful, in comparative accountings – certainly less harmful than alcohol.[25, 26] But there are health and social problems associated with cannabis use;[27] often, as in Australia these days, cannabis is second only to alcohol as the “principal drug of concern” for which people seek or are pushed into specialised treatment [28] A public health approach to a legal cannabis market should thus be aiming to hold down use, at least by soft control measures which apply across the board without singling out specific users Such measures include restricting or prohibiting advertising and promotion, limiting the number of sales points and the hours of sale, and keeping the price relatively high In view of the ratchet mechanism already noted, limiting the scope of private interests to “grow the market” is also an important consideration For alcohol, one tactic for this has been for the government to run parts of the market [29], as the LCB did in Washington until checkmated by private interests The alternative of licensing for private operators works best from a public health perspective if the number of outlets is kept down, giving operators a privileged market position for which they can be held accountable, and there is a personal licensee to be held responsible for what happens in a particular outlet While a few such provisions were included in the Washington and Colorado initiative measures, the current administrative processes of building the Washington and Colorado systems seem to be losing sight of a coherent public health perspective Of course, as was true at the end of alcohol prohibition, there is a substantial illicit market with which the legal market has to compete, and this imposes limits, for instance, on how high taxes should be set – although the experience with alcohol in high-income countries has been that it is not too difficult for a legal market eventually to prevail But, as noted, the BOTEC report on retail store allocation does not offer any rationale for limiting the number – although, interestingly, it chooses 330, the number of LCB liquor stores which existed prior to privatisation, rather than the 1500 stores which came with privatisation, as the number on which it bases its calculations of possible retail store allocations [23] – and 334 appears to be the number the state has now settled on [17] Some BOTEC reports are concerned with agendas which potentially cut across public health interests, such as a report on “opportunities for the draft rules to minimize the burden on industry firms”.[30] In current U.S thinking, there seems to be a tendency to a Manichean split between prohibition and the free market in the handling of problematic commodities: either it should be forbidden, or any effort to “grow the market” must be allowed This can be seen most clearly in the US Supreme Court decisions which have privileged “commercial free speech” over restrictions on advertising and promotion of hazardous products,[31] which initially discouraged the Washington state authorities from any attempt to regulate cannabis advertising and promotion After a community coalition including the primary author of the initiative had urged adoption of control measures including advertising restrictions,[32] and at about the time the federal Attorney-General announced provisional acceptance of the regulatory regimes [6], revised proposed rules were issued which included some limits on advertising, including requirements for four warning labels on each advertisement [33] The overall impression is that thinking in Washington and Colorado about how best to create a regulated market has been stuck in the here and now, without attention to what can be learnt from the long history in many places of regulation of legal markets in potentially problematic commodities such as alcohol and tobacco This contrasts with what happened at the Repeal of US prohibition, when more attention was paid to experience elsewhere, with studies of how it was done,[34, 35] and even wide-ranging textbooks on how to it.[36] What should be done about the treaties? The world is now saddled with drug treaties which are not fit for purpose.[37] While the system dates its origin from 1912, in their present form, dating from 1961 to 1988 [38], the treaties are overreaching artifacts of the Cold War era, when one of the few issues on which the parties could agree was that drugs were suitable enemies for the modern state (to quote Christie and Bruun’s analysis).[39] Nevertheless, if a country wishes to construct a legal domestic cannabis market, it has two choices which would stay within current international law One is the path taken by Bolivia with respect to legalising its domestic market in coca leaves: to denounce the relevant treaty or treaties, and reaccede with a reservation concerning cannabis.[7] Some suggestions on what reservations would be needed to allow a legal domestic cannabis market can be found in Chapter of the report Roadmaps to Reforming the UN Drug Conventions.[40] In the end, 15 countries objected to Bolivia’s reservation, to which it had tied its reaccession, well below the number which would have disallowed it The international drug system’s desire to maintain universality seems to take precedence over any dislike for nations taking this path Besides the formalities of the process, a jurisdiction choosing to take this path needs to take into consideration the retaliatory pressures which defenders of the system may exert, since the Bolivian example suggests that the defenders of the system may dislike this strategy even more than simply ignoring the domestic-law provisions of the conventions The other path is to legalise cannabis in its weaker forms The ‘cannabis’ which is controlled under the 1961 Convention is defined as ‘the flowering or fruiting tops of the cannabis plant (excluding the seeds and leaves when not accompanied by the tops) from which the resin has not been extracted, by whatever name they may be designated’ (Art 1, §1(b)) Parties to the treaty are thus not required to outlaw or criminalise cultivation, sale or use of cannabis leaves for whatever purpose It is under the definition of cannabis in the 1961 Convention that retail shops selling bhang, an infusion normatively of cannabis leaves, are licensed in a number of Indian states.[27] It is not easy to determine from the literature measuring the THC content of seized “marijuana” or “herbal cannabis” samples what the THC content of leaf marijuana outside the scope of the Conventions might be, since buds are usually included in such samples Samples of ‘herbal cannabis’ seized by police in England in 2005 had a median potency of 2.1% of THC, though one sample had 11.8%.[41] “Domestic marijuana” seized in the US between 1993 and 2008 had an average THC content of 3%, rising close to 5% toward the end of the period [42] In view of the limited potency, whether a legal market in cannabis leaves other than in India could successfully compete with the illegal market is an open question Otherwise, the path forward, however difficult it may seem at the moment, is to revise the treaties Sarah MacKay has laid out the changes in the treaties which would be needed to enable parties to them to legalise (1) possession and use for nonmedical purposes of one or more of the substances scheduled in the treaties, and (2) regulated domestic markets in one or more substances.[40] While it has been argued that the first goal can be reached within the existing treaties [43], time after time the constraints of staying within the treaties have undercut the intended goals of decriminalisation [27] For the second goal, anything beyond the “bhang solution” noted above will require revision of the treaties to be within international law Such changes would leave in place the parts of the treaties which it is important to retain in terms of global public health These include requirements of comity (that nations respect and not undercut other nations’ domestic regulations), the system of international trade controls and permits, the global system to assure availability of opiate pain medications, and an international oversight agency The treaties have also had the important informal effect of exempting substances they cover from free-trade agreements and disputes As can be seen in the working of the Framework Convention on Tobacco Control, such an international regime can also point the way to national regulatory provisions effective in minimising harms from drug use There are other psychoactive substances besides cannabis for which a revision allowing for regulated domestic markets within the international control structure needs to be considered Notably, such changes would also ease the path for an important step forward in global health: scheduling alcohol under the treaties The current situation, excluding a substance which certainly qualifies under the technical criteria for scheduling under the treaties, and which is among the most harmful, is an increasingly embarrassing relic of the 20th century.[44] This issue is now coming on the agenda At its most recent meeting, the WHO’s Expert Committee on Drug Dependence, the technical body which recommends on drug scheduling under the conventions, discussed whether a pre-review of alcohol, the first step in scheduling, should be undertaken, and “referred the matter for consideration at a future Expert Committee meeting”.[45] For this to work, the treaties will need to make provision to allow legal domestic markets for nonmedical purposes Acknowledgement: Thanks are due to Beau Kilmer and Peter Reuter for their helpful comments; they are not, of course, responsible for the results References Levy, G (2013) Marijuana legalization considered in Maine, DC, Calif Washington, DC: UPI News, July 15 http://www.upi.com/blog/2013/07/15/Marijuana-legalization-considered-in-MaineDC-Calif/7931373903737/ (accessed 27 July, 2013) Pew Research Center (2013) Majority now supports legalizing marijuana Washington, DC: Pew Research Center for the 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