The Practice of Open and Distance Learning

The Practice of Open and Distance Learning (ODL) in Tanzania: Some Reflections on the Open University of Tanzania (OUT) ODL Tower Building at the OUT Temporary Headquarters, Kawawa Road, Kinondoni Area, Dar es Salaam Table of Contents i Part 1: The Genesis and Development of Distance Education in Tanzania 1.0 Introduction 1–3 1.1 The “Talking Drum” and Distance Education 3–5 1.2 Distance Education in Tanzania 5–7 1.2.1 Institute of Adult Education (IAE) 7– 1.2.2 The Tanzania Global Development Learning Centre 9– 12 (TGDLC) 1.2.3 Moshi Co - operative University (MoCU) 12 – 16 1.2.4 Distance Education Association of Tanzania (DEATA) 16 – 18 1.2.5 INADES-Formation 18 – 21 1.2.6 Sokoine University of Agriculture (SUA) 21 – 22 1.2.7 University of Dar es Salaam (UDSM) 22 – 23 1.2.8 Southern Africa Extension Unit (SAEU) 23 – 24 1.2.9 Ministry of Health and Social Welfare (MoHSW) 24 – 25 1.2.1 The Open University of Tanzania (OUT) 25 – 35 1.3 Marks of Historicity 35 – 36 1.4 Summary and Conclusion 36 – 37 1.5 References 38 – 40 Part 2: Convergence of Distance Education and Conventional Learning: Innovations and Developments at the OUT 2.0 Introduction 41 – 41 2.1 Meaning of Blended Learning 42 – 43 2.2 Mainstreaming 43 – 47 2.3 ICTs and Delivery of Higher Education in Kenya 47 – 48 2.4 Innovations and Developments at the OUT 48 – 55 2.5 The Status of Internet Connectivity in Tanzania 56 – 59 2.6 Views on Convergence Between ODL and Conventional 59 – 60 Education 2.7 Summary and Conclusion 61 – 61 2.8 References 62 – 66 Part 3: Quality Assurance in ODL Practice at the OUT: The Unfinished Business 3.0 Introduction 67 – 69 3.1 Concept of Quality 69 – 73 3.2 A Review of Existing Programmes 74 – 75 3.3 Existing Quality Assurance Mechanisms 75 – 81 3.4 The Need and Features of a Comprehensive Quality 81 – 89 Assurance Framework ii 3.5 3.6 Summary and Conclusion References 89 – 90 91 – 93 List of Acronyms AVU: African Virtual University BRN: Big Results Now CEC: Cooperative Education Centre DEATA: Distance Education Association of Tanzania DVC (LT & RS): Deputy Vice Chancellor (Learning Technologies & Regional Services) EFA: Education For All ETP: Education and Training Policy IAE: Institute of Adult Education ICTs: Information and Communication Technologies IF: INADES-Formation IUCEA: Inter – University Council of Eastern Africa MDGs: Millennium Development Goals MoCU: Moshi Co - operative University MOOCs: Massive Open Online Courses MP: Member of Parliament MUCCoBS: Moshi University College of Cooperative and Business Studies NAAC: National Assessment and Accreditation Council NACTE: National Council for Technical Education NCI: National Correspondence Institution NFE: Non – Formal Education NICTBB: National Information and Communication Technology Broadband Backbone NSGPR I & II: National Strategy for Growth and Poverty Reduction I & II ODEX: On Demand Examination ODL: Open and Distance Learning OECD: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development OERs: Open Educational Resources OERUs: Open Educational Resources’ Universities OUT: The Open University of Tanzania OUTSO: The Open University of Tanzania Students’ Organisation PCE: Presidential Commission on Education iii PSRP: Public Service Reform Programme QA: Quality Assurance SADC: Southern Africa Development Community SAEU: South Africa Extension Unit SPA: Student Portifolio Assessment SUA: Sokoine University of Agriculture TCU: Tanzania Commission for Universities TGDLC: Tanzania Global Development Learning Centre UDSM: University of Dar es Salaam UKOU: United Kingdom Open University URT: United Republic of Tanzania VETA: Vocational Education Training Authority List of Tables and Figures iv S/N 10 11 12 List of Tables Title TGDLC Ongoing Courses A Sample of Courses Offered by TAGLA MUCCoBS Programmes Variation Between Application and Registration Levels at UDSM: 2002/03 – 2006/07 Cumulative Enrolment in Non – Degree Programmes: 1996 – 2013/14 Cumulative Undergraduate Students’ Enrolment : 1994 – 2013/14 Cumulative Undergraduate Students’ Admission by Programme and Gender : 1996 – 2013/14 Cumulative Enrolment in Postgraduate Programmes: 2001 – 2013/14 The Number of Phone Subscribers in Tanzania A Comparison of Infographic Data – Kenya and Tanzania Institutional Status of Internal Quality Assurance Enrolment Rates in Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Education List of Figures Map 1: OUT Study/Coordinating Centres in Tanzania Different Dimensions of Quality Quality Assurance: An Object of Negotiation Between Relevant Parties Actual Enrolment Distribution Expected Enrolment Distribution A Comparison of Actual and Expected Enrolment Distribution Learning Process Model Organizational Learning Cycle Model v Page 10 – 11 11 – 12 14 – 16 22 30 31 32 – 33 33 – 35 56 57 76 80 29 70 71 79 79 80 83 84 Part 1: The Genesis and Development of Distance Education in Tanzania 1.0 Introduction Although Africa is widely believed to be the cradle of mankind, it is the Middle East which is credited as the spring of human civilisation (Chambers’, 1973: 807) Among other elements of civilisation, current World dominant religions i.e Christianity and Islam were initially revealed in the Middle East, before their underlying beliefs were transmitted to other parts Besides religious beliefs, another feature of civilisation, the art of reading and writing, was invented in Mesopotamia in present day Iraq in about 3000 BC (Ibid) Incidentally, the basic medium of communication in correspondence education, the precursor of distance education, is writing It is, therefore, logical to trace the genesis of distance education to the Middle East in general and Iraq in particular It has been observed “ all the archaeological evidence available seems to prove that true writing (based on signs representing sound), was first developed in Southern Mesopotamia” (Hawkes & Woolley, 1963: 634) Distance education is reputed as a very old approach to teaching and learning It began about 3000 BC with the invention of the art of writing in Mesopotamia in present day Iraq Its informal use in education and learning is associated with the practice of writing letters in order to give information, instruction or even directives to another person or group of people For example, from the period of the early Christian movement from about 60 AD (1 st Century AD), this art of communication was extensively used by people like Paul, Timothy, John, Peter and others to educate followers in various churches and places Islamic traditions show that Prophet Mohamed employed a similar method in spreading his teachings from the 7th Century AD (Dodds, 1991:7) In fact, according to religious beliefs, the genesis of the art of writing can be traced to divine inspiration as the ten commandments and the Holy Quran were handed over to Moses and Prophet Mohamed respectively, in a written form (Sheung-wai, 2002: 658) Initially, distance education relied solely on the print medium (correspondence education), in instructional delivery However, in the course of time it has embraced usage of a wider range of media including face to face contact, broadcast, recorded, telephone and more recently Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) This is the context within which it is popularly referred to as Open and Distance Learning (ODL) ODL is a philosophy about the purpose and ends of education and about the best means of achieving that purpose Open learning has the purpose of opening up learning opportunities to a wider range of population in order to enable them to learn what, where, when and how they choose to learn Unlike the rigid admission criteria of the conventional system, the flexible admission criteria of an open learning system allows all interested clients to access educational and training opportunities on a mass scale More significantly, the use of media technologies including print as the mode of instructional delivery (distance learning) ensures that every enrolled learner is accessed with what and how; when and where; he/she wants to learn The best means of achieving the ideal of ODL is, therefore, distance learning This essay attempts to review the practice of ODL in Tanzania, with a special emphasis on the Open University of Tanzania (OUT) It is divided into three parts: Part 1: The Genesis and Development of Distance Education in Tanzania Part 2: Convergence of Distance Education and Conventional Learning: Innovations and Developments at the Open University of Tanzania (OUT) Part 3: Quality Assurance in Open and Distance Learning Practice at the Open University of Tanzania (OUT): The Unfinished Business The first part reviews the performance and experiences of ODL projects and programmes in the country since Independence in 1961 Within the context of a historical perspective, marks of historicity are highlighted in order to illuminate the challenges facing the OUT in vindicating the rationale of the ODL practice in the current epoch Among others, the challenges of the parity of esteem between distance and conventional education and quality assurance are dealt with in the second and third parts respectively 1.1 The “Talking Drum” and Distance Education Whereas letters delivered by courier pre-date present forms of distance education in the earliest literate societies, the drum may be assumed to have played a similar role in the non - literate societies of Africa This is evident from the following statement: long before radio or television were introduced into the Continent during the colonial era, the “homo Africanus” relied on his instrument par excellence – the drum, in order to communicate through distant space with his fellow men That special drum came to be known as the “talking drum” Its messages of joy and sorrow, mourning and celebration travelled over hills and mountains to link man in a two – way exchange In a way, therefore, the “talking drum” was a precursor of the modern correspondence (read distance) education in so far as it linked the distant learner to his teacher or knowledge holder (Kabwasa and Kaunda (Eds), 1973:3) While the educational significance of the “talking drum” may be subject to debate, there is no doubt that the mass – orientation of its message represented a philosophy of education which aimed at serving the needs of the greatest numbers irrespective of physical barriers The capacity of distance education to employ media in order to span the distance between educators and learners is a unique feature of this instructional delivery methodology According to Erdos: Distance education requires educators to teach students despite separation by space This separation must be overcome by writing or by one or more of the various channels of communication which technology has made possible: radio, television, tape recording, telephone Any general discussion of the methodology of the system and sub-systems of distance education must therefore relate to the use of any medium or combination of media which can be used to span the distance between educators and learners (Erdos, 1967) In so far as the drum managed to span the distance between educators and learners, it can be regarded as an authentic medium of communication within this primitive distance education system However, there is no evidence that this informal distance education system was developed significantly anywhere in Africa during the pre-colonial or even the colonial eras A low technological level as well as the absence of highly institutionalized formal and non - formal education systems are largely responsible for the non-development of distance education in pre-colonial and colonial eras in Africa Incidentally, informal distance education systems in literate societies had to await for socio – economic changes unleashed by the Industrial Revolution from the second half of the eighteenth century, to secure formal existence as correspondence education This scenario has been described as follows: For many of us, the term, "distance learning," calls forth the image of a group of students communicating with an instructor on another point of the planet, or outside it, by means of computers and video devices However, education at a distance predates computers and has been around for more than a century, spurred by technological advances and social changes of the nineteenth century With the mechanization of the printing process, information could be reproduced in faster and more economic ways The information could then spread farther and faster by a well-organized post office system, through the newly built infrastructure of roads and railways Issues of national security and economic competitiveness brought education to the forefront of national interests and the introduction of public education created a large constituency able and eager to read The time was ripe for correspondence education (Jurich, 1999) Correspondence education filled the gaps of educational systems that were either too small to absorb the increasing demand, or too rigid to respond to the needs of societies in transformation Erdos has periodised the history of correspondence education into four periods:  a period of individual initiative and experiment by the late 1800's;  a period of incorporation into national systems of education in the 1900's in many countries;  the expansion period during the Second World War; and  the post-war period of rapid and widespread development (Ibid) A fifth period that began about 40 years ago, characterized by a renewal of distance learning with the rise of the Open or Mega Universities (the pioneer being the Open University of the United Kingdom (UKOU) set up in 1971), and the introduction of computer and video technology into the traditional structure of studies by mail can be added to Erdos’ periodisation Given that most parts of Africa were exposed to correspondence education from Overseas from the second half of the 20th century, the genesis and development of distance education in Tanzania, is normally traced from the post – war period of rapid and widespread development 1.2 Distance Education in Tanzania Distance education has existed in several forms in Tanzania, since the post – World War II period For example, immediately after the War, correspondence courses were introduced by foreign commercial correspondence institutions in school education, business and management studies The institutions included the Furthermore, a lot remains to be desired from non - degree programmes whose cumulative enrolment from 1996 – 2013/14 is 27,558 For example, in spite of the fact that the OFC enrolment has exhibited an increasing trend since its inception in 1996, it is yet to register the desired impact in a country with significantly low enrolment rates in primary, secondary and tertiary education as illustrated in Table 12 below Table 12: Enrolment Rates in Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Education Education Levels Primary School TZ Kenya Completion 85 93 Ghana S 71 Africa 92 Rate (%) Progression to Sec School (%) 58 72 87 88 Tertiary Enrolment (%) 1.48 2.75 5.84 15.41 Source: CPP (2009), Tanzania National Competitiveness Assessment, Dar es Salaam In the specific case of the non – degree distance education programmes, there is a missing link between CCDE and ODDEOL For example, the total number of students enrolled in CCDE since 2006 is 13, while those admitted in ODDEOL over the same period is 151 (OUT, 2011: 27) CCDE and ODDEOL programmes are designed to offer knowledge and skills for self – instruction, organization and management of distance education and open learning programmes and institutions On the other hand, empowering pupils in primary and secondary schools with self – instructional skills and study materials in Mathematics, English language and Science can improve tremendously the teaching and learning environment at all levels of the education system in Tanzania 79 Lack of parity between enrolment figures at non – degree, undergraduate and postgraduate levels may mean that ODL practice at the OUT is far from being “a diploma mill” but rather “a spinning door” While “a diploma mill” turns out unqualified graduates, “a spinning door” offers admission to students who eventually drop – out of studies, mostly due to lack of adequate support services (HEAC, 2005:5) In the following section, we will proceed to explore the need and features of a comprehensive quality assurance framework, in order to show how quality study materials can effectively mitigate the spectre of an ODL institution from turning into either “a diploma mill” or “a spinning door” 3.4 The Need and Features of a Comprehensive Quality Assurance Framework Areas of quality concern in ODL include curriculum design, content and organisation; teaching, learning and assessment; student progression and assessment, and student support and guidance (Gandhe, op.cit) Besides areas of quality concern, assessment of quality in education in general and ODL in particular, has a three – pronged approach – internal quality assurance mechanism, evaluation by peers and accreditation by an independent and competent organization Any ODL institution is expected to adhere to this comprehensive approach in its quality assurance process (Ibid) Furthermore, while completion rates, graduation rates, cost – efficiency and cost – effectiveness, skill development and post – graduation performance constitute the traditional measures of success in education, the production of independent and self – directed learners is an additional, if not a critical criterion of quality in ODL (Babyegeya, 2009) To achieve set objectives and meet stakeholders’ satisfaction, the learning process has to be designed in a manner in which inputs, process and outputs are based on international as well as national quality assurance benchmarks and well elaborated 80 learning outcomes, which will yield achievements for stakeholders’ satisfaction Inputs towards expected learning outcomes include programme specification; quality of staff; quality assurance in teaching and learning, graduates’ profile Other inputs are reflected in the Learning Process Model below: Satisfaction Stakeholders Program specification expected content of organisation the program the program quality staff quality of support staff profile of the students Quality Assurance teaching/ learning student evaluation curriculum design profile graduates pass rates drop out didactic concept student counseling student assessment facilities learning outcomes staff feedback development stakeholders activities graduation time employability Quality Assurance and (inter)national benchmarking 81 A c h i e v e m e n t s Figure 6: Learning Process Model Source: Gast, 2009 Furthermore, for the learning to be effective and in order to create maximum long-term impact in activities, the learning process has to be contextualised within the organisational learning cycle as shown below: Figure 7: Organisational Learning Cycle Model Source: Gast, 2009 On the basis of the organizational learning cycle, a relevant learning process in ODL has to be based on a deliberate desire for change Learners should be assisted to acquire awareness for change through insights and critical reflection of 82 past trends; willingness to change after appreciating underlying challenges and needs; correct orientation on desirable future options, in order to choose/decide for change Furthermore, the learning process has to capacitate learners with knowledge, skills and values to implement change successfully Besides these virtues, learning processes organized within the context of the organizational learning cycle, mitigate effectively the adverse hallmarks of ODL (Komba, op.cit): (i) Misinformation, low quality provision, bogus institutions, “diploma (ii) mills” and qualifications of limited validity Non - transferability of credits between institutions within and among (iii) countries Lack of international validity and portability of qualifications earned (iv) through ODL programmes Lack of transparency, coherence and fairness of procedures used for recognition of qualifications earned through ODL programmes Learning processes organized within the context of the organizational learning cycle, enable ODL institutions, quality assurance and accreditation agencies, qualification recognition and credential evaluation agencies, advisory and information centres, professional bodies as well as governments arrive at policies which will protect learners from the foregoing practices On the other hand, besides organisational aspects, the quality of an educational system can be gauged from students’ enrolment, persistence, drop – out and graduation rates; tracer studies; feedback from employers and the general public and quality of instructional system/study materials Students’ enrolment data provided for each institution are quite encouraging This is apparent from a review of existing programmes as already done It should, however, be admitted that in spite of ODL’s popular appeal, the quality of its services is questionable Two 83 reasons tend to account for this concern First, most ODL institutions can only provide and sustain limited face to face interaction with students, and secondly, students admission caters for candidates with lower cut – off points than in conventional institutions It should, however, be stressed that indiscriminate use of face to face contact sessions may compromise the status of ODL, besides denying it economies of scale Furthermore, to ensure that educational standards in terms of achievements are not compromised, deliberate efforts are made to ensure that “low entry criteria” not translate into “free exit” Meanwhile, ODL institutions should not become either “diploma mills” or “spinning doors” Furthermore, it should be admitted that in most ODL institutions and programmes, data on persistence, drop – out and graduation rates are either unknown, classified or inversely proportional to enrolment targets What can be inferred from this situation is that besides high students’ enrolment levels, ODL institutions are also characterised by high levels of inactive/passive and drop – out rates While the assessment of quality is problematic, measures of drop – out are one proxy for a measure of quality (Perraton, 2007) If education is interesting, affordable and clearly relevant to the students, then they are likely to persist and complete all the cycles (Ibid) The onus of making education interesting and clearly relevant to students rests with the respective institutions Admittedly, this aspect has several dimensions Here we will deal with the role of study materials in enhancing persistence and graduation rates in ODL Teaching in ODL is characterised by the separation of the teacher and learner, and of the learner from the learning group, with the interpersonal face to face 84 communication of conventional education being replaced by a mode of communication mediated by technology (Keegan, 2001) While the quality of learning achieved is related to the quality of the learning materials provided by the ODL system, the propensity to drop out from the programmes by the enrolees can be attenuated by the planning of quality learning materials (Sukati, 2009:10) Important areas requiring critical assessment in order to determine the quality of study materials include content, presentation and learning (Ibid) Content requires assessment of aspects like alignment with curriculum demands; satisfactory treatment of content; expertise for content development; accuracy, currency and authenticity of content Presentation covers aspects like organisation of instructional materials, pacing of content, ease of use and readability of instructional materials Finally, learning covers areas like interactive learners’ activities, assessment strategies, motivational strategies, learners’ guidance and support (Ibid) In the specific case of the OUT, it has been noted “For an Open University, operating largely in correspondence mode, study materials are of critical importance as they replace to a large extent the role of the teacher The provision of quality materials is thus a must” (Rakels and Jensen, op.cit: 48) Regarding the quality of materials, the institutional review asserts “ opinions vary strongly OUT makes use of self – developed materials, but also of materials from partner institutions in Kenya, Nigeria and India While some are perceived to be of good standard, a commonly heard complaint is about contextualisation Examples and exercises focus on the situation in the country of origin and not necessarily match the context in Tanzania.” (Ibid: 49) The report concludes, “it is strongly advised that OUT steps up its quality control over study materials In terms of availability, timely supply and quality of content, there is room for improvement Use should be made of digital learning resources over the openly 85 and without cost as open educational resources (OERs) (Ibid) It is strongly recommended for other ODL providers in the country to carry out similar audits on their study materials In the specific case of Tanzania, this role can easily be assumed by DEATA Meanwhile, joint ventures in the design, production and dissemination of distance learning materials will help reduce the cost of education and training by maximising on the economies of scale offered by the ODL approach (Komba, op.cit) In the light of the foregoing audit, the OUT has committed itself to deliver affordable quality academic services through well maintained libraries, lecture theatres, laboratories, offices and other facilities (OUT 2010b: para 6.1.1) Furthermore, the OUT is striving to enhance provision of open, distance and blended learning using modern technologies as well as access to print media in recognition of the diversity of Tanzania and Tanzanians (Ibid) Finally, the OUT Library shall ensure availability of the most up – to – date teaching and learning materials as well as access to relevant electronic sources (at the OUT Headquarters and in Regional and Examination Centres) (Ibid: para 6.1.4) Acquisition of adequate levels of Computer/Information literacy skills among staff and students is mandatory in order to ensure effective implementation of these and related measures With these measures, ODL provision at the OUT will certainly tackle the unfinished business in two crucial areas Firstly, in stepping up student enrolment, participation, completion and post – graduation rates Secondly, in grooming independent and self – directed learners Furthermore, these measures will free ODL practice at the OUT from the spectre of turning the institution into “a diploma mill” or “a spinning door” However, besides internal measures, it is also essential to address factors undermining ODL provision within the external environment in order to free completely ODL practice at the OUT from existing 86 deficiencies in quality assurance Among other measures, this requires putting in place mechanism for accreditation by independent and competent ODL organisations like the African Council for Distance Education (ACDE) Presently, similar to other tertiary and higher learning institutions, the OUT is accredited by mainstream regulatory authorities only i.e Tanzania Commission for Universities (TCU) and National Council for Technical Education (NACTE) Similarly, the OUT should address fully the needs and concerns of all the stakeholders of quality in higher education Computer Literacy Students attending a session in the ICT Laboratory at Mwanza Regional Centre 3.5 Summary and Conclusion This part has identified and discussed areas which constitute the “unfinished business” in the quest for quality assurance in ODL provision at the OUT Besides student enrolment and completion rates, they include production of independent and self – directed learners and the need to address fully the needs and concerns of all the stakeholders of quality in higher education namely the State, Employers, 87 Academia, Students, Parents and Society at large This part has also proposed measures with which to tackle the unfinished business Once this task has been effectively addressed successfully addressed, the OUT will assume effectively its cardinal role of propelling the country to a knowledge society Similarly, it will replicate the success story of the United Kingdom Open University (OU), from which we draw the last word in this essay: The Open University (OU) was rated top university in England and Wales for student satisfaction in the 2005 and 2006 United Kingdom government national student satisfaction survey, and second in the 2007 survey Out of 132 universities and colleges, the OU was ranked 43rd in the Times Higher Education Table of Excellence in 2008, between the University of Reading and University of the Arts London; it was rated highly in specific subjects such as art history, sociology (below Oxford and Cambridge) and development studies It was ranked overall as a nationally top forty, and globally top five hundred university by the Academic Ranking of World Universities in 2011, as well as being ranked 247 for citations of its academics The Open University is also one of only three United Kingdom higher education institutions to gain accreditation in the United States of America by the Middle States Commission on Higher Education, an institutional accrediting agency, recognized by the United States Secretary of Education and the Council for Higher Education Accreditation th (wikipedia.org/wiki/open university visited on 17 September 2012) 88 89 REFERENCES Gandhe, S K (2009), “Quality Assurance in Open and Distance Learning in India”, Symbiosis Centre for Distance Learning, India Gast, L., “Improving OUT Monitoring and Evaluation System”, Paper Presented at the 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Conventional Learning: Innovations and Developments at the Open University of Tanzania (OUT) Part 3: Quality Assurance in Open and Distance Learning Practice at the Open University of Tanzania (OUT): The