The Influence of Western Culture on Ukrainian Cultural Identity

This paper focuses on how the Western culture and values that began to flow in Ukraine after 1991 in the process of globalization have influenced the formation of its identity as a newly emerging independent state. This paper aims to analyze if globalization will have a positive impact on the formation of Ukraine’s identity and thus help Ukraine transform itself into a democratic and capitalist country, or it will cause only confusion over its identity. The study shows that instead of onesided assimilation to the Western culture triggered by globalization, Ukraine is experiencing changes in its identity in various ways under the influence of multiple social characteristics and factors that exist in Ukraine. Much of Western customs has been accepted in symbols, heroes and rites. On the other hand, efforts were equally made to better understand Uraine’s uniqueness and rediscover its traditions and customs. Ideas were borrowed from the past but they were modified and given new meanings in the contemporary context. The Ukrainian government and nationalists have been trying to use historical symbols and establish the Ukrainian identity. New symbols and rituals were created, resulting in the construction of a new identity

The Influence of Western Culture on Ukrainian Cultural Identity* Hong, Sogu / Hankuk University of Foreign Studies ABSTRACT This paper focuses on how the Western culture and values that began to flow in Ukraine after 1991 in the process of globalization have influenced the formation of its identity as a newly emerging independent state This paper aims to analyze if globalization will have a positive impact on the formation of Ukraine’s identity and thus help Ukraine transform itself into a democratic and capitalist country, or it will cause only confusion over its identity The study shows that instead of one-sided assimilation to the Western culture triggered by globalization, Ukraine is experiencing changes in its identity in various ways under the influence of multiple social characteristics and factors that exist in Ukraine Much of Western customs has been accepted in symbols, heroes and rites On the other hand, efforts were equally made to better understand Uraine’s uniqueness and rediscover its traditions and customs Ideas were borrowed from the past but they were modified and given new meanings in the contemporary context The Ukrainian government and nationalists have been trying to use historical symbols and establish the Ukrainian identity New symbols and rituals were created, resulting in the construction of a new identity The impact of the Western culture was found particularly strong in customs including symbols, heroes, and rituals The value system or the core of a culture is still going through painful phases and changes are taking place at a relatively slow pace In the midst of globalization, forming Ukraine’s identity is indeed a dynamic process that entails problems as well Introduction of mature political, economic and * “This work was supported by Korea Research Foundation Grant funded by Korea Government(MOEHRD, Basic Research Promotion Fund) (KRF-2005-079-BM0030).” 204∥세계지역연구논총 26집 2호 value systems of the West, was accompanied by the penetration of imperialistic culture Another important reason is that Ukraine lacks various social conditions that are needed to create a civilized society as found in the West Unfortunately, undemocratic political practices still work in Ukraine and the construction of a Western-style civilized society is negatively impacted by politics-economy collusion, lack of proper legal systems and institutions and underdeveloped economic capacity This is also blocking a mature cultural identity from emerging In this context of the social reality facing Ukraine, the Orange Revolution was a major historical event that presented a possibility that Ukraine can evolve into a democracy The Orange revolution provided Ukrainians with the momentum to fight against corruption and pursue democratic values However, in order for top-down policies to produce genuine effects, consistent and sustainable democratic policies for the public such as substantial social reforms and legal and institutional devices to ensure citizens’ participation, are required To restore Ukraine bogged down in political and economic drags, it is necessary to create an ethnic and cultural identity based on democratic values instead of narrowly-defined nationalism and to build a mechanism through which the desire and passion of the public as witnessed in the Orange Revolution can be reflected in political and social systems on an ongoing basis Key words: Ukraine, identity, culture, national identity, globalization I Introduction Since it became independent following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, Ukraine has steadily opened itself up and joined the trend of globalization Globalization is mainly a product of economic interactions and integration among countries around the world, but it also fosters cross-border integration in other areas such as politics, society, culture and communication Obviously, the impact of globalization is not limited to economy and it generates the ripples effects across all aspects of a country As communication technology advances, Ukraine and other fledgling democracies not only trade products and technologies but also engage in social Hong, Sogu∥205 and cultural exchange As a result, they are bound to be influenced by so-calleduniversal values including democracy that are widely upheld around the globe This paper focuses on how the Western culture and values that began to flow in Ukraine after 1991 in the process of globalization have influenced the formation of its identity as a newly emerging independent state In this paper, the ‘West’ refers to advanced democracies such as the US and European countries ‘Culture’ means a living environment1) other than nature, that includes everything created by humans, ranging from art, religion and customs to organizations, agreements between social groups and value systems This paper aims to analyze if globalization will have a positive impact on the formation of Ukraine’s identity and thus help Ukraine transform itself into a democratic and capitalist country, or it will cause only confusion over its identity Identity is a highly complicated and abstract concept with multiple facets The identity and culture of an ethnic group consist of historical experiences and memory shared by members of the group, and cultural identity is a sense of belonging among individuals who make up a social or ethnic group Cultural identity which is a system of symbols and meanings, also includes a sense of identity of a group or a people that follows a common set of behavioral rules and standards.2) Ethnicity is probably the most powerful component of cultural identity which also encompasses tribe, race, gender, social class, religion Most people today are educated and forced to believe that ethnic or cultural identity is a necessary tool to preserve their way of life and values In reality, however, ethnic and cultural identity is under the threat of homogenization posed by the popular culture spreading through globalization and multinational corporations such as McDonald’s.3) From the perspective of late modernism, identity is a temporary element that makes up a part of an individual and determines his or her membership in a group as of 1) Jean Pierre Warnier, Munhoayu Segyehoa (La mondialisation de la culture), Translated by Ju, Young il (Seoul: Hanul, 1999), p 160 2) M J Collier & A Thomas, “Cultural identity: An interpretive perspective.” In Y Y Kim & W B Gudyunst (Eds.), Theories in Intercultural Communication (NewBury Park, CA: Sage, 1988), p 188 3) G Matthews, Global culture / Individual Identity: Searching for Home in the Cultural Supermarket (London: Routledge, 2000) 206∥세계지역연구논총 26집 2호 now.4) In this sense, identity is not stationary but it constantly evolves In a joint research, Cozen and his fellow researchers said that identity is not a collection of things that not actually exist Rather it is a constructive or creative process of consolidating, borrowing, amplifying and building products, cultural characteristics and historical memory that already exist.5) The first theoretical approach to be taken based on all the definitions or descriptions above, is that identity is not something primordial that never changes, but it is something that constantly evolves In this paper, the formation of identity is viewed as entailing a process of creation and acculturation as well as a process of restoring and applying historical experience and memory, and heritage The second approach is to examine Ukraine’s cultural identity in light of the five characteristics that Belay suggests Belay lists the characteristics as follows6): 1) temporality: it occurs at a particular time point in history and it is affected by the time frame; 2) territoriality: it is formed in a particular area; 3) contrastivity: it represents a contrast in perception between the group that an individual belongs to and other groups as well as a contrast between change and sustainability; 4) interactivity: it is formed as a product of continued social interactions and relations hips; 5) multiplicity: individuals or groups may have various identities at the same time, such as ethnicity, race, gender and class Belay argued that globalization influences ethnic and cultural identity in line with growing interactions between different ethnic groups and countries, and consequently, increasing interface between various cultural identities may cause tensions and conflicts among different cultures.7) As globalization exposes individuals, groups and peoples to new and unknown circumstances, they are likely to experience cultural 4) S Hall, “Introduction: Who needs identity?” In S Hall & P du Gay (Eds.), Questions of cultural identity (London: Sage, 1996), p 5) Conzen et al.,”The invention of ethnicity: A perspective from the U.S.A,” Journal of American Ethnic History, 12 (1), 3-39; http://www.library.ualberta.ca/library_html/libra ries/hss/iebscoh.html (2006 5.10.) 6) G Belay, “The (Re)construction and Negotiation of Cultural Identities in the Age of Globalization,” In H B Mokros, ed., Interaction and Identity: Information and Behavior (New Brunsweick, NJ: Transaction Publishers), pp 321 7) Ibid., p 320 Hong, Sogu∥207 ambiguity and confusion over their identity Some people and ethnic groups refuse to mingle with new cultures and preserve their original identity while others take a rather bold step and abandon part of their identity In this paper, attempts will be made to review characteristics of a new Ukrainian identity that is taking shape in a new era of globalization and to examine how Ukrainians develop their self identity that will separate themselves from the rest Ⅱ Evolution and Change of Cultural Identity In his onion analogy, Geert Hofstede said, “Culture is like an onion: a system that can be peeled, layer by layer in order to reveal the content”.8) When a social change leads to a cultural change, the way of cultural expression which is at the most outer layer of the onion is initially affected In the case of Ukraine, a change in its social system and political regime influences symbols of the society and subsequently, role models, icons and heroes that the society or the regime needs, which ultimately suggests the ideological direction of the new government ‘The Onion Diagram: Different Layers of Cultural Expression’9) On the next layer of cultural expression is rites which include social agreements 8) Geert Hofstede, Cultures and Organization, translated by Cha Jae-Ho & Nah Eun-Young (Seoul: Hakjisa, 1995), p 29-33 9) Ibid., p 30 208∥세계지역연구논총 26집 2호 or a code of conduct These rites range from table manners observed by individuals and family members, rites of passage, seasonal customs, and business practices to official and formal ceremonies and commemorative events held by governments The final phase of cultural expression entails a change in the value system which forms the core of the culture Normally, such change is slow and difficult to come and involves a fundamental transformation in the notion of life and values, and world view People use all these cultural expressions to show who they are and to establish their identity This paper intends to analyze how cultural expressions are changing in Ukraine amid globalization, and how Ukrainian cultural identity is being reshaped Symbolic Changes Following the collapse of the Soviet Union, Soviet symbols disappeared The plain red flag with a golden hammer and sickle and a good-bordered red star in its upper canton that once served as a symbol of the Soviet Union has been replaced with other Ukrainian symbols A variety of new symbols have emerged Some of them are related to Ukrainian history and there are symbols of capitalism which were previously non-existent in Ukraine The Golden Arches, the symbol of McDonald’s, US chain of fast food restaurants made its debut in Kiev and brands of major global companies can be found in a growing number of large cities in Ukraine Ukrainian diet began to incorporate new food brands imported from the West There are more and more restaurants serving foreign cuisines, and luxurious global fashion brands are flooding the shelves Western lifestyles were introduced through mass media such as TV, resulting in massive inflows of symbols of Western pop culture Signs in foreign languages were set up and English became a part of Ukrainians’ everyday vocabulary ATMs were installed on streets and exchanging business cards has become a common practice in Ukraine In short, globalization has brought a flood of Western symbols in all aspects of Ukrainian life.10) 10) Yuliya Melnyk’s students at the School of Ukrainian and Russian Languages of the Kirovohrad State Pedagogical University reflect on the impact of globalization on their cultures See “Influence of Globalization on Ukrainian Culture.”: http://www.topics-mag.com/projects/ukraine/page.htm (Nov 8, 2007) Hong, Sogu∥209 Symbols of capitalism are rushing in at a surprisingly fast rate However, it doesn’t necessarily mean that Ukrainian culture is becoming westernized without any filtering process People in Ukraine began to voice their concerns over this phenomenon and reflect upon their behaviors Efforts were made to find traditional and unique symbols of Ukraine that can replace symbols of the Soviet era and capitalism Commercial advertisements are one of the major sources of symbols Since advertisements are designed to deliver a message in the most effective way, within the limited space, only the most appropriate symbols and condensed copies are used In Picture 1, an Ukrainian woman presents Ukrainian milk against the backdrop of nature Ukrainian dairy product companies saw their sales falling due to growing imports of Western dairy products In response to the competition, they launched a counterattack and began to convince consumers that domestically produced products are more “natural, clean and healthy”, and thus consumers should use Ukrainian products to stay healthy Similarly, the advertisement in Picture says, “Our Tires on Our Roads” and shows a Ukrainian road condition as a symbol that all Ukrainians can relate to The message is that Ukrainian tires designed for particularly strong endurance, are best suited for tough road conditions in Ukraine Advertisements fast increased with the introduction of capitalism Initially, those ads simply presented foreign products and used the patterns borrowed from foreign ads However, attempts were soon made to develop Ukraine’s unique products and brands that can compete with their foreign rival products, as well as to write creative ad copies They are now used as symbols that preserve and represent Ukrainian culture As the advertisement in Picture says - ‘my zminylys’!’ which means, “We are changing”, Ukrainian symbols are indeed changing 210∥세계지역연구논총 26집 2호 Advertisement for Ukrainian Advertisement for an Dairy Products Ukranian Tire Brand Advertisement for a Cigarette Brand “We Are Changing”11) Symbols are also important for the government as well as for individuals and private companies The Ukrainian government began to take advantage of globalization to establish a new identity both at home and abroad As Soviet symbols lost relevance to a new and independent Ukraine after the disintegration of the Soviet Union, new symbols were needed to replace them The new symbols were expected to signify the legitimacy of Ukraine’s independence and its historical continuity, and to represent a new vision of Ukraine Stamps were a good showcase of those symbols Stamps issued between the independence and 1998 are indicative of what the Ukrainian government intended to stress12) : Ukraine is no longer a part 11) Pictures 1, 2, from Jennifer Dickinson’s work ‘Contemporary Advertising in Ukraine.’ http://www.uvm.edu/～jadickin/gallery3.html (2006 10.22) 12) Ukrainian stamps can be found at http://www.ukrainian- philately.info/menu.htm The following stamps emphasizes the legitimacy and continuity of Ukrainian history 1) 100th anniversary of discovery of prehistoric Trillian culture(Dec 17, 1994.) 2) The Angel Michael of Kiyv Rus (Feb 15, 1993) 3) L’viv of Old Ukraine’s Coast of Arm - Hong, Sogu∥211 of Russia, and its history dates back to the prehistoric age since which the country has taken its own path of development independently of Russia Another message those stamps are trying to convey is that Ukraine has a long history dating back to the prehistoric age, and Halychyna-Volhynia Principality as the legitimate successor to Kyiv Rus, later evolved into Crossackdom and finally has led to modern Ukraine The stamps carried images of Trillian relics of the prehistoric age, princes and remains of Kyiv Rus, coats of arms of old principalities, Cossack relics and Hetmans, and historical sufferings Ukraine has gone through such as German invasion, the Great Famine, and the Chernobyl disaster These historical images shown on the stamps represent an official declaration of Ukraine’s nationalist view of history The same efforts can be found in Ukrainian bills Ukraine is currently using hryvnia, the monetary unit of Kiyv Rus in a bid to stress historical continuity In addition, Ukrainian bills and coins carried coats of arms and images of Kiys Rus princes such as Volydymyr and Yaroslav.13) Following the 1991 collapse of the Soviet Union, a temporary currency, ‘Coupon’ was used After years of circulation, Coupon was replaced by hryvnia as the new legal tender Efforts continued under the government leadership to reinterpret history and build a new ethnic identity by changing symbols in bills The images below found in Ukrainian bills will be examined to understand the message the Ukrainian government is trying to communicate14): Golden Lion (Feb 15, 1993) 4) 1100th anniversary of Halychyna-Volhynia Principality(Aug 8, 1998), 5) Founders of Kyiv (May 6, 1997), 6) Ascold and Dir (Founders of Kyivan State)(Jul 4, 1998), 7) Famous Ukrainian Woman - Prince Olha, the first Rus ruler who converted to Christianity at AD 890(Dec 17, 1997), 8) Cossacks in Ukraine (1992.3.3), 9) 350th anniversary of Ukrainian pathway toward independence - Bohdan Khmelnytsky (Hetman) (Jul 25, 1998) 13) Taras Kuzio, “Nation Building, History Writing and Competition over Legacy of Kyiv Rus in Ukraine,” in Nationalities Papers, Vol 33, No 1, March 2005, p 44 In his article, Kuzio discusses how the Ukrainophile view of the Kyiv Rus legacy is being promoted nowadays and also reclaims the past of Kyiv Rus for Ukrainian history For studies on symbols in Ukrainian bills, see also Simon Franklin, “Russia in time,” in National Identity in Russian Culture: An Introduction (Cambridge & New York: Cambridge University Press, 2004), pp 25-27 14) The following Ukrainian bills from picture to are from Franklin, “Russia in time,” in National Identity in Russian Culture: An Introduction, pp 25-27 212∥세계지역연구논총 26집 2호 Lybid(Либідь) on One Coupon Bill Above is one Coupon bill used in 1991 The bill features Lybid(Либідь), the sister of Kyi(Кий) who led the construction of the city of Kyiv The image symbolizes the long history of Ukraine while suggesting that creating the city of Kyiv was part of Ukraine’s history, not Russian history Kyi Brothers on 1,000 Coupon Bill Lybid and her brothers appear together on Coupon bills issued in 1992 Once agin, renewed emphasis is placed upon the history of construction of Kyiv as evidence that shows the long history and legitimacy of Ukraine A coupon bill featuring the trident, the symbol of Kyiv Rus 216∥세계지역연구논총 26집 2호 model for contemporary Ukrainians to follow The national anthem of Ukraine describes Cossacks as brothers sharing the same values At the end of the song, it says, “let the world know that we are Cossacks” This is a good example showing that for the government of Ukraine, Cossacks are the model citizens Ukrainians should be like Ukraine’s glory hasn’t perished, nor her freedom.
Upon us, fellow compatriots, fate shall smile once more.
Our enemies will vanish, like dew in the morning sun,
And we too shall rule, brothers, in a free land of our own We’ll lay down our souls and bodies to attain our freedom,
And we’ll show that we, brothers, are of the Kozak nation.21) Then, who are considered heroes in the arena of pop culture? How many Ukrainians would associate themselves with princes of Kyiv Rus and Cossacks? With a strong sense of affiliation with its historical background and nationalism, Ukrainians can perhaps feel somewhat proud of Kyiv Rus princes and Cossacks In reality, however, more tangible and living figures are often glorified Globalization and growing influence of Western pop culture created so-called “stars” who have became idols for young Ukrainians These idols go beyond national boundaries of Ukraine and they are found extensively around the world Celebrities from all walks of life such as actors and actresses, athletes, fashion models, pop singers, lawyers and doctors have emerged as heroes for many individuals This implies that the freedom to choose career is widely available in the Ukrainian society The issue is how fairly and equally such freedom is granted to individuals in the legal sense It is closely related to another question : How has the value system of the Ukrainian society changed and how democratic is it? 21) ”Shche Ne Vmerla Ukrayina” which means “Ukraine is not yet dead”, composed by Mykhailo Verbytsky in 1863 with the accompanying lyrics written in 1862 by Chubynsky, a prominent ethnographer was chosen as Ukraine’s national anthem Following the 1991 independence, the lyrics were partly revised and approved by the Parliament as the official national anthem of Ukraine in 2003 For more details, refer to http://pages.prodigy.net/l.hodges/anthem.htm Hong, Sogu∥217 Changes in the Rituals The dissolution of the Soviet Union has brought about changes in the modes of behavior and rituals of the Ukrainian society Rituals, a set of behavioral rules observed by members of the society serve as means of expressing who they are and what they pursue A closer look at national holidays and anniversaries, one of the important elements of rites reveals how rites have changed Such changes that have taken place since independence, can be characterized as follows First, some of the national holidays and anniversaries that were considered important during the Soviet era have lost relevance and been replaced by new ones Second, new holidays and anniversaries have been introduced Third, religious holidays have been revived after they had been suppressed prior to independence Fourth, national holidays and anniversaries are used to create a new ethnic and national culture Fifth, the above-listed phenomena help Ukraine break the mold of the uniform socialist value system, giving rise to a variety of rites at the individual, family, social and national levels The October Revolution Day which was one of the most important national holidays during the Soviet times, has been no longer celebrated since 2002 Only some members of the communist party and socialist advocates participate in an unofficial march, carrying a red flag, which is watched for possible illegal and violent protests.22) New national anniversaries implying a major change in political orientation include Constitution Day, Independence Day and the Orange Revolution Day Since 1991, Constitution Day has been celebrated on June 28, Independence Day on August 24, and since 2004, the Orange Revolution Day has been observed on November 22.23) 22) During the Soviet era, February 23 was celebrated as Soviet Army Day which is no longer observed and it has been renamed May is another Soviet anniversary, Russian Victory Day in memory of the fallen soldiers who sacrificed their lives to fight for the country during World War II The Day still remains a national holiday after independence The difference is that before independence, only soldiers who joined the Soviet army during the Second World War were regarded as heroes but now Ukrainian People’s Army(UPA) of the western region who fought for Ukraine’s independence against the Soviet army are also included as heroes 23) Ukrainian holidays and anniversaries before and after independence are reviewed in the 218∥세계지역연구논총 26집 2호 Particularly, Revolution Day is a national celebration commemorating the victory of the pro-West and pro-globalization revolutionists Europe Day is also observed and the Ukrainian government takes this opportunity to declare Ukraine part of Europe and facilitate its accession to the European Union Since the outset on May 15, 1993, the celebration of the Day has reflected Ukraine’s new position toward secession from the Soviet bloc and EU membershi p.24) Kyiv Day25) represents Ukraine’s attempt to incorporate itself into the history of Kyiv that was constructed by Kyi brothers in the 5th century, thereby stressing the historical link From the government’s point of view, it was important to bring together Ukrainians who were once divided, under the concept of one people, and as a first step, it was necessary to deal with painful memories of the past, particularly historical and identity issues associated with Russia As part of this policy, the government built the statues of those unknown people whose contributions have not been properly recognized and those who fought for Ukraine’s independence in the UPA In addition, new streets were named after Ukrainian heroes Ironically, Soviet symbols and the new Ukrainian symbols coexist on the streets of Ukraine Sometimes, those who have been sharply divided and pitted against each other were invited to a national commemorative event For example, President Yushchenko invited to the 50th anniversary celebrating Ukraine’s liberation from German occupation, both soldiers who joined the Soviet army and fought against Germany, following thesis : LEE Myung Jae, Festive Culture of the East Slavs : Driving Force Behind National Identity and Resurgence Graduate School of Hankuk University of Foreign Studies, 2005 24) In the press release published on its website, the Ukrainian government commented on Europe Day, “By celebrating Europe Day at the very same place where the Orange Revolution took place in December 2004, Ukraine has truly become a part of Europe.”, ““Ukraine celebrates Europe Day” (May 14, 2005), http://www.kmu.gov.ua/control/en/publish/article?art_id=16666028&cat_id= 2297108 (Nov 22, 2006) 25) Kyiv Day which falls on the last Sunday of May started in 1992 Commemorative events recently held in connection with Kyiv Day can be found at Kuzio, “Nation Building,” pp 44, 46 and photos of Kyiv Day are available at http://flickr.com/photos/vkhokhl/sets/72157594146911531 Hong, Sogu∥219 and representatives of UPA that declared to be pro-Germany and fought for Ukraine’s independence from the Soviet Union The two historically opposing sides were all considered by the government as the heroes of Ukraine This seemingly ironic attitude of the Ukrainian government is intended to resolve conflicts within the country as well as thorny issues arising from the past that remain between Ukraine and Russia It seems that the government sought to achieve unity and believed in building a new relationship with Russia by coming to terms with the past Western culture has influenced rituals in various ways Major holidays that symbolize the pop culture of the West such as Valentine’s Day and Halloween Day are celebrated among the Ukrainian youth Symbols of the Western pop culture such as Santa Clause and Halloween costumes have become quite common On the other hand, Western culture triggered a return to old traditions Old Christmas(Rizdvo) and the ceremony for the Christmas eve(Malanka) were prohibited as they were regarded as premodern modes of expression during the Soviet era But in 1995 in western Ukraine, there was a reenactment of the rituals A TV program titled “Christmas in Ukraine” jointly produced in 1995 by TV station “Halychna ” and a broadcasting studio “Skarbivnia”, showed a reenactment of Christmas and New Year’s rituals practiced in conjuction with folk religions.26) Religious rituals that were previously banned and thus existed only for the sake of formality, in other words, the Easter ceremonies and numerous folk-religious rituals associated with the Easter have now been revived Indeed, globalization has brought varying colors to Ukrainian rituals which were formerly in the single color of socialism Changes in Ukrainian rituals are quite extensive, including national holidays listed earlier, seasonal customs and religious rituals They also include modes of behavior among individuals and groups In this sense, all modes of behavior and rules can be the subject of research : how people manage interpersonal relations in school, government and public authorities, hospitals and companies, how people greet others, and how they handle businesses A comprehensive and focused study needs to be done in this area 26) “Christmas in Ukraine,” by TV station “Halychna” and a broadcasting studio “Skarbivnia,” L’viv, 1995 220∥세계지역연구논총 26집 2호 Changes in the Value System Geert Hofstede referred to the symbols, heroes and rites described above collectively as “practice” He explained that changes in the practice are quite visible and can be easily observed On the other hand, the value system that forms the backbone of cultural expression is an abstract concept that, unlike the above-menti oned cultural expressions, is not easily measurable A value is a reflection of our thinking and world view toward things and events It also mirrors our thoughts and modes of behavior toward good and evil, clean and dirty, beautiful and ugly, normal and abnormal, and logical and illogical Then, what kind of value system have Ukrainians maintained? Ukrainian intellectuals in the 19th century paid attention to a value system, a world view and cultural characteristics that are common to Ukrainians and that set them apart from other ethnic groups They believed that the value system and cultural characteristics shared by members of the ethnic group were the core element of their ethnic identity, and that they are intrinsic in language, religion and art including Ukrainian customs, values, beliefs and traditions In the 19th century, Ukrainian intellectuals started to raise questions over what Russian scholars regarded as the official historical view: all Russian history that is one and only, and common to all the East Slavs (the Great Russians, Ukranians and Belarussians)27) In this context, Ukrainians presented a theory of Ukraine’s independent political and cultural development They argued that historically, Ukraine had experienced a different course of development and as a consequence formed its unique value system and cultural attributes Stephen Shulman explained Ukraine’s value system, based on the five cultural characteristics28) as below 1) Individualism 2) Love for freedom and democracy 27) Hugh Seton-Watson, “Russian Nationalism in Historical Perspective,” in the Last Empire: Nationality and the Soviet Future, ed Robert Conquest (Stanford: Hoover Institute Press, 1986), pp 15-16 Seton-Watson called this trend of historical view “the classical Russian view.” 28) Stephen Shulman, “The cultural foundations of Ukrainian national identity,” Ethnic and Racial Studies Vol 22, No (Nov 1999), pp 1011-1036 Hong, Sogu∥221 3) Love for land and folk culture 4) Emotionalism / Romanticism 5) Tolerance and patience for other ethnic groups This paper is not aimed to elaborate on the five cultural characteristics or to analyze if they can be established as objective facts, which should be discussed separately The purpose of this paper is to examine the elements of the value system that lays the foundation of a culture in the process of constructing the national identity of Ukraine Ukrainian nationalist scholars and elites have identified the above-listed five characteristics since the 19th century from Ukrainian folk culture and elite culture They are the cultural qualities commonly applicable to Ukrainians, and cultural expressions that are subliminally exhibited by Ukrainians After the 1991 independence, nationalists and the Ukrainian government accepted such findings as the basis to build the national identity A few trends can be found in the five characteristics First, Ukrainian cultural traits tend to stress cultural differences between Ukraine and Russia For example, individualism prevail in Ukraine while Russia is characte ristically collectivism-oriented Second, also in focus is the assertion that Ukrainian culture is part of European culture Particularly, it is believed that liberalist and democratic elements in its culture are rooted in the Western tradition It means that Kyiv Rus has been influenced by the West through political and social interactions, and humanism, Renaissance, religious reformation and other Western values have had a considerable impact on Ukranian culture, making it part of European culture Especially, the Polish rule played an important role in expanding European influence in Ukraine.29) All these historical experiences seem to differentiate Ukraine from Russia Now this lead to another question : Since independence, how has the Western culture influenced and changed Ukraine’s value system of liberalism and democracy as defined by Ukrainian intellectuals? 29) Shulman, op cit., p 1020 222∥세계지역연구논총 26집 2호 Democracy as a Western value means that individuals are given freedom in the pursuit of political, economic and social activities, and religious beliefs.30) An indirect measure of this universal value of democracy would be the existence of social conditions that enable a democratic value system to work in the society Unless a viable legal system and institutions, economic structure and relations, and a civil society are in place, it is unlikely that individual freedom can be guaranteed and the value of democracy can be practiced So changes in Ukraine’s value system can be measured by changes in the overall social structure that can preserve the value of democracy Western culture and value system have created quantitative changes prior to the Orange Revolution, but failed to bring about qualitative changes Rather, some negative effects have been also reported For example, nearly all media was strictly controled by oligarches before the 2004 November Orange Revolution The government was actually involved in managing the broadcasting companies A guidebook known as ‘tymnyky’ was published to tighten media censorship.31) In 2000, Georgiy Gongadze, Ukrainian journalist and the founder of Ukrains’ka Pravda, a leading political Ukrainian Internet resource, was kidnapped and murdered And then Ukrainian President Kuchma was suspected of having masterminded the incident.32) Corruption is another social problem According to 2004 Corruption Perceptions Index published by Transparency International, Ukraine ranked 122th among 146 countries in the degree of corruption Globalization is often held responsible for such problems as growing migrant workers across Europe, human trafficking, trade in human organs, and the spread of AIDS Nevertheless, the Western culture certainly has a positive impact to some extent and provides the driving force behind social changes The national scandal involving the death of Gongadze triggered a keen interest in the Internet Unlike other media, 30) ”Democracy,” Encyclopedia Britannica, http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-233875/democracy (Oct.20, 2006) 31) Freedom House, “Nations in Transit - Ukraine (2005).”; http://www.freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page =47&nit=378&year=2005 (cited on May 10, 2006) 32) For more information, refer to Jaroslaw Koshiw, Beheaded: The Killing of a Journalist (Reading: Artemia Press, 2003) Hong, Sogu∥223 the Internet was relatively free from the government censorship, which encouraged active participation of Ukrainian citizens Between 2000 and 2002 when the so-called Kuchma gate referring to the killing of Gongadze, the number of Internet users increased 30 to 40%, averaging to 10% in monthly growth rate The steep growth in Internet users implies that people were able to avoid government censorship and share facts and information It also means that people began to draw a dividing line between “us” and “them” and to establish the national identity.33) Another positive sign is increasing NGO activities NGOs in Ukraine are mostly small in scale, not financially independent, registered but hardly active Still NGOs represent the first step toward the construction of a civilized society As A de Tocqueville said, “Allied citizens promote political alliance Political alliance, in turn, considerably reinforces and expand alliances of citizens.”34) In other words, there is no civilized society without political participation of citizens After all, NGOs served as a venue for Ukrainians to participate in politics Success of the Orange Revolution in November 2004 is largely attributed to these NGO activities.35) Despite numerous social problems, Freedom House declared Ukraine a free country in 2007 It is meaningful in that none of the other former Soviet states was declared a free state.36) Changes in Ukraine’s value system caused by the influence of the Western culture is much more difficult to explain than changes in symbols, heroes and rites One of the reasons would be that values are highly abstract and changes in values come very slowly Therefore, a long-term research is required to provide a more accurate analysis of changing values Still, it would be worthwhile to investigate if the five values or cultural characteristics mentioned earlier have been truly shared among Ukrainians and thus formed the foundations of Ukraine’s cultural identity since 1991 At least, we can see if Ukrainians have achieved a consensus over their value 33) Mykola Polyuha, “Ukrainian Internet Identity.” in WJGR Vol 12(1), 2005, p 82 34) Myron B Kuropas, “Will NGOs save Ukraine?” The Ukrainian Weekly #35, August 31, 1997 35) Taras Kuzio, “Ukraine’s Orange Revolution: Causues and Consequences,” The Ukraine List, University of Ottawa, 2005; http://www.ukrainianstudies.uottawa.ca/ukraine_list/uk l346_13.html 36) Freedom House, “Freedom in the World - Ukraine” (2007) 224∥세계지역연구논총 26집 2호 system since 1991 or they are still divided Shulman conducted a survey of approximately 1,000 elites living in L’viv in the west and Donetsk in the east37) and asked them about the degree of differences they perceive in culture, language and views between different ethnic groups and regions A) Ukrainians in Ukraine vs Russians in Russia B) Ukrainians in Ukraine vs Polish people in Poland C) Ukrainians in northern Ukraine vs Ukrainians in central Ukraine D) Ukrainians in western Ukraine vs Russians in Donbas E) Russians in Donbas vs Russians in Russia Responses were given in the following numbers which indicate the degree of difference they perceive Completely different Very different Quite different equal Completely Quite similar Very similar same Perception of Ukrainian Elites on Cultural Similarity among Different Ethnic Groups % Donetsk Cultural Similarity Donetsk (477 persons) L’viv (475 persons) A) 5.0 2.8 B) 3.1 3.1 C) 4.2 4.6 D) 2.8 E) 5.6 or % L’viv or or 37 58 or 30 36 10 10 30 2.3 46 46 59 4.6 60 30 The above survey suggests the following conclusion 37) Historically, western L’viv has exhibited strong nationalism and been supportive of pro-West politicians Eastern Donetsk is occupied predominantly by Russian-Ukranians and tends to be pro-Russian Hong, Sogu∥225 First, there is a very low level of cultural homogeneity and assimilation between different regions of Ukraine, especially between the east and the west Second, respondents in L’viv region had a positive perception(2.8) of differences in the value system and ethnic characteristics, that Ukrainian nationalist scholars argued exist between Russians and Ukrainians while the differences were not positively accommodated (5.0) in Donetsk Third, elites in both regions agreed that Donbas in eastern Ukraine is culturally closer to Russia than to western Ukraine In the survey, they were also asked if the cultures of Donbas and western Ukraine are western(or European), respectively They both responded, “Donbas culture is not western.” However, elites in Donetsk said western Ukraine was “somewhat western” and their counterparts in L’viv answered, “they basically agree” The findings of the survey show that there exist no common value system and world view in Uraine that people generally share There are two major ethno-regional identities in Ukraine which influence the formation of Ukraine’s national identity Tensions over differing identities between Ukrainians and Russians, or between western and eastern Ukraine are expressed in all aspects of Ukraine including politics, society, economy and religion, sometimes causing conflicts These conflicting identities fundamentally originated from Ukraine’s unique historical experiences: Ukraine has walked a historical path which is different from that of Russia, and Ukraine was divided between east and west which were placed under Russo-Polish and Austro-Hungarian controls, respectively and other powers at different times However, since 1991, the split-up over identities appeared to further worsen as pro-West western Ukraine and pro-Russia eastern Ukraine collided on the political front In view of the five characteristics of identity introduced by Belay as the theoretical background to this paper, the values and cultural features that constituted Ukraine’s national and cultural identity in the past are no longer valid and thus not embraced in a new era, necessitating new contents and elements In this respect, Ukrainian identity which is subject to the influence of time and space, is undergoing transformations 226∥세계지역연구논총 26집 2호 Ⅲ Conclusion Instead of one-sided assimilation to the Western culture triggered by globalization, Ukraine is experiencing changes in its identity in various ways under the influence of multiple social characteristics and factors that exist in Ukraine Much of Western customs has been accepted in symbols, heroes and rites On the other hand, efforts were equally made to better understand Uraine’s uniqueness and rediscover its traditions and customs Ideas were borrowed from the past but they were modified and given new meanings in the contemporary context The Ukrainian government and nationalists have been trying to use historical symbols and establish the Ukrainian identity New symbols and rituals were created, resulting in the construction of a new identity The impact of the Western culture was found particularly strong in customs including symbols, heroes, and rituals The value system or the core of a culture is still going through painful phases and changes are taking place at a relatively slow pace In the midst of globalization, forming Ukraine’s identity is indeed a dynamic process that entails problems as well Introduction of mature political, economic and value systems of the West, was accompanied by the penetration of imperialistic culture Another important reason is that Ukraine lacks various social conditions that are needed to create a civilized society as found in the West Unfortunately, undemocratic political practices still work in Ukraine and the construction of a Western-style civilized society is negatively impacted by politics-economy collusion, lack of proper legal systems and institutions and underdeveloped economic capacity This is also blocking a mature cultural identity from emerging In this context of the social reality facing Ukraine, the Orange Revolution was a major historical event that presented a possibility that Ukraine can evolve into a democracy The revolution provided Ukrainians with the momentum to fight against corruption and pursue democratic values As they got involved in political activities, a sense of solidarity arose With the solidarity, Ukrainians started to share a new form of nationalism based on democracy Through the revolution, Ukrainians were able to form an identity rooted in the civility of a democratic society beyond the boundaries set by language or ethnicity Policies or new rituals the Yushchenko government Hong, Sogu∥227 introduced after the Orange Revolution to come to terms with the past were probably designed to unite the divided Ukraine and spread civility However, in order for top-down policies to produce genuine effects, consistent and sustainable democratic policies for the public such as substantial social reforms, and legal and institutional devices to ensure citizens’ participation, are required Otherwise, the revolution may 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Lybid(Либідь), the sister of Kyi(Кий) who led the construction of the city of Kyiv The image symbolizes the long history of Ukraine while suggesting that creating the city of Kyiv was part of Ukraine’s... 1> ? ?The Onion Diagram: Different Layers of Cultural Expression’9) On the next layer of cultural expression is rites which include social agreements 8) Geert Hofstede, Cultures and Organization,... reveal the content”.8) When a social change leads to a cultural change, the way of cultural expression which is at the most outer layer of the onion is initially affected In the case of Ukraine,