This article reveals specific features of the ecological culture of Inner Asian nomads and reasons of the contemporary environmental crisis, which lies in the departure from the traditional relations between man and nature. The authors try to understand the changes in ecological culture of nomads, and explain that resorting to the historical experience of traditional cultures is also necessary in order to tackle the problem of the greatest possible adaptation of ethnic culture of each nation to modern highly urbanized civilization. The research work was conducted on basis of the statistical data and periodicals, results of longterm field research of the Buryat Scientific Center of the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences.
Ecological Culture of Inner Asian Nomads: Past, Present and Future 1)Marina Baldano*, Boris Bazarov**, Hong-Jin Kim*** Abstract This article reveals specific features of the ecological culture of Inner Asian nomads and reasons of the contemporary environmental crisis, which lies in the departure from the traditional relations between man and nature The authors try to understand the changes in ecological culture of nomads, and explain that resorting to the historical experience of traditional cultures is also necessary in order to tackle the problem of the greatest possible adaptation of ethnic culture of each nation to modern highly urbanized civilization The research work was conducted on basis of the statistical data and periodicals, results of long-term field research of the Buryat Scientific Center of the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences Key words: ecological culture, inner Asia, nomadism, Mongolia, transboundary environmental issue * The first author, Professor of History at the Institute for Mongolian, Buddhist and Tibetan Studies, Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Ulan-Ude, Russia ** The correspondent author, Director of the Institute for Mongolian, Buddhist and Tibetan Studies and Academician of RAS, Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Ulan-Ude, Russia *** The correspondent author, Professor at the Department of Economics and Finance, Soonchunhyang University, Korea This study was supported by the research fund of Soonchunhyang University The authors appreciate the commenters for their valuable comments However, the authors are still responsible for the remained problems, if any 178 ∙ 몽골학 제47호 Introduction Forming and Development of Inner Asian Nomads Culture Present Issues of Ecological Culture of Inner Asian Nomads Ecological Perspectives in Inner Asia Summary and Conclusion Introduction It stands to reason that in the contemporary globalizing world there is not a single political, economic, social or environmental problem, which concerns one particular state Any internal crisis of a state inevitably affects neighboring countries and peoples, becoming their crisis too, and carrying serious consequences Likewise, any economic, social or political crisis is directly connected with ecology In such situation, it is very urgent to strengthen the international cooperation and search for the ways to solve a number of critical environmental issues, such as the creation of specially protected natural reservations, conservation of water basins, and ecological culture training for population of transboundary environmental regions Inner Asia is an important hub of historical processes, a crossroads of global cultural trends, shared fatherland and residence and a factor uniting many nations This territory was once a single historical and cultural space and a part of nomadic civilization Nowadays it embraces territories of three states with various economic and social structures: Buryatia in Russia, Mongolia, and Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region in China Despite of common prospects of transformation process, each country has its own way of development, since a combination of factors and circumstances in such a complex process is always unique At the same time, social and cultural peculiarities of the Mongolian ethnos are preserved in the region and the whole territory itself is characterized Ecological Culture of Inner Asian Nomads: Past, Present and Future ∙ 179 by geopolitical and geo-economic interdependence Extreme climatic conditions of this region created a fragile environmental balance between man, society and nature Therefore, unlike sedentary people from other regions a nomad had to search for a more balanced approach to nature This approach was formed not for mere exploitation of the environment, but for harmonious interaction with it as an equal partner Nomadic lifestyle allowed using natural resources and creating a distinct culture based on environmental ideology as well as ethnic, confessional and sociocultural traditions of various nations History shows that the activity of large human entities, ethno-political unions or super-ethnos lead to emergence of critical environmental situations This region witnessed many attempts to create powerful super-ethnic states on enormous expanses They played a great role in overcoming cultural, ethnic and confessional differences of nations, tribes and ethnic groups Interaction of numerous ethnic substrates and their ecological traditions undoubtedly contributed not only to their enrichment and synthesis, but also evolution from lower to higher forms and, consequently, development and enhancement of the whole ecological culture of Inner Asian peoples The created type of ecological culture, which functioned as a specific number of norms and stereotypes of environmental thinking and behavior, played a role of a highly efficient regulator of interactions between man and nature Forming and Development of Inner Asian Nomads Culture Ideology of the traditional use of wild nature originated from heathen beliefs Environmental ideas of ancient dwellers of this region were reflected in a system of archaic beliefs and cults (such as land, water and tree cults, etc.) often borrowed by Shamanism, which manifested a new stage of ecological culture of 180 ∙ 몽골학 제47호 the people Nomads did not distinguish themselves from the economic activity that ensured harmonious coexistence of society and nature In the inner structure of the Shamanistic religious and cultural complex, the environmental layer represents an inseparable typological peculiarity of Shamanism.1) Many Buddhist rituals associated with veneration of nature were borrowed from Shamanism For instance, a female image of the Earth cult amalgamated with female images of the Buddhist pantheon The tree cult, in which trees were believed to be dwellings of guardian spirits, symbols of evolvement of life, as well as cults of “inanimate” objects and natural phenomena, such as the cult of stones, evolved further In Tibetan medical sources insults to spirits of water, land, trees, stones and hearth were listed among numerous causes of diseases.2) Inner Asia is a zone of adverse natural and climatic conditions Winds, floods, draughts, and early frosts carry catastrophic consequences for agriculture Many traditional beliefs and cults are still very much alive among the Mongolian peoples Field ethnographic studies show that such mass worships as Shamanist taylagan and Buddhist obo tahilga addressed to “masters of land and water” requesting rain, moisture and wellbeing from guardian deities are practiced in dry off-years The ancient cult of “land and water” is extremely important, as is the cult of the “master of the locality” Traditional beliefs, folk art, songs, dances and applied art of the Mongolian peoples are in many ways connected with recognition and venerations of nature It is a source of inspiration, which determines elements of spiritual creativity One of the highest stages of ecological culture development in the region is, undoubtedly, a system of environmental traditions It is the result of a synthesis of Tibetan Buddhism and traditional beliefs and cults, rituals and habits of the 1) Not surprisingly, many specialists define Shamanism as a “natural” religion 2) Abaeva Lyubov (2004), p 405 Ecological Culture of Inner Asian Nomads: Past, Present and Future ∙ 181 Mongolian peoples Buddhism introduced high religion and culture in the region integrating and assimilating them with the indigenous beliefs and traditions, reaching a harmonious combination of Buddhist and non-Buddhist elements In the final analysis this led to the formation of a practically homogeneous and stable form of environmental conscience in the region.3) The type of environmental conscience and behavior encoded in the ecological culture of Inner Asia was realized as a traditionally stable stereotype passed from father to son over many centuries A continuity of environmental tradition is traceable in the historical material, from early archeological culture to contemporaneity Transition of Buryats from the Mongolian world to Russia in the 17th century definitely resulted in certain changes of behavioral stereotypes In this period the Buryats entered a decisive stage of ethno-genesis accompanied by unification of previously isolated tribes Before incorporation of Buryatia into Russia one could talk about the interconnection and interdependence of nature and ethnos In the course of the historical process accompanied by migrations, demographic and cultural changes, the population structure of Buryatia became poly-ethnic In poly-ethnic society, ethnos and ethnic groups retained their identity The use of nature as an economic base by the Buryats demonstrated its efficiency and ecological expediency According to the concept of revolutionary changes of nature, the system of traditional attitude to the environment started changing only from the second third of the 20th century During the collectivization years the Buryat traditional economy was almost totally destroyed By the late 1950s Mongolia faced the same trouble, albeit in a somewhat milder form Urbanization processes were rapidly destroying 3) Baldano Marina (2004), p 7-12 182 ∙ 몽골학 제47호 traditional lifestyles that formed over centuries Urban growth was specifically intensive in the 1950s to 1960s In this period new urban dwellers became marginalized by losing ties with the countryside (khudon) from whence they came At the same time, their high degree of adaptability to natural conditions disappeared; their environmental conscience underwent negative transformations and attitudes to nature changed under the influence of militant technocracy In other words their conscience was changed and a new type of behavior was established The ideas of careful preservation and restoration of nature ceased to be dominant At the same time people in the cities who were getting actively adapted to industrial production and urban lifestyles scarcely perceived spiritual values of a city, civilization and culture New townspeople for a long time remained marginal with mixed rural-urban conscience This factor seems to be the main obstacle on the way toward creation of a unified society with developed ecological culture Present Issues of Ecological Culture of Inner Asian Nomads The cause of the contemporary environmental crisis lies in the system of values that brings to the forefront consumerism and perception of nature as a source of human needs satisfaction This characterizes the situation in the Inner Asian region where Mongolia, its geographical center, borders on two countries with enormous resources On the one side lies Russia with its vast territories and rich natural resources On the other side there is China with one of the most powerful economies in the world and huge human resources, which ensure continuous economic growth The country that occupies an important strategic position in Inner Asia turned into an arena of open and clandestine political and economic rivalry among Russia, China, USA, Japan, the European Union, Great Britain, Canada, Ecological Culture of Inner Asian Nomads: Past, Present and Future ∙ 183 South Korea and other countries Economic sectors based on the use of natural resources are the main sources of present and future development of the Mongolian economy Human activity is a significant factor of environmental degradation as it entails exhaustion of soils, deforestation and extraction of mineral resources Desertification of land result in negative changes in the environment creating extreme conditions for the living Coal mining and coal export to China are carried out on a large scale, including the increasing illegal mining, wasteful with high environmental costs The level of development and new technologies of the industry does not allow exporting end products competitive on Asian and global markets.4) Obviously, the primary beneficiaries of the “green” technological revolution are the richest countries of the world able to direct huge state subsidies to support their hi-tech companies These companies later become global leaders in the field of energy engineering, engine production, development of new materials and so on They conquer markets in the developing countries cutting off their opportunities to entrench themselves in new prospective economic sectors At the same time the Third World countries cannot export their traditional goods manufactured with obsolete technologies to Europe The European market is protected by a soft, but solid curtain of environmental certification.5) Nowadays China determines the character of the socioeconomic situation in Mongolia According to Mongolian sources in 1990-2010 direct Chinese investments into Mongolian economy reached 1.8 billion US dollars or almost 55% of all foreign direct investment Over these twenty years more than 5300 partially Chinese enterprises and businesses were launched in Mongolia This amounts to almost 50% of all businesses with foreign ownership in the country.6) The majority of these companies are involved in mining, which 4) Aktamov Innokentiy (2011), p 99 5) Novikov Sergey (2010) The Green Comfort In Russian, Expert 2010 № (735) 184 ∙ 몽골학 제47호 directly affects the environment causing its degradation, including desertification Changed socioeconomic condition of the local population results in the intensification of migration and resettlement of the population from territories prone to desertification, especially from the districts adjacent to the Gobi desert, to cities, particularly, the capital city of Ulaanbaatar Over the last two decades the population of Ulaanbaatar grew from 700,000 to 1,500,000 people A huge slum consisting of yurts and private single-family homes, which use any flammable material (including construction waste, PET and auto tires) for heating formed around the metropolitan area A situation close to environmental disaster formed because of air pollution with combustion products in wintertime Undoubtedly, this is a complex problem that has a socioeconomic basis: rapid urban population growth occurs due to the influx of deprived rural dwellers forced to surround the city with their yurts At the same time, the problem has already affected the interests of the middle class and elites since it is impossible to divide airspace into the air for the rich and air for the poor Ulaanbaatar is rapidly developing, but life there is becoming more difficult even in elite housing The environmental situation has already turned into the political issue The stability of state authorities depends on the solution of this problem.7) In this case it is relevant to cite Russian Mongolian A.S Zheleznyakov who argues with deep concern and, to a certain extent, deliberately dramatizing, that, “Replication of alien experience by a modern nomad is, more likely, not a progressive dismantling of an obsolescent economic set-up, but a tragedy of identity loss by a whole nation Moreover, such replication inevitably results in 6) Baatar Tsend (2012), pp 145-148 7) SO RAN – MAN: Dynamism of Cooperation In Russian (2010), Science in Siberia № 41 (2776) October, 14 Ecological Culture of Inner Asian Nomads: Past, Present and Future ∙ 185 a countrywide environmental catastrophe, since the age-old balance between human economic activity and Mongolia’s fragile natural environment with a unique intertwining of the southernmost boundaries of permafrost and northernmost borders of desert is irretrievably lost As a result, Mongolia turns from a blossoming nook of the planet where life of happy nomadic is painted in bucolic colors into a very uncomfortable place for normal life of not only nomads, but also farmers Even the townspeople will not be comfortable amidst dust storms and sharp changes of temperature”.8) Problems of Mongolia’s environmental security are in the spotlight of public and governmental attention not only in Mongolia, but also in the neighboring states, primarily Russia The National Security Concept of Mongolia defines environmental security in Article 10, clause 52 It is understood as provision of conditions for prevention of negative impacts on human environment and economy as a result of environmental and climatic changes, unsustainable use and insufficient protection of natural resources Besides, the document lists internal and external factors, which may affect environmental security as well as a number of measures that Mongolia must undertake in order to ensure its security in the field of ecology About 20 NGOs emerged in almost all river basins where mining activity is underway The number of participants in some campaigns amounts to 8000 people In April 2011, mounted Mongolian cattle herders occupied the main square of the capital city of Ulaanbaatar, the Sukhbator Square, demanding to stop the destruction of steppes and rivers by mining It is well known that the Mongolian leadership actively promotes the policy of development of mineral resources in the southern part of the country It is oriented toward export of raw materials to China and Western countries The largest mining objects are coal deposit Tavan-Tolgoi and copper and gold 8) Zheleznyakov Alexander (2014) Mongolia in Search of Identity in the Modern Era and its Civilizational Interaction with Russia 186 ∙ 몽골학 제47호 deposit Oyu-Tolgoi For the attainment of projected capacity huge amounts of water and electricity are required Both are in short supply for the whole Mongolian economy That is why there are plans to build a chain of hydroelectric power stations on the Orkhon River (the main tributary of the Selenga River in the Mongolian territory) and the Kerulen River (a tributary of Lake Dalaynor in China), and construct several reservoirs to divert the runoff to the Southern Gobi Taking into account the fact that the Selenga brings a half of annual runoff to Lake Baikal, it is possible to assume that the diversion of a part of runoff and a sharp increase of water expenditure due to evaporation and groundwater seepage will reduce the volume of water delivered to Lake Baikal The extremely high manmade impact on Lake Baikal is one of the critical environmental issues not only in Russia, but in the entire world According to Buryat environmentalists, construction of just one Shuren HPP on the Selenga River may become catastrophic for the ecosystem of Lake Baikal However, at the last year’s meeting with the government of the Republic of Buryatia, Tsend Badrakh, Head of the National Water Committee of Mongolia reassured, “We will take measures to prevent damage to water resources of Russia, the Selenga River and Lake Baikal in particular”.9) On June 20, 2014 at the 38th UNESCO session in Qatar, the World Heritage Committee advanced a claim against Mongolia due to possible construction of an HPP on the Selenga River.10) On the one hand it is clear that Mongolia experiences a severe shortage of water resources On the other hand, the Mongolian government’s assuredness that no catastrophe will ensue is striking It is appropriate to provide an example when due to calculation error the Zavkhan River was almost totally shut off delivering much less water than was needed by the local cattle herders 9) Badrakh Tsend (2014), pp 22-24 10) Badmaev Vladimir (2014), UNESCO against the HPP on the Selenga In Russian, (date of access: 21.05.2016) Ecological Culture of Inner Asian Nomads: Past, Present and Future ∙ 187 The territory became more arid than before the construction of the HPP, and as a result, a lot of cattle died Some cattle breeders deprived of sustenance became devout opponents of such experiments on Mother Nature and nowadays they protest against construction of hydropower plants on the Selenga and Orkhon Rivers Relationships between Russia and Mongolia, providing mutual national interests in the field of protection and management of transboundary waters are built on the principles of pragmatism of each party In its relations with Mongolia the Russian Federation tries to act as a “soft leader” taking into account economic and political factors since such interaction with Mongolia has not only environmental, but also political significance in the expansion of Russian influence in the Asia-Pacific region.11) It is also important that such interaction to great extent ensures Russia’s international status of the guarantor of preservation of the unique ecosystem of Lake Baikal In our view, joint activities, such as recent Russian-Mongolian expedition on sanitation and epidemiological monitoring of transboundary waters in the territory of Buryatia and Mongolia have special significance Its organizers were the Directorate of the Federal Service for Consumer Rights Protection and Human Welfare in the Republic of Buryatia and Buryat “Center for Hygiene and Epidemiology” with participation of the East Siberian Scientific Center for Human Ecology of the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences (Angarsk) and funded by the GEF and UNDP project “Integrated Natural Resource Management in the Transboundary Ecosystem of the Baikal Basin.” In September the Baikal Educational Forum of Environmentalist Activists is scheduled to start.12) 11) Tsyrenova Tatyana (2011), p 11 12) Ecology (2014), ecoindustry.ru, 19 July, 2014, № 1104509 (date of access: 05.07.2016) 188 ∙ 몽골학 제47호 For Mongolia the problem of distribution and joint management of transboundary waters in the condition of limited water resources touches vitally important sectors of national economy On the one hand, interaction with Russia allows taking into account positive Russian experience in scientific and educational spheres in the protection and management of water resources On the other hand, it guarantees respect to national interests of Mongolia in terms of preservation of its sovereignty in the conditions of a multi-vectored foreign policy, in which one of the main actors is neighboring China In Russia a whole series of scientific documents regulating socioeconomic development of the frontier Baikal region were developed First and foremost, it is the “Territorial Integrated Scheme of the Protection of Nature of the Baikal Basin” Its main contents is a program of sustainable nature management and environmental-town planning development of the region, ensuring the temporally unlimited conservation and reproduction of the unique ecosystem and gene bank of Lake Baikal and the adjacent water catchment area, as well as permanence of hydro-chemical and hydro-biological composition of the lake’s waters Since 2009 the implementation of the already mentioned GEF/UNDP program “Cooperation to Reduce Impacts of Persistent Toxic Substances and Organic Pollutants through Integrated Management of the Baikal Basin” commenced Despite all this, however, the unique water body sustains irreversible damage each day due to large scale placer gold development in the central districts of Mongolia that resulted in the change of landscape and watercourse of many tributaries of the Selenga River River waters are contaminated by mining wastes Out of 350 large mining companies working in Mongolia, 280 specialize in placer gold development Reclamation works are practically absent in 97% of territories under gold mining Only in the Tuul River valley 4500 hectares of land are damaged Russian and Mongolian scientific studies showed Ecological Culture of Inner Asian Nomads: Past, Present and Future ∙ 189 a considerable excess of maximum allowable concentrations of heavy metals (lead, cadmium, mercury) and petrochemicals in the regions of active mining.13) In July 2014 the “Oyu Tolgoi” company together with the Ministry of the Environment and Green Development of Mongolia approved the 3-year project to reclaim the watercourse of the Tuul River, in the course of which 100,000 trees will be planted on 2400 hectares of land on the banks of the river It should not go unmentioned that the issues concerning water resources of Mongolia are simultaneously supervised by several agencies, which entails certain troubles in the solution of environmental problems Regulation should be carried out within the frameworks of a single policy – such was the conclusion of the international organization “2030 Water Resources Group”.14) A social problem of illegal gold miners exists in Mongolia Artisanal miners called “ninja” start mining the remnants of gold on the deposits abandoned by mining companies First they were the Chinese, but then by governmental decision they were deported by law enforcement In turn, they were replaced by Mongols who abandoned their traditional lifestyle Nowadays there are over 100,000 people in Mongolia involved in illegal gold mining Abhorrent living conditions of “black miners” and their families and direct proximity to “mines” resulted in birth of children with various pathologies It is connected with the fact that various toxic substances, such as mercury, potassium cyanide and so on are used in the course of gold extraction People can die as a result of cave-ins Yet, picking leftovers after the official gold miners, the “ninja” miners extract from to tons of gold per year according to various sources Since 2006 the Government of Mongolia adopted a Program on Reclamation 13) Shirapova Sendema (2012), pp 115-116 14) Ecology In Russian (2014), montsame.gov.mn, 19 February, № 1016521 (date of access: 07.07.2016) 190 ∙ 몽골학 제47호 of Disturbed Lands, which includes soil reclamation, preservation of natural landscapes, and exposure of contaminated territories Since 2008 mining companies are required to budget for costs on reclamation works According to the most recent data over the last 20 years mining companies destroyed ecosystems on 20,401 hectares of land Only 22% of the disturbed lands have been restored to the original state.15) Since the social condition of population in Russia and Mongolia remains very much alike, the same situation was observed across the border in Buryatia Until recently people in Zakamensky district of the republic were engaged in illegal tungsten mining in the abandoned ore mines of the Dzhidinsky tungsten and molybdenum enterprise In August 2005 in one of the ore mines a cave-in killed persons In November of the same year an illegal tungsten miner was severely wounded And on June 6, 2006 two local dwellers were asphyxiated by carbon monoxide Such accidents occurred regularly until ore mines were completely sealed off In general, many nature protection objectives are attained in Buryatia thanks to control and certain funding However, the efficiency of these measures have long been quite low, since the development of the economy dominated over nature conservation measures and the attention was focused on results, not causes The unprecedented economic growth rates of China and a striving to uncontrolled consumption put the country on the brink of environmental disaster According to Chinese scholar An’Ban, “In the course of industrialization and urbanization China not just replicated the same way other countries took in the past (first deeply damage the environment, then restore it), but surpassed any industrially developed states in this sense London smog, Los 15) Ecology In Russian (2014), russian.china.org.cn, 21 August, № 1156795 (date of access: 07.07.2016) Ecological Culture of Inner Asian Nomads: Past, Present and Future ∙ 191 Angeles smog, minamata disease in Japan – all these phenomena, which left bright traces in the history of environment protection, are nowadays observed in China in this or that way”.16) The situation in China is so complex that it affects all spheres of social life, starting with environmental pollution and threats to health and life of the population to problems of internal political stability and image of the country in the world Meanwhile the environmental disasters the Chinese experience directly concern Russia Yet, despite the fact that a striving for economic achievements and reforms hampers the process of environmental recovery, China pays great attention to its environmental policy The Chinese Constitution of 1982 contains provisions concerning environment protection.17) This document contains provisions about the duty of the state to conserve natural resources and wildlife In the 1980s bills on protection of the marine environment, prevention of water and atmospheric pollution, and protection of wildlife were passed Many environment-oriented measures of central and local authorities yielded positive results already in the 1990s It is appropriate to mention the example of reforestation and forest planting reaching the level of 1.5 million hectares a year The first stage of the creation of a system of forest belts in northern, northwestern and northeastern provinces of the country was completed The first of such forest belts known as the Great Green Wall stretches to 1.500 km and has a width of 12 meters About a million peasants toiled to create it As a result, the forest cover in China increased to 14% Nevertheless, the general environmental situation in the country is still 16) An’ Ban (2013) China at the Brink of Environmental Disaster: Urgent Measures Required In Russian, Transl F Kokorev, (date of access: 27.05.2016) 17) Article 26 reads, “…the state protects and improves the environment in which people live, and the ecology of China, controls pollution and other public threats.” 192 ∙ 몽골학 제47호 alarming The long-term policy aimed at reaching the maximum economic growth in the conditions of a high rate of population increase resulted in degradation of many natural resources, especially renewable ones Prevalence of various “dirty” types of production in the industry also carried negative consequences As a result, already in the late 1990s 800 million people (or 3/5 of the entire population of China) lived in environmentally adverse conditions, including 350 million (over ¼) in the zones, which required radical measures to improve the ecological situation According to the reports of relevant international organizations and Chinese economic agencies, out of 20 most polluted cities in the world ten are situated in China China suffers from environmental problems characteristic of developed countries at early stages of industrialization: atmospheric and water pollution aggravated by problems of soil erosion, degradation of arable lands, deforestation and desertification of pastures18) Desertification in Inner Mongolia led to shrinking of oases, shrinkage of lakes and wetlands, water table decline and salinization, degradation of grass cover of steppes One of the main reasons for this were overcutting of forests and overgrazing of the woodland surrounding the Alashan desert, the largest in China The total square of this woodland shrank by 82% over half a century.19) Vast pastures became inadequate for grazing cattle Many species of wild animals are on the brink of extinction Large areas of arable land are buried under the sand dunes In North and Northwest China frequency and intensity of sandstorms increased, as did their destructive impact on the environment, economic activity and human habitat A comparative analysis exposed numerous problems of development of former nomadic communities in the conditions of societal transformation The 18) Li Syaofan’ (2006), pp 21-36 19) Baohua and Hong-Jin Kim(2015), pp 247-248 Ecological Culture of Inner Asian Nomads: Past, Present and Future ∙ 193 most persistent tendency is equalization of nomadic cattle breeding level in Inner Asia and beyond – Central and East Asia A considerable growth of livestock population led to the activation of the cattle-breeding factor in the economy of countries and human development However, the departure from the experience of interaction between Nature and Society inherited from earlier ages may have most unpredictable consequences In the course of the recent expedition under the title “Transformation of Nomadic Civilizations of Central Asia” we witnessed a complicated and, sometimes, threatening environmental situation connected with desertification In our view one more reason should be added to all objectively existing ones Growing prices on cashmere resulted in the growth of the goat stock and, subsequently, smalls population in the Gobi expanses of Inner Mongolia This produced a sharp increase of the manmade impact on the soil The territory of Inner Mongolia is 500,000 sq km smaller than that of Mongolia, but the population is ten times larger The cattle stock (with a definite predominance of smalls) is three times that of Mongolia and amounts to 72 million heads These characteristics considerably grew in the last 12-15 years The growing prices on goat’s wool contributed to the market conditions It is well known that goats have small teeth, sharp hooves and are undemanding to forage In early spring herds of sheep and goats were driven to slopes covered with fresh grass leaving behind practically bare land with exposed grass root system As a result, large masses of sand slid on the steppe and grazing animals beneath continued what they started A more thorough analysis exposed a considerable social problem connected with allocation of land to peasants In Inner Mongolia land was initially rented to cattle breeder families for five, later, ten years A cattle breeding family received a seemingly large territory However, striving to get as much profit as possible, families used the land without thinking about the consequences 194 ∙ 몽골학 제47호 Emergence of new families and prolongation of rent to 15-20 years led to an increased competition for pastures and intensified land turnover The ecosystem literally started crumbling This led to sandstorms, soil erosion and forced resettlement of large masses of people The contradictory character of China’s striving to implement its economic and environmental interests is getting more and more obvious Over the last two decades during the economic boom in China consumption growth significantly aggravated the ecological situation in the country For instance, take the “Bayan-Obo” ore mine in Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region This ore mine’s development of iron ore and rare earth metals were extracted and a tailings pond of 170 million-ton capacity was formed This huge holding pond is filled with toxic and radioactive compounds silting through the dams poisoning everything around Such mining pits lead to shrinkage of pastures, degradation of natural environment in general and disturbed sociocultural foundations of life of the Mongolian ethnic minority There is no doubt that the ecological situation as a whole became a heavy burden for the population of the country Anxiety and protests of people became more often since 2011 and they threaten the internal political stability Mass riots associated with environmental problems acquiring ethnic coloring are sparked in many regions of China One of them was the protest of the Mongolian population in Silingol Aimak of Inner Mongolia On May 10, 2011 during the protests of Uzemchin dwellers against expansion of the open-pit coal mine a 35-year-old Mongolian shepherd named Mérgén died under the wheels of a large-tonnage truck Five days later in the neighboring Abag district 14 local inhabitants were wounded in a fight with miners and a 22-year-old guy was run down to death by a fork truck The steppe flared up: Mongols demanded trial on the miners and respect to their rights and traditions They gathered in administrative centers but were dispersed Ecological Culture of Inner Asian Nomads: Past, Present and Future ∙ 195 by law enforcement Nevertheless, they managed to organize a demonstration under the slogan “Protect the Steppes!” Leaders of Inner Mongolia dealt with the situation holding briefings and consultations However, first secretary of the party committee Hu Chunhua clearly stated that regional development is driven by the miners The mining company was obligated to pay the local herdsmen a compensation of 1.5 million yuan set by the law Chairman of the Government of Inner Mongolia Bator officially declared that mining negatively affected the habitat, life and work of local people and the compensation was not sufficient and efficient A total inspection of all coal mining industry’s enterprises was declared in order to stop illegal mining violating regulations and norms, involving illegal migrants and disrespecting safety regulations and rights of the local population The official mass media specifically highlighted that only a contradiction concerning land management occurred in Uzemchin and there was no ethnic conflict However, in essence, as the expert mentioned, the problem was in the conflict of civilizations or development paradigms “Western steppes, partially retaining traditional lifestyle and culture of nomadic cattle breeders, squirm under the roll of industrial globalization carried out in the interests of industrial East”20) In Silingol aimak, the territory of which equals 180.000 sq km and the population is one million, prior to 2009 there were three thermal electric power stations with 143 MW plant capacity By 2020 it is planned to build eight giant stations and launch dozens of open-pit coal mines to supply them with coal Plant capacity of power stations should rise to 280060 MW Local herders roamed tens of kilometers from there and rent the land for money The basis of modern economy of Inner Asia is no longer cattle breeding It is the mining sector The Silingol, Ordos and Hulunbuir steppes are situated on practically 20) Laskin Semen (2011) Coal or Life? An Expert’s Opinion In Russian, Novaya Gazeta 16.06 196 ∙ 몽골학 제47호 continuous coal beds, which are often of doubtful quality, but located very close to the surface, especially in river valleys At the same time, it should be borne in mind that Hulunbuir borders on Zabaikalsky region of the Russian Federation It also should not be forgotten that open-pit mining carries the worst consequences for the environment creating techno-genic landscapes China has the richest deposits of coal in the world Yet, due to excessive rate of economic growth and an exorbitant increase of social and environmental costs more and more energy will be imported from abroad both as cheap coal and cheap electric power produced from that coal This means that the Russian coal producers will increase export production of coal despite environmental regulations and social consequences Here one has to agree with experts in the field of environment that the “Concept of Development of Coal Industry of the Russian Federation up to 2030” orientated toward doubling of export, is open to many risks Returning to the issue of water resources, it is impossible to forget that in Inner Mongolia, Hulunbuir prefecture a channel is actively under construction for the diversion of watercourse of the Hailar River (upper reaches of the Argun River) to the Dalainor Lake for “environmental purposes” The consequence of it may be a catastrophic drying up of the transboundary section of the Argun River above Priargunsk, destruction of unique ecosystems, decline of rural economy and impossible living conditions for the local population In this situation the Russian side will totally depend on the decision of Hulunbuir prefecture “to give or not to give” water to the boundary area This is another problem, which requires a joint solution Ecological Perspectives in Inner Asia Undoubtedly, Russia, Mongolia and China make considerable efforts to Ecological Culture of Inner Asian Nomads: Past, Present and Future ∙ 197 enhance the normative-legal basis of environment protection cooperation, develop and implement joint target programs in the field of environmentalism, optimize joint management and research of natural resources, cooperative monitoring of aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems, ecological education and enlightenment of population, and development of ecotourism Besides, there is the development of prospective technologies of environment protection, creation of economic prerequisites for transition of enterprises to new standards of production Since 2014 a project to systematize sources of sandstorms has been launched in China Mongolia seeks efficient ways to stop the advance of the Gobi sands northwards creating green belts consolidating soil Besides, Mongolia prepared a project on the enhancement of management to mitigate negative impacts of mining on the environment in 2014-2018 jointly with the Korea International Cooperation Agency (KOICA), etc.21) However, not simply a specific mode of material production, but also a whole complex of cultural-historical traditions exerts considerable influence on the interrelations of man and environment Therefore, an opinion that intangible elements of culture carry important cultural and environmental information is more actively asserted In this sense it is possible to speak about the ecosystem as a flexible interaction of the three main parts: environment, technological superstructure and nonmaterial regulators (traditions, beliefs, rituals, habits, stereotypes, norms of behavior, etc.) Conclusion In this way, solution of environmental problems passes from a purely technological sphere into a general social and cultural field in its broadest 21) Ecology In Russian (2014), russian.china.org.cn, 21 August, № 1156795 (date of access: 07.07.2016) 198 ∙ 몽골학 제47호 understanding Resorting to the historical experience of traditional cultures is also necessary in order to tackle the problem of the greatest possible adaptation of ethnic culture of each nation to modern highly urbanized civilization It is a good practice to recall many things from the historical experience of interaction between Man and Nature in the pre-industrial epoch and under the conditions of a crisis of indigenous peoples to show peculiarities of formation and the uniqueness of their cultural traditions Large nations should realize that homogeneity of the humanity is not something worth striving for, and indigenous peoples should know that their survival largely depends on the integrity of natural and cultural environments and elements of traditional lifestyle, which had formed their spiritual, moral, cultural and psychological outlook In this article we attempted to say that this world knows more than just one single model of civilization The spiritual and environmental civilization does not only exist, but actively sprouts through the moribund industrial and consumer one, though it is so far not noticeable to everyone Ecological Culture of Inner Asian Nomads: Past, Present and Future ∙ 199 References Abaeva Lyubov (2004) Buddism and Ecological Culture of the Buryats // Buryats Series: Peoples and Cultures In Russian, Moscow: Nauka, pp 397-415 Aktamov Innokentiy (2011) Ecological Culture as a Paradigm and an Ideologeme (A Case Study of the Baikal Region // Peoples of Siberia as a Part of the Russian State: History and Contemporaneity: Proceedings of the Regional Young Scholars’ Scientific and Practical Conference In Russian, Ulan-Ude: VSGTU P 96-103 An’ Ban (2013) China at the Brink of Environmental Disaster: Urgent Measures Required In Russian, Transl F Kokorev Badmaev Vladimir (2014) UNESCO against the HPP on the Selenga In Russian, http://gazeta-n1.ru/blogs/badmaev/31545/ Badrakh Tsend (2014) The environment above the economy? Interview with head of National Water Committee In Russian, World of Baikal, № (43) pp 22-24 Baldano Marina (2004) Ecological Culture of the Central Asian Nomads // Dialogue between Cultures and Civilizations: Modern State and Perspectives of Nomadism in the Globalizing World Ulaanbaator, Р 7-12 Baatar Tsend (2012) Foreign Direct Investment in Mongolian Case // Proceedings of the X International Congress of the Mongolists Vol III Mongolia’s Economy and Politics Ulaanbaatar, pp 145-148 Baohua and Hong-Jin Kim(2015), Social Reasons of Rapid Desertification in Inner Mongolia: An Anthropological Perspective, Journal of Mongolian Studies, vol 43, pp 239-261 Chow C Gregory (2009) China’s Energy and Environmental Problems and Policies // Workshop China’s Energy and Environmental Problems at Princeton University USA, Prinston, April, 18-19 200 ∙ 몽골학 제47호 Ecology In Russian (2014), montsame.gov.mn, 19 February, № 1016521 Ecology In Russian (2014), ecoindustry.ru, 19 July, 2014, № 1104509 Ecology In Russian (2014), russian.china.org.cn, 21 August, № 1156795 Laskin Semen (2011) Coal or Life? An Expert’s Opinion In Russian, Novaya Gazeta 16.06 Li Syaofan' (2006) The Environmental Condition of China: Problems of Global Participation Policy In Russian, International Social Science Review P 21-36 Novikov Sergey (2010) The Green Comfort In Russian, Expert 2010 № (735) Shirapova Sendema (2012) The Social and Environmental Problems of Mongolia Associated with Gold Mining on the Rivers-Tributaries to the Selenga // Rivers of Siberia Proceedings of the 5th International Conference In Russian, Tomsk: Deltaplan, pp 115-116 Shmeleva Irina, Van Guantzyun (2013) The Ecological Dimension of the Contemporary Chinese Policy // Political Expertise Politech In Russian, Vol № SO RAN – MAN: Dynamism of Cooperation In Russian (2010), Science in Siberia № 41 (2776) October, 14 Tsyrenova Tatyana (2011) The Russian-Mongolian Cooperation in the Field of Management of Transboundary Waters In Russian / ed by I.I Osinsky Ulan-Ude: BSU 112 p Zheleznyakov Alexander (2014) Mongolia in Search of Identity in the Modern Era and its Civilizational Interaction with Russia E-mail: histmar@mail.ru, bazarov60@mail.ru, khj506@sch.ac.kr 접수일: 2016년 10월 26일 심사위원 선정 및 심사일: 2016년 11월 1일~10일 게재결정일: 2016년 11월 12일 ... Forming and Development of Inner Asian Nomads Culture Present Issues of Ecological Culture of Inner Asian Nomads Ecological Perspectives in Inner Asia Summary and Conclusion Introduction It stands... everyone Ecological Culture of Inner Asian Nomads: Past, Present and Future ∙ 199 References Abaeva Lyubov (2004) Buddism and Ecological Culture of the Buryats // Buryats Series: Peoples and Cultures... Inner Asian Nomads: Past, Present and Future ∙ 183 South Korea and other countries Economic sectors based on the use of natural resources are the main sources of present and future development of