From the Earth’s Core to Outer Space docx

Lecture Notes in Earth System Sciences 137 Editors: P. Blondel, Bath J. Reitner, Go ¨ ttingen K. Stu ¨ we, Graz M.H. Trauth, Potsdam D. Yuen, Minneapolis Founding Editors: G. M. Friedman, Brooklyn and Troy A. Seilacher, Tu ¨ bingen and Yale For further volumes: http://www.springer.com/series/772 . Ilmari Haapala Editor From the Earth’s Core to Outer Space Editor Ilmari Haapala Huvilakuja 2 02730 Espoo Finland ISBN 978-3-642-25549-6 e-ISBN 978-3-642-25550-2 DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-25550-2 Springer Heidelberg Dordrecht London New York Library of Congress Control Number: 2012931329 # Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2012 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilm or in any other way, and storage in data banks. Duplication of this publication or parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions of the German Copyright Law of September 9, 1965, in its current version, and permission for use must always be obtained from Springer. Violations are liable to prosecution under the German Copyright Law. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. Printed on acid-free paper Springer is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com) Preface From the Earth’s Core to Outer Space is an extended and revised version of the book Maan ytimesta ¨ avaruuteen edited by I. Haapala and T. Pulkkinen and pub- lished in 2009 in Finnish in the series Bidrag till ka ¨ nnedom av Finlands natur och folk, No. 180, of the Finnish Society of Sciences and Letters, Helsinki. That book was based on lectures given in a symposium dealing with timely research topics in geosciences and arranged in January 2008 in Helsinki to celebrate the centennial anniversary of the Finnish Academy of Sciences and Letters. The current version has been written to international readers. The articles have been strongly revised, some of them completely reformulated, and four new articles (Chap. 5 by H. O’Brien and M. Lehtonen, Chap. 12 by M. Viitasalo, Chap. 13 by J. Karhu, and Chap. 14 by A.E.K. Ojala), and three appendices (Geological time table, Layered structure of Earth’s interior, Layers of Earth’s atmosphere) have been added to widen and deepen the content of the book. The themes of the book are: Earth’s Evolving crust, Changing Baltic Sea, Climate Change, and Planet Earth, Third Stone from the Sun. I am grateful to all authors who, in addition to their official work, have found time to write the articles, and to the reviewers, who in most cases are other authors of the book: Pasi Eilu, Eero Holopainen, Pentti Ho ¨ ltta ¨ , Hannu Huhma, Kimmo Kahma, Juhani Kakkuri, Juha Karhu, Veli-Matti Kerminen, Emilia Koivisto, Annakaisa Korja, Hannu Koskinen, Marita Kulmala, Markku Kulmala, Raimo Lahtinen, Martti Lehtinen, Matti Leppa ¨ ranta, Wolfgang Maier, Pentti Ma ¨ lkki, Irmeli Ma ¨ ntta ¨ ri, Satu Mertanen, Heikki Nevanlinna, Mikko Nironen, Pekka Nurmi, Hugh O’Brien, Antti Ojala, Risto Pellinen, Markku Poutanen, Tuija Pulkkinen, Tapani Ra ¨ mo ¨ , Juhani Rinne, Jouni Ra ¨ isa ¨ nen, Heikki Seppa ¨ , and Timo Vesala. Especially, I would like to thank Professor Tuija Pulkkinen, who acted as coeditor of the Finnish version, but retreated from the editorship of the curr ent volume because of her increased new duties at the Finnish Meteorological Institute and, since the beginning of 2011, at Aalto University. Espoo Ilmari Haapala v . From the Earth’s Core to Outer Space Revised Proceedings of the Centennial Year Symposium (2008) of the Finnish Academy of Sciences and Letters Edited by Ilmari Haapala Emeritus Professor of Geology and Mineralogy University of Helsinki, Finland From the Earth’s Core to Outer Space is an extended and revised version of the book Maan ytimesta ¨ avaruuteen that was edited by Ilmari Haapala and Tuija Pulkkinen and published in 2009 in the series Bidrag till ka ¨ nnedom of Finlands natur och folk, No. 180, Finnish Society of Sciences and Letters. vii . Contents 1 Introduction 1 Ilmari Haapala and Tuija Pulkkinen Part I Earth’s Evolving Crust 2 Paleo-Mesoproterozoic Assemblages of Continents: Paleomagnetic Evidence for Near Equatorial Supercontinents 11 S. Mertanen and L.J. Pesonen 3 Seismic Structure of Earth’s Crust in Finland 37 Pekka Heikkinen 4 Evolution of the Bedrock of Finland: An Overview 47 Raimo Lahtinen 5 Craton Mantle Formation and Structure of Eastern Finland Mantle: Evidence from Kimberlite-Derived Mantle Xenoliths, Xenocrysts and Diamonds 61 Hugh O’Brien and Marja Lehtonen 6 Metallic Mineral Resources in Finland and Fennoscandia: A Majo r European Raw-Materials Source for the Future 81 Pekka A. Nurmi and Pasi Eilu 7 Isotopic Microanalysis: In Situ Constraints on the Origin and Evolution of the Finnish Precambrian 103 O. Tapani Ra ¨ mo ¨ 8 Fennoscandian Land Uplift: Past, Present and Future 127 Juhani Kakkuri ix Part II Changing Baltic Sea 9 Ice Season in the Baltic Sea and Its Climatic Variability 139 Matti Leppa ¨ ranta 10 Baltic Sea Water Exchange and Oxygen Balance 151 Pentti Ma ¨ lkki and Matti Perttila ¨ 11 Marine Carbon Dioxide 163 Matti Perttila ¨ 12 Impact of Climate Change on Biology of the Baltic Sea 171 Markku Viitasalo Part III Climate Change 13 Evolution of Earth’s Atmosphere 187 Juha A. Karhu 14 Late Quaternary Climate History of Northern Europe 199 Antti E.K. Ojala 15 Aerosols and Climate Change 219 Markku Kulmala, Ilona Riipinen, and Veli-Matti Kerminen 16 Enhanced Greenhouse Effect and Climate Change in Nor thern Europe 227 Jouni Ra ¨ isa ¨ nen 17 Will There Be Enough Water? 241 Esko Kuus isto Part IV Planet Earth, Third Stone from the Sun 18 Trends in Space Weather Since the Nineteenth Century 257 Heikki Nevanlinna 19 Space Weather: From Solar Storms to the Technical Challenges of the Space Age 265 Hannu Koskinen 20 Space Geodesy: Observing Global Changes 279 Markku Poutanen x Contents [...]... layers, powered by geothermal heat, the Sun, and meteorite impacts Formation of the solid Earth, hydrosphere, and atmosphere has laid ground for the evolution of the biosphere Balance between many different factors is critical, and even small changes in one of them may easily shift the system from one state to another 1.2 Themes of the Book The symposium From the Earth’s Core to Outer Space comprised 26... years ago (Halliday 2008) The impact blasted numerous pieces of rock material and dust to orbit the Earth, this material later accreted to form the Moon There are several theories regarding the birth of the oceans and the atmosphere, and consensus is yet to be reached At the time of the planet’s formation, an early atmosphere made of hydrogen and helium rapidly escaped to the space The first proper atmosphere... sedimentary rock, it is possible to restore the craton back to its original latitude and orientation The method has two limitations First, because of the longitudinal symmetry of the Earth’s magnetic field, only the ancient paleolatitude and paleo-orientation, but not the paleolongitude, can be defined This gives the freedom to move the craton along latitude (Fig 2.2) Second, due to the rapid (in geological... until at ca 1,815 Ma to ca.1,775 Ma Therefore, the data from e.g Superior craton before 1.77 Ga concerns only that craton The same is true for Baltica, where Kola and Karelia cratons may have had their own drift histories during Archean-Paleoproterozoic even though they are close to each other within present-day Baltica Some cratons, which are now attached with another continent than their inferred original... presented to explain the fascinating possibility of glaciations near the equator (see Maruyama and Santosh 2008 and references therein) These include the hypothesis of “Snowball Earth” which proposes that the whole Earth was frozen at ca 2.4–2.2 Ga, possibly resulting from high Earth’s orbital obliquity (e.g Maruyama and Santosh 2008) Eyles (2008) presented that glaciations near the equator could be due to. .. plates where the uppermost layer is composed of oceanic crust, continental crust or a combination of both The lower part consists of the rigid upper layer of the Earth’s mantle The crust and upper mantle together constitute the lithosphere, which is typically 50–170 km thick This rigid lithosphere is broken into the plates, and because of their lower density than the underlying asthenosphere, they are... Pulkkinen The year 2008 marked the 100th anniversary of the Finnish Academy of Sciences and Letters On the occasion, the disciplinary groups of the Academy of Sciences and Letters organized a series of mini-conferences focused on timely research topics (see http://www.acadsci.fi/100y.htm) The Group of Geosciences organized two events: the year was opened with a symposium entitled From the Earth’s Core to Outer. .. reversals of the Earth’s magnetic field from normal to reversed polarity or vice versa, either polarity of the same magnetization direction can be used This results to the possibility to place the continent to an antipodal hemisphere with inverted orientation (Fig 2.2) In all cases, information about the continuations of geological structures between continents is vital in locating the cratons relative to each... at the symposium The articles are grouped into four parts to comply with the four themes 1.2.1 Part I Part I, Earth’s Evolving Crust, starts with a paper by Satu Mertanen and Lauri Pesonen Based on updated paleomagnetic data, this paper presents an extensive synthesis of the drift history of the lithospheric plates showing how these movements have, several times during the geological history of the. .. well-defined from the 2.45 Ga dolerite dykes in Karelia (Mertanen et al 1999) and the well-defined pole from the 2.45 Ga Matchewan dykes in Superior (Evans and Halls 2010), we end up to a reconstruction shown in Fig 2.4 This reconstruction is in close accordance with the “Superia” model, when taking into account the error limits of the poles, which allows the cratons to be put closer to each other It is . may easily shift the system from one state to another. 1.2 Themes of the Book The symposium From the Earth’s Core to Outer Space comprised 26 presentations by. Planet Earth, Third Stone from the Sun. I am grateful to all authors who, in addition to their official work, have found time to write the articles, and to the reviewers,