Timmy de Goeij - The Philosophical World Disclosure of the Hellenistic Philosophical Communities

The Philosophical World Disclosure of the Hellenistic Philosophical Communities An Investigation into the Conditions for the Possibility of a Philosophical Transformation of our World Disclosure “When brothers agree, no fortress is so strong as their common life” – Antisthenes1 Timmy de Goeij Student Number: 3284905 Researchmaster in Philosophy Faculty of Humanities Utrecht University July, 2012 Quoted by Laertius in Diogenes Laertius, Lives of Eminent Philosophers: Volume II, London: The Loeb Classical Library, translated by R.D Hicks, VI, p (Diels edition 6)) First Supervisor: Prof Dr Paul Ziche Second Supervisor: Dr Teun Tieleman When my sons are grown up, I would ask you, O my friends, to punish them; and I would have you trouble them, as I have troubled you, if they seem to care about riches, or anything, more than about virtue; or if they pretend to be something when they are really nothing, - then reprove them, as I have reproved you, for not caring about that for which they ought to care, and thinking that they are something when they are really nothing And if you this, I and my sons will have received justice at your hands (Plato, Apology, 42b, translated by Benjamin Jowett) For my parents, Tony and Jacqueline, for having brought me to the highest point of ordinary life, where I found happiness and education & Sylvia, my life partner, for the unordinary roads that lie ahead of us Foreword With this thesis I finish my life as a student, and in some way make my first steps into delayed adulthood It, thus, provides the perfect occasion to reflect on the past stages of my life, and to thank those that have played a significant role in my upbringing My teenage days were mostly spend in the company of friends And it is only recently that I became to understand the importance that some of these friends played in my development Most notably: Ismael, Aaron, Hussein, Dennis and Detlev I still remember those days without anxiety and worries, wherein we lived in a world that had its own rules and measures, a world that revolved around friendship and loyalty, humor and support, contrast and identity With Aaron and Ismael I shared the indifference towards wealth and social status, and, while I have experienced that such indifference might become dangerous in the absence of other measures, it is an indifference that I still hold dear However, like the world with its seasons life has its stages, and after summer fell so did our friendships I have never known true friendship after that And it has left a gap in my life ever since It may well be that my ideal of ethical communities, wherein friends share a world and idea of the good life, might have its first roots in that perished friendship between reckless, and sometimes even lost and corrupted, but essentially good-hearted youngsters After I got expelled from the high school Oostvaarders College at the age of sixteen, life changed drastically Thanks to financial support of my parents, I was able to redo secondary school at Luzac private school In this institution students were obliged to homework from am till pm in absolute silence, which were definitely more hours than needed It was sheer boredom which brought me to read books, something I had never done before However, at first these were mere science-fiction and phantasy books It was not until my aunt Fleur brought me into contact with Aristotle’s Ethics that philosophy was brought into my life It was then that I found my calling From Aristotle’s works I turned to Plato’s, and from these to Kant’s Philosophy motivated me to finish secondary school, continue to work my way through the propaedeutic year of high school, so that I could then finally find my way into the university to study philosophy During the process of detaching myself from my earlier reckless life, the hospitality of Jolanda, Rob, Cindy, and Sylvia has been crucial Jolanda has shown me the importance of perseverance, and as for many others, she has been a point of stability in my life during those days Rob with his humor and openness always brought about a good atmosphere in places where it was most needed I always enjoyed the moments that we spent together in the garden, and cherish those in Luxembourg I consider it highly unlikely that I will ever find someone as caring and sweet as Cindy We have been through a lot, and have experienced both the disastrous and beautiful effects of the fiery glow of affection In those days she was, without a doubt, my best friend And as for Sylvia, well, she has become the love of my life ever since Together these four have shown me the importance of a dynamic family life They provided me with a place of love and joy, confrontation and sadness, the perfect environment for reinterpreting myself anew I regard the late nights that I shared with them at the fire place in the garden as some of the most precious moments of my life But time passes and leaves its marks, it destroys bonds that existed and creates new ones Families and households are torn apart so that new are synthesized And the surrounding world changes, for better or worse During the past years that I have spent in the university, there are two persons in particular that have supported me and shown me the importance of the history of philosophy We no longer live in a world wherein one is educated and brought to maturity in its profession by a single teacher The institute of the University has replaced this role of the teacher in the domain of science and philosophy However, if times were different, I would certainly have chosen Paul Ziche as my teacher, if he had consented In addition, I consider myself fortunate to have gotten the opportunity of getting to know his college Ernst-Otto Onnasch Who not only showed concern for my future, but also challenged my character with the soft stroke of his kindness Paul Ziche and Teun Tieleman have been of enormous support in writing this thesis Especially the structure of the thesis would have been disastrous if it wasn’t for their advice Arriving at the key persons in my life as a whole, I wish to thank first of all my sister Denise She has taken care of me in times when it was most needed After I got expelled from high school, she was the one who arranged the meetings with other schools And especially at times when family ties were under pressure, we have always managed to find each other Moreover, she has the admirable character trait of parrhêsia, that is, the courage to tell people the truth about themselves even if this might result in the loss of social bonds There is no question that our lives will forever be intertwined Since so much of who we are is determined by how we relate to each other As for my parents, Tony and Jacqueline, they have certainly been the most important persons in my life My mother has always shown me unconditional love and care I always enjoy our midday conversations about life with its many obstacles And there is no doubt in my mind that I have inherited and received my conscience from her This silent voice against all injustice has been a constant guide throughout the whole of my life It kept me from crime and brought me to philosophy It is my father from who I inherited my intelligence and received my love for reason And whenever I found myself confronted with difficult problems in life, my father has been the one to who I turned if this was possible He beliefs so strongly in me that he has always trusted my judgment, and never lost faith in me I have received the best upbringing from my parents I could wish for One’s self-love, self-respect and self-esteem, which constitute the basis for an autonomous existence, rests on the recognition of others, and mine certainly rests on that of my parents They have been the most important persons of my past As time progressed so the orchestration of my social life changed Sylvia has been in my life for eight years now She is the happiness and love of my life It is in dialogue that two souls meet And nowhere I feel more at home, than in conversation with her Together we speak about the past, look out at the future and live the present She has touched my soul, and it has forever changed my perception of the world I admire her love for nature and life, in all its varies forms Just as life, love has its finiteness And it is this that makes it unique We understand and respect this It is on this thread that we together live In our common life we built our fortress within the flowing river of life Let’s grow old and grey: I love you, forever understanding of the other two If one reflects on merely one pole, one is liable to misconceive such a Hellenistic philosophical community, and is drawn to conceive it as either a lifeless philosophical system, a set of independent exercises for the artistic creation of individualistic selves, a medical discipline of the soul that provides different cures for different psychological illnesses, or as simply another religious community “[B]y defining philosophy as the discourse which never poses the question of truth without at the same time raising the question of the politeia and the question of êthos, which never poses the question of politeia without raising the question of truth and the question of ethical differentiation, and which never poses the question of êthos without raising the questions of truth and politics,” (Foucault, 2011, February 1984: Second hour, p 67) we can say that these Hellenistic ethical communities are indeed philosophical communities, but not merely in the sense that they pose these questions in a certain unity, but, more importantly, in that they disclose this unity in their shared world (in their social practices and institutions) and everyday lives (perception, routines and habits) 156 The Ethical Model of a Post-Nihilistic Philosophical Existence We will conclude this thesis with, first, an overview of the arguments of the three themes, second, a general account of the ethical model of philosophical communities that is developed in the thesis, and, finally, a discussion of how this ethical model might relate to the potential ethical pluralism of our modern liberal society The three themes that run through this thesis are, respectively, those of an ethical model of a post-nihilistic philosophical existence, of an argument for a holistic approach towards the Hellenistic philosophical communities, and of a critique on Heidegger’s religious account of world disclosure We will disentangle these themes and provide an overview of the argument of each Theme I: (I) The ethical model of a post-nihilistic philosophical existence What are the conditions for the possibility of a post-nihilistic transformation of our world disclosure in terms of a (II) philosophical worldview? [Introduction] Nihilism is the state of our world disclosure wherein it lacks a worldview that decides on the meaning of being and what is highest [Chapter 2] 157 (III) The Hellenistic philosophical communities provided the site for a transformation of our world disclosure in terms of a certain (IV) philosophical worldview [Chapter 4]100 The conditions for the possibility of such a philosophical community are: a philosophical discourse that articulates a worldview (alêtheia) [4.2], exercise practices that transform our everyday world disclosure in terms of such a worldview (the formation of êthos) [4.3-4.4], and a hierarchy of sages, canonical works, teachers, and students (which resembles the school’s politeia) [4.5].101 Theme II: An Argument for a holistic approach for investigating the Hellenistic schools (Chapter 4) (I) The formation of êthos (exercise practices) of a Hellenistic school is inseparably intertwined with the school’s alêtheia (philosophical discourse and worldview) (4.2-4.4) 100 The Hellenistic philosophical communities developed philosophical worldviews that made a decision with regard to what it means to be (beings as such) and what is highest (beings as a whole) The communities contained exercise practices wherein the everyday lives, the bodily and intellectual habits, and perception of the members of the community were transformed in terms of the adopted philosophical worldview The practices of everyday life, and even in the gestures, words, tools, costumes, and such, bore the imprint of a unified style The community as a whole became directed and oriented by the conception of what is highest that is articulated in the adopted worldview and exemplified by the figure of the sage The Hellenistic philosophical communities, thus, provided the site for a transformation of our world disclosure in terms of a certain philosophical worldview 101 If a transformation of our world disclosure is to be philosophical it must proceed in terms of a philosophical worldview Philosophical worldviews are articulated in philosophical discourse Thus, a philosophical discourse that articulates a worldview is a necessary condition for the possibility of a philosophical transformation Moreover, this worldview itself must be embodied in the actual everyday lives and perception of the members of the community, and this is done in special practices that we characterize as exercise practices Thus, the exercise practices also constitute a necessary condition for the possibility of a philosophical transformation These two conditions together already make possible the transformation of our world disclosure in terms of a certain philosophical worldview However, the execution of the exercise practices and the development of the philosophical discourse require a certain general structure of power relations, a hierarchy of sages, canonical works, teachers, and students Without such a structure of power relations the stability and continuouty of the philosophical tradition cannot be maintained Thus, the hierarchy of sages, canonical works, teachers, and students constitutes the third necessary condition for the possibility of a philosophical world disclosure 158 a The epistemology, natural philosophy, and ethics of the main schools are intertwined and constitute a certain comprehensive worldview b The content and form of the exercise practices of a school derive from the school’s conceptions of tranquility, wonder, and cosmic perspective c The school’s conceptions of tranquility, wonder, and cosmic (II) perspective are determined by the school’s worldview A school’s conception of the ideal arrangement of power relations (politeia), which the actual arrangement more or less approaches depending on the progress of the formation of (III) êthos, draws from the school’s alêtheia (4.5) The entanglement of the school’s fundamental poles of alêtheia, êthos and politeia shows that these poles must be grasped in their unity Theme III: A criticism of Heidegger’s religious account of world disclosure (I) Heidegger’s religious account rests on the following claims: (A) Transformations of our world disclosure, in the form of decisions with regard to what it means to be and what is highest and divine, are pseudo-sacral phenomena beyond human control, and the human role is merely to preserve such transformations once they are made (B) Rational argument only has value in determining and representing beings, and is incapable of relating to our pre-propositional world disclosure (C) A worldview is unable to question its own fundamental assumptions, and, thus, narrows our disclosure of the world (D) An essential characteristic of everyday existence is that it is fallen and exclusively concerned with beings, thereby neglecting one’s world disclosure It is, thus, of essential importance to restrain the mass and its fallen condition by way 159 of institutions Whereas we need solitary authentic individuals who are willing to await the arrival of a new decision so as to (II) grasp it in words or works of art Against A: The Hellenistic schools in fact effectuated transformations of the world disclosure of their members, without the help of any pseudo-sacral powers Thus, Heidegger’s claim is false, and transforming our world disclosure is a task that can be performed by us in the context (III) of a community Against B: Whereas Heidegger is right in claiming that rational argument can never fully grasp once state of world disclosure, he is incorrect in narrowing the role of rational argument to the determination of beings Rational argument can itself serve, first, as a spiritual exercise for transforming our world disclosure, second, as a mode of critical discourse that enables the broadening of the horizons opened up by our world disclosure, and, third, as the means of articulating a (IV) philosophical worldview Against C: Essential to the ethical model of the Hellenistic philosophical communities is the ethical pluralism and the critical discourse between these communities In the critical discourse these communities challenge the assumptions of their rivals and are themselves forced to reflect on their own assumptions Such an agonistic competitive atmosphere leads to the broadening of horizons opened up by the embodied worldview of such a community Thus, Heidegger’s worry that a worldview cannot question its basic assumptions, doesn’t apply to our ethical model, which incorporates a plurality of (V) ethical communities and a critical discourse between them Against D: The ethical model that is provided by the Hellenistic philosophical communities, shows us a way of transforming one’s everyday existence in a way that it is no longer fallen in idle talk, curiosity, and ambiguity, but is concerned with preserving and transforming one’s world disclosure 160 (VI) Thus: In his account of world disclosure Heidegger has focused too much on the authentic individual It is true that an individual is incapable of transforming one’s world disclosure However, this does not mean that transformations are a pseudo-sacral phenomenon Philosophical discourse, exercise practices and a certain institutionalization of authority are conditions that provide the possibility of a transformation of our world disclosure, and these are essentially social human phenomena Man determines its essence socially or communally, and is as such essentially a social or political animal A conception of the good life is a social construct, and its pursuit a communal undertaking In our account of the possibility of a philosophical transformation and preservation of our world disclosure we can distinguish between the following conditions: the philosophical discourse and the philosophical worldview, the exercise practices and the transformation of everyday existence, and the arrangement of power relations between sages, canonical works, teachers, and students These together form the set of necessary conditions for the possibility of a philosophical transformation of our world disclosure We will shortly discuss each of these The philosophical transformation must be connected with a philosophical worldview, which is developed in rational discourse It is important to distinguish between the four functions of this discourse: in its dogmatic functioning it expresses the worldview in doctrines and dogmas; in its reflective functioning it justifies the worldview, draws consequences from it, and fills in the blank spots; in its formative functioning as a spiritual exercise it transforms the self; and in its critical functioning it criticizes the worldviews of the other schools and defends that of his own The philosophical worldview, which consists of a world-picture, a lifeevaluation, and a conception of the good life, articulates a decision with regard to beings as such and as a whole (i.e what is highest) However, 161 the question still remains of how such a worldview is to be embodied in one’s perception and life as a whole How we get from propositional theory to pre-propositional disclosure? This is where the exercise practices fit in Every account of the transformation of world disclosures, whether it be a philosophical or religious one, which lacks the concept of exercise practices has an important gap to fill, namely how discourse comes to penetrate one’s lifeworld By incorporating exercise practices into our account, we have found the solution to the age old problem of how to embody theory in practice, without presupposing the inadequate account of human action as essentially rule-governed, wherein practice becomes the application of general rules in particular concrete situations It is not about how to apply general rules of one’s worldview in an already disclosed concrete situation, but about disclosing the concrete situation in terms of one’s worldview If we understand ourselves as Cartesian minds, who rule over their bodies in terms of certain internalized rules, than spiritual education will mainly be conceived to consist of theoretically integrating the right rules and beliefs, instead of exposing our body-mind to constant exercises With the current insight that life always manifests itself within the Spielraum of a pre-unified world disclosure, the necessity of such exercise practices, which transform this Spielraum itself, in spiritual development becomes clear One’s disclosure of the innerworldly beings, of others, and of oneself, which determines how one relates first and foremost to these beings, cannot simply be transformed by memorizing certain beliefs and rules It requires many years of both physical and mental training in the form of exercises that transform one’s spiritual attitude towards the world and, thus, how one perceives and discloses it These spiritual exercises are conducted not merely privately in times of leisure, but communally and during one’s everyday concerns With the exercise practices philosophy is brought back into the everyday streets And we see here again a comprehensive life-style arising Not only one’s everyday conduct, but even one’s gestures, clothes, words, and posture all bear the imprint of a certain style To Lucian’s question of why he chose to be converted in the Stoic life, Hermotimus answers: “I used to 162 see the Stoics walking with dignity, decently dressed, always thoughtful, manly in looks, most of them close-cropped; there was nothing effeminate, none of that exaggerated indifference which stamps the genuine crazy Cynic They seemed in a state of moderation and everyone says that is best.” (Lucian, 1959, pp 293-95) This transformation of one’s everyday life in terms of a certain philosophical worldview by way of exercise practices takes place in the context of a community The philosophical discourse, the worldview, and the exercise practices are not the products and concern of an individual, but of a hierarchical community The sage, whether it is a true historical figure or merely a thought experiment, constitutes the exemplar of the envisioned good life, and is, thus, granted the highest authority “Überwindung der volksthümlichen Ideale: der Weise.” (Nietzsche, 1885/1886 (NL [127] 12.126)) The canonical texts, which are mostly the product of a historical figure that is accorded the status of sage and express the worldview that is embodied in the life of the sage, derive their authority of this paradigm The authority of these teachers is derived from their knowledge and appropriation of these texts, and they have the task of acquainting students with the spiritual exercises that were directed at incorporating the doctrines of these texts into their perception and actions These power relations structure the world of a philosophical community in a way that the ultimate for the sake of which of the social roles and practices of such a community is the embodiment of a philosophical worldview in the lives and perception of its members It is in such a community that we are able to live our lives in a real decision of what it means to live as mortals on the earth, underneath the sky, and in the presence of the measures of what is highest and divine The fight for purpose and insight is then no longer fought between gods in mythical or poetical discourse but in philosophical discourse between communities However, one might object as follows: we not need a transformation of the world itself, rather than merely our disclosure of it? We answer that there is no world without one being disclosed, so that a transformation of our disclosure of the world is at the same time a transformation of our world He might fail to understand this answer, 163 because of his lack of understanding of the phenomenon of world disclosure, and argue as follows: even if my disclosure is transformed in a way that I no longer perceive the Rijn in terms of resources, this doesn’t prevent it from still being actually incorporated and, thus, disclosed as a resource in the social practices out there We are prepared to admit that the Rhine is not made into a source of energy by our perception of it, but by the way it is incorporated in our world of social practices and institutions Indeed, it is not merely about perceiving the world in a certain way, but about transforming it However, as Heidegger commented on Marx in an interview with Richard Wisser in 1969, changing the world presupposes a change in our conception (Vorstellung) of the world, whereas the latter can only be won by adequately interpreting the world It is about interpreting the world in philosophical discourse, and transforming our conception of the world in terms of this interpretation by way of exercise practices A transformation of our conception of the world is bound up with a transformation of our institutions and social practices Once we stop perceiving beings mainly in terms of resources, we will stop treating them as such, and vice versa To conclude this thesis, I wish to shortly discuss how the developed ethical model can accommodate both the liberal ideals and the insights of our post-metaphysical position Whereas the Greeks, and in fact the whole of the Western metaphysical tradition, were still committed to the fundamental assumption that the world has only one true appearance and that there is only one way to access it, we are in a position where we should reject this assumption on both ontological and moral grounds The metaphysical tradition has been stuck within “thinking that there is a single independent, uniform, and eternal reality”, which leads “to the further problem of thinking that there is one privileged type of attitude for getting at the way things are, one proper form of life for adjusting ourselves to reality.” (Wrathall, 2011, p 242) From a post-metaphysical position we can say that there is no such thing as the Truth or the Good Objects and reality are always grasped within a prior pre-unified world disclosure, which is embodied in the form of life of our community 164 There is no privileged representation that grasps beings independent of our form of life Without this fundamental assumption it becomes clear that the task is not that of finding the one true worldview, but “to be disclosers of different understandings of being, none of which can be understood as getting closer to or further away from the ultimate truth and reality.” (Ibid., p 242) It is clear that the proposed model of philosophical communities can accommodate such a pluralism of world disclosures And even if one still wishes to stick to this objectivistic assumption, our social political understanding has so drastically changed over the centuries that a respect for human dignity requires that we respect the multiplicity in life-attitudes and worldviews Whatever it is we want to design for the future, it must take account of the potential pluralism in modern liberal society “You will me the justice to remember, that I have always strenuously supported the right of every man to his opinion, however different that opinion might be to mine He who denies to another this right, makes a slave of himself to his present opinion, because he precludes himself the right of changing it.” (Paine, 1794, Foreword) Moreover, these philosophical communities can be perfectly incorporated within a liberal society I agree with John Rawls and affiliated writers, that we need a form of political liberalism, which is in so far as possible fair to all the different ways in which citizens pursue their conception of the good life Politics should restrict itself to the distribution of liberties and economical resources so that each citizen can lead a free autonomous life However, I also agree with communitarianism in its insistence on the importance of tradition and communality for a meaningful ethical life The human pursuit of the good life is essentially a communal concern But, we must not forget the insight of the potentially positive aspects of certain non-hostile forms of social conflict, which drives the agonistic political theory The model of ethical communities can accommodate the basic insights of all three political currents As I see it, liberalism, communitarianism and agonism are all guided by true insights and deserve to have their share in the order of our shared, globalized world Both the Stoics and Epicureans distinguished between the 165 community of sages that is dedicated to the good life and the cities wherein they happen to live If we keep this distinction in mind, and include the possibility of a plurality of communities of sages, we can accommodate the fundamental insights of these political currents as follows Let politics devote itself fully to realizing the peaceful moral order of freedom But let it remain neutral as much as rationally possible with regard to any comprehensive conception of the good life, so that space remains for the ethical communities wherein we can devote ourselves to the communal pursuit of happiness And in the space between these ethical communities agonistic pursuits and discourses can reign Moreover, commitment to one of these communities remains the object of autonomous choice Thus, the ethical model that is developed in this thesis can accommodate the ideals of Liberalism and fits well into a postmetaphysical age It provides us the opportunity to become free creative transformers of our world disclosure in terms of philosophical worldviews Self-definition is 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Account of Philosophical Worldviews 1.1 Heidegger’s Idea of World Disclosure 11 1.2 The Communal Nature of our World- Disclosure 22 1.3 Dilthey’s Account of Philosophical Worldviews 28 The Nihilistic... Account of World Disclosure The Hellenistic Philosophical Communities and the Possibility of a Philosophical Transformation of Our World Disclosure The structure of the fourth chapter on the Hellenistic. .. Whether and to what extent a transformation of our world disclosure is needed, is, of course, dependent on how deep the roots of our state of crisis are rooted in the world disclosure of the