The operational geography of great britain (3)

This article was downloaded by: [Arizona State University] On: 16 February 2009 Access details: Access Details: [subscription number 907140547] Publisher Routledge Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK The Professional Geographer Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/title~content=t788352615 The Operational Geography of Great Britain Martin J Pasqualetti a a MARTIN J PASQUALETTI is Professor of Geography at Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287 In addition to his interest in British geography, he specializes in the spatial relationships between energy and the environment, particularly energy and land use Current work has concentrated on nuclear power plant decommissioning Online Publication Date: 01 August 1992 To cite this Article Pasqualetti, Martin J.(1992)'The Operational Geography of Great Britain',The Professional Geographer,44:3,296 — 307 To link to this Article: DOI: 10.1111/j.0033-0124.1992.00296.x URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.0033-0124.1992.00296.x PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE Full terms and conditions of use: http://www.informaworld.com/terms-and-conditions-of-access.pdf This article may be used for research, teaching and private study purposes Any substantial or systematic reproduction, re-distribution, re-selling, loan or sub-licensing, systematic supply or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contents will be complete or accurate or up to date The accuracy of any instructions, formulae and drug doses should be independently verified with primary sources The publisher shall not be liable for any loss, actions, claims, proceedings, demand or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with or arising out of the use of this material zyx zyxwvu zyxwvut The Operational Geography of Great Britain* Martin J Pasqualetti Arizona State Univenity Downloaded By: [Arizona State University] At: 19:51 16 February 2009 This article examines the operational geography of Great Britain in terms of six components: domestic context; student quality, preparation, and training; professional work environment; publications and productivity; conveniences and facilities; and employment The goal of operational geography is to provide the basis for blending the strengths of different systems of geography which have much to offer one another This article uses personal experiences and survey data to examine the strengths and weaknesses in Britain as compared to the United States It finds that Britain has strong national support, a greater emphasis on geographic education, high-quality but narrowly trained undergraduates, and a productive academic faculty The United States enjoys a more effective graduate curriculum, better funding, and more opportunity for personal advancement Key Words: Britain, education, operational geography t Columbia University in 1956 John Kirt- A1 and Wright recognized the debt American geography owes its “academic grandfathers” in Great Britain (Wright 1966) Since then, there has been a growing number of British-trained geographers coming to the United States, sprinkled in our “better departments,” publishing widely, even outcompeting us for research funds at the National Science Foundation (Abler 1989) The trend continues As Abler notes, “the ‘Redcoats’ are still coming ” But what are these geographers leaving? What is the professional life of a geographer like in Great Britain, and how does it differ from what we are accustomed to in the United States? The answers to these and related questions can help us better understand why British geographers come here, what they bring along, how American geography is connected to geography in Britain, and what we American geographers may wish to to adjust our own approach to the discipline Because no other discipline receives, explains, integrates, and reflects such a wide assortment of nationspecific information, a country’s approach to geography can also offer a particularly clear window on national traits Some might call such an approach the “practice of geography,” or “geography in the trenches.” I call it “operational geography.” Operational geography is one of the five components of the larger “national geography” of a country The other four are description, in the form of descriptive literature through which many first become acquainted with a country; explanation, in the sense of answering scholarly questions; phitctsqphy, in the context of the underpinnings of the discipline; and application, through which scholarly efforts and training manifest themselves within a society We are familiar with these other four elements for most countries Operational geography, on the other hand, has received little attention In view of the accomplishments, activity, visibility, and recognition of British geographers,‘ however, it is time to examine the operational geography of our “academic grandfathers” in Great Britain zyxwvuts Study Design This paper expands on the country series published periodically in The Professional Geographer (e.g., Drdos 1991; Forheringham 1984; Haigh 1985), adding subjective personal impressions similar to the approach Marcus (1987) took in explaining geography in New Zealand Going a step further, it also adds the results of a questionnaire The questionnaire was mailed to people trained in Great Britain yet working in the United States, as listed in the 1987 Directory of the Association o f American Geographws Most hold university appointments and represent a cross-section of migration to the United States over the past 20 years The survey questionnaire had two parts The first part asked for normative replies to questions about student quality and curriculum and geography training and its results, as zyxwv zyxwvutsr zyxwvut *Thanks are due to Ronald Johnston, Andreu Kirby Rex M‘alford, and of this paper two zyx anonymous reviewers far helpful suggestions on earlier drafts Professional Gcographer, 44(3) 1992, pages 296-307 Copyright 1992 by Association of American Geographers Initial suhmission, August, 1991; revised submission November 1991; final acceptance January 9 zyx z zyxwvu Downloaded By: [Arizona State University] At: 19:51 16 February 2009 Operational Geography of Great Britain well as research and academic life In order to provide a framework for the replies, I placed questions in a comparative context with operational geography in the United States It was this context which suggested that the use of opinions from British expatriates would be particularly appropriate and insightful In order to judge whether there have been noticeable changes over the past two decades, I asked for responses for 1970, 1980, and 1990 The second part of the questionnaire posed several open-ended, comparative questions Replies were often detailed, strongly corroborating impressions I accumulated from the literature, interviews, and personal experiences.* These steps were carried out between 1984 and 1990, a period which included a working stay in Britain of one year, followed two years later by another working stay of six months I taught American students studying abroad and British students studying in-country I lectured at a dozen universities and polytechnics, plus several a encies such as the Department of Education Two other visits of shorter duration were used to carry out additional library research and supplementary interviews These activities were concentrated in an area bounded by Sheffield, the English Channel, Norwich, and Swansea 297 Domestic Context Britain’s strong tradition in geography is quickly apparent, especially to a visiting geographer from the United States There is high public interest in outdoor activities like gardening, biking, camping, and walking Foreign affairs and travel are two of the most popular topics of conversation Abundant and well-organized collections of regional fiction line shelves even in small bookshops Many television programs focus abroad, and there is a strong international perspective in the news media There is an almost universally keen interest, appreciation, and availability of the most basic of geographer tools-maps The broad British familiarity with the discipline of geography results partly from historical ties to exploration and colonization, when geographical information served the successful operation and expansion of the British Empire Over the years, this historical cornerstone became integrated into the cultural milieu of the country through a well-developed program of geographical education Such an emphasis on geography as an education fundamental is particularly apparent to an American because of its comparative absence in the United States (Pabst 1987) The data in Table indicate that the respondents viewed geography as being a more essential component of a general education in Britain than in the United States, and that geographic literacy was much higher in Britain‘s Operational Geography Britain However, this superiority appears to Operational geography usually has six parts: have eroded over the past 20 years Another indication of some slippage in geodomestic context; student quality, preparation, and training; professional work environment; graphic knowledge in Great Britain is apparent publications and productivity; conveniences, in a standardized international world-map quiz and facilities; and employment patterns conducted by the Gallup Organization for the B zyxwvuts zyxwvu zyxwv zyxwvutsrq Table Geographic Literacy Response Category (%) In which country is geography perceived to be an essential component of a good general education? 44 71 81 56 29 19 0 Which country has higher “geographic literacy” among the general population? 41 61 59 32 21 22 Cutegories: -Much more in Britain -More in Britain - About the same in United States and Britain - More in United States -Much more in United States Year 0 0 0 1990 1980 1970 26 18 19 0 0 0 1990 1980 1970 Downloaded By: [Arizona State University] At: 19:51 16 February 2009 298 zyxwvutsr zyxwv zyxwvu Volume 44, Number , August 1992 National Geographic Society (Grosvenor 1988; Leslie 1988) The poll contacted 10,820 adults in Canada, France, Italy, Japan, Mexico, Sweden, the United Kingdom, the United States, and West Germany For the overall population, the United States and United Kingdom were near the bottom of the ranks For all adults tested, the United States scored 8.6 correct answers compared to 8.5 for the United Kingdom (out of a possible 16) In the 18-24 age group, the most usual age for those in higher education, however, the United Kingdom scored a more respectable 9.0 compared to the United States’ figure of 6.9 (As a comparison, Sweden registered 1.6 for all adults and 11.9 for 18-24 year-olds.) of preparation in Britain For example, virtually all respondents felt that British geography students are superior to those in the United States The predominant response was that British college-level students are much better prepared and better in terms of overall education: “one doesn’t have to start from ‘basic’ geographic knowledge” when teaching these students How is this apparent superiority of British students explained? There are two reasons, preparation and experience in thinking critically: “At the B.A level, the United Kingdom-trained student is far superior to hidher United States counterpart largely because of superior high-school training”; “[there is] a firmer pre-college foundation which includes muchlmost of the freshman work done at United States universities As a result much more can be attempted at the undergraduate level in United Kingdom institutions.” In a particularly provocative reply, one respondent explained the British advantage in terms of an educational system which has “a more open political environment (British undergraduates have not been brainwashed).” This seems to imply that American students are given less encouragement to think for themselves than their British counterparts Other related responses identified similar strengths by stressing the British emphasis on “critical thinking,” “in-depth knowledge,” and essay-form examinations Many respondents thought that the higher standards, goals, and expectations set for uni- zyxwv zyx Student Quality, Preparation, and Training British students possess a deeper and broader knowledge of geography than their counterparts in the United States, partly because they live in a society where geography is a more familiar component in formal and informal education This tendency is strongly reflected in responses to my questions, and it has stayed virtually the same over the past two decades (Table ) Thankfully, we are now attempting some remedial action in the United States, as reflected most notably in the effort by the National Geographic Society to increase geographic literacy at the national and state levels (Salter 1987) In addition to the survey responses, replies to the open-ended questions concerning student quality also mentioned the higher order Table Student Quality and PreDaration zyxw Response Category (%) Which country provides the better geographic training in preuniversity work? In which country are the entering undergraduate students expected to be more advanced in geographic training and knowledge? In which country are the entering geography graduate students expected to have more advanced geographic knowledge? In which country is the general university curriculum tuned to a more remedial level of instruction? Categories: I -Much more in Britain - More in Britain - About the same in United States and Britain - More in United States - Mucb more in United States 82 93 92 15 3 0 0 91 100 100 0 0 0 61 64 71 33 32 25 4 0 Year 0 1990 1980 1970 0 0 1990 1980 1970 4 0 0 0 1990 1980 1970 13 55 54 50 36 38 33 1990 1980 1970 zyx zyz Downloaded By: [Arizona State University] At: 19:51 16 February 2009 Operational Geography of Great Britain 299 versity students in Britain were linked to what ness of the disciplinary focus Geography stumany call Britain’s “national geography curric- dents are expected to concentrate their attenulum.” Although such a curriculum is not in tion on geography during all three of their place in the rigid way the phrase implies, there undergraduate years, with little time given to is far greater uniformity of training and testing anything else, including social life It is, in in geography in Britain than is usually found short, serious business in the United States Virtually everyone conThe sharper focus of British geography prosidered British-type consistency a good idea, grams, however, also has a less attractive side many calling it an “excellent” approach Sev- Intensity and concentration on the discipline eral thought the United States should adopt a has produced a particularly narrow field of similar approach, whatever the difficulties vision for students Most geography curricula with individual state autonomy not require much contact with other disIn addition to the higher intellectual level of ciplines, particularly with mathematics, ecoclassroom discussions and lectures, student nomics, anthropology, and sociology While quality also influences university mechanics some students may receive instruction in these For example, British faculty customarily as- subjects before beginning college-level work, sign long reading lists instead of the less chal- many survey respondents characterized the lenging system of summary textbooks we tend British system as “much too specialized” and to use much “less flexible” than programs in the There are other differences as well For ex- United States ample, students are accustomed to greater forThe insularity of geography training apmality and social distance between themselves peared as well in the survey responses, and its and the faculty, less time devoted to formal appearance suggested that a broader underlectures, greater use of tutorials, and an exter- graduate curriculum could produce stronger nal, more uniformly rigorous system of class geographers The survey also supported the examinations All this presupposes a better view that, although more teaching and betterprepared student population capable of assum- quality teaching is expected in the United ing greater personal responsibility for their States, the B.A geographer in Britain is actually better trained (Table 3) This situation reown education There are at least two strong indications that sults both from the emphasis which British the superiority of British geography students schools give geography during compulsory will be maintained for at least the next several schooling and the more selective entrance reyears First, the gap between students in the quirements it maintains for advanced schooltwo countries appears to be defined very ing strongly; and second, to a far greater extent One of the clearest distinctions between unithan in the United States, Britain has been versity-level geographic education in Britain focusing attention on strengthening its geogra- and the United States is the emphasis British phy training even more (Boardman 1987; geography places on fieldwork This was Naish et al 1987; Rawling et al 1988; Walford strongly reflected in Part Two of the survey 1989a, 1989b; Walford and Williams 1986) by responses to the question “What are the If we were to consider all these preparations strengths of British geography training comand expectations, what would they mean in pared to the United States.” Fieldwork, espethe actual training of undergraduate and grad- cially foreign fieldwork, was mentioned more uate students? What would an American stu- often than any other single factor This emphadent expect to encounter upon enrolling in an sis has long caught the eye of American geogundergraduate geography program in Britain? raphers more accustomed to its minimal presWhat would an American geography professor ence in their own country (e.g., Mikesell encounter in the British undergraduate class- 1973) Ironically, fieldwork is not much apparent in recent work published by British geogroom? raphers, and it appears to be giving way to Undergraduate Training The first thing an more sedentary efforts A second difference in the British system, American geographer is likely to notice about British undergraduate training is the narrow- which was noted in the survey in several con- zyxwvu zyxwvuts zyxwvu zyxwvutsr zyxwv zyxwvuts zyxwvut 300 Volume 44, Number , August 1992 Table Instruction and Its ImDacts Response Category (%) zyxwvuts zyxwvutsrqp Year 10 13 17 13 18 43 38 27 23 29 36 1990 1980 1970 4 11 11 29 29 37 43 30 26 14 22 22 1990 1980 1970 Which country provides the better geographic training in university work? 16 23 23 44 35 46 38 35 27 4 1990 1980 1970 In general, which country has a more demanding curriculum for the B.A.? 46 54 58 40 35 31 14 12 12 0 0 0 1990 1980 1970 At comparable types of universities, in which country are the actual teaching loads higher? Downloaded By: [Arizona State University] At: 19:51 16 February 2009 In general which country has higher expectations teaching quality? of zyxwvutsr Categories: I - Mucb more in Britain -More in Britain - About the same in United States and Britain - More in United States - Mucb more in United States texts, is the strong encouragement students receive to read, write, and evaluate In other words, undergraduate students are both taught and are expected to think Such an expectation is easier to maintain in Britain because of a smaller range in the abilities of students than in the United States One of the reasons for the often disappointing performance of American college students is our long-standing insistence on making a college education available for everyone; the British system-from cultural expectations to university entrance requirements-is much more selective Such selectivity produces some pleasant results For example, undergraduates at Cambridge and the several universities and two polytechnics where I had the chance to interact with students, were quite a bright, inquisitive, and serious lot, and were well-trained within the field, albeit with little required contact with other subjects When queried on the specificity of their training, they claimed they were familiar with other disciplines from their pre-university schooling and were ready to concentrate on the discipline they had chosen after their A-level exams.4 This appears reasonable on the surface for many subjects, but it seems less appropriate for geography students, at least when considered in its more traditionally broad configuration Whatever the drawbacks of Britain’s more confining undergraduate curriculum, it has a positive aspect in two of the places it counts most, journals and granting agencies The British system emphasizes the narrow focus currently favored by journal editors and funding agencies such as NSF, one reason perhaps that manuscripts and proposals written by British-trained geographers relatively well in the review process Graduate Training Everything continues to narrow and concurrently loosen in graduate school Whereas undergraduate students struggle along a rigorous and concentrated path to the B.A degree, graduate students in Britain have a comparatively easy time of it, especially in terms of formal instruction T h e program is even less demanding the further one progresses toward the Ph.D (Table 4).So little is expected, in fact, that some respondents characterized the relaxed nature of graduate education as “scandalous.” T h e impressions of inattention encompass two characteristics of the British approach to graduate education that are particularly apparent to visiting geographers from the United States T h e most obviolis one is the small amount of formal faculty time spent with graduate students T h e British ostensibly assume that students enter graduate school sufficiently advanced to complete their dissertations and theses with little supervision or coursework This approach has benefits and drawbacks for students Most benefits accrue to intellectually mature students, whereas drawbacks ac- zyxwvut zyx zy zyxwvuts Operational Geography of Great Britain 301 zyxwvutsrq zyxwvutsrq zyxwvuts zyxwvutsrq Table Graduate Instruction and Its Impacts Response Category (%) In general, which country has a more demanding curriculum for the M.A 5 14 19 47 52 48 30 24 29 1990 1980 1970 In general, which country has a more demanding curriculum for the Ph D ? 0 0 29 32 32 39 36 36 26 32 32 1990 1980 1970 Year Downloaded By: [Arizona State University] At: 19:51 16 February 2009 Categories: I -Much more in Britain -More in Britain - About the same in United States and Britain - More in United States -Much more in United States cumulate within that cohort still needing guidance, a group that by definition of the term “student” we should expect to be larger than the first, As one respondent put it, “relatively few mature students can profit from the liberty.” In the open-ended portion of the survey, respondents were asked to identify the principal deficiencies in the British approach to geography curriculum and training Several questioned whether graduate training in Britain might be an “oxymoron.” Others simply called it “over-loose.’’ There is a belief that “formal requirements are completed with the bachelor’s degree.” As with the reliance of the undergraduate programs on pre-university work, graduate programs rely on undergraduate training to prepare students adequately for advanced work This “building-block” approach is in the general nature of British education programs, but it is least appropriate in geography How does this system compare specifically with that of the United States? Respondents thought the strengths in the United States are found in its more systematic and comprehensive structure, greater exposure to coursework and seminars, and practice in writing advanced-level papers There was an almost universal feeling that the graduate student in the United States simply has better resources, advice, and support One way to reduce or eliminate the perceived deficiencies in the British system is, as one person suggested, to inject it with “more structure and more diversification, perhaps requiring an additional year to get a Ph.D.” Such changes could result from “more lectures and seminars at the grad-level,” “more training and attention,” and more coursework on “theory and methods.” The small attention graduate students receive is not surprising because there has never been much of a tradition of graduate training in Britain This lack of attention may be more harmful to geography students than others because the proper development of geographers tends to require a longer intellectual gestation The weighting between an independent approach and a suffocating approach should properly depend upon the student; however, respondents universally believed that the average level of attention should be increased The consensus is that some adjustment in British graduate training is long overdue Professional Work Environment The work environment in Great Britain is particularly well suited for geographic research One of its most welcome traits is its less frenetic pace The appeal of this pace surfaced quickly in response to an open-ended survey question about which traits of a British academic geographer’s life were most appealing The most common response was that it was more “relaxed” and had “less political pressures.” The fact that British graduate students are much more on their own than in the United States (and the fact that the British undergraduate faculty have “lower teaching loads and smaller classes”), frees more time for faculty research and publication Thus, the most stressful aspects of the American system are minimized in Britain: there is “less pressure to zyxwvu zyxwvut zyxwv Downloaded By: [Arizona State University] At: 19:51 16 February 2009 302 Volume 44, Number , Augut 1992 publish” and “pull in sponsored research,” and more time to it Several respondents suggested that fewer classroom contact hours under the British system is manifest in the “considerable collegiality” and “day to day opportunity to meet with colleagues in social situations.” Such relations, as one person reported, “seemed quite harmonious even in bad times.” Apart from a somewhat formalized tendency for morning coffee and afternoon tea, I did not witness an over abundance of this collegiality personally, but I did notice more professional discussions amongst colleagues than is apparent in the United States These tendencies contrast with the increasing American trcnd, in part pushed by peer-driven paranoia, to retreat behind closed doors away from colleagues and students, supposedly to devote more time to satisfying tightening demands for publication Outside the office environment, one of the happy advantages of working in Britain is the near absence of the need to justify and explain what geography “is” or what a geographer “does.” This contrasts to a less salubrious situation in the United States, where several universities have closed their geography departments for want of a proper sense of disciplinary worth from administrators pressed to shave budgets T h e perception of disciplinary good health was revealed in responses to a question about the most appealing aspect in Britain’s working environment A strong majority of respondents mentioned the generally respectful tone for the discipline within the country’s social and cultural fabric; for example, “the ‘man-inthe-street’ still understands geography and respects it much more than in the United States.” Accordingly, British geographers bear little of the defensive demeanor of their American colleagues If professional life is so appealing in Britain, why, then, have many left? What such expatriate British geographers prefer about working in the United States? There were three general categories of response T h e first category stressed the appealing American lifestyle Overall, the responses conveyed a feeling that the United States simply offered a more comfortable, better compensated, and satisfying professional and personal existence zyxw Many respondents said they liked its “efficiency and comfort,” its “social environment,” its “greater opportunities,” and its greater potential for “more advancement both within a department and between universities ” T h e second category focused on internal departmental matters Several respondents felt United States geography departments were less hierarchical For example, they stressed the fact that in America they were allowed “more voice in hiringhenure decisions,” had “more opportunity for leadership,” and that there was “less emphasis on seniority” and “elitist peer pressure.” Addressing the same point, many noted that United States departments “are run more democratically” and are “less parochial than the United Kingdom.” T h e third category of response centered on workday atmosphere T h e most common remark was that the academic world in the United States was “more flexible and informal.” Perhaps as a reaction to the greater individual opportunities here, respondents reported that U.S geographers are “more mutually supportive (compared to Britain which is more ‘cut-throat’).’’ Ironically, the very civility which Americans usually find characteristic of British academe was often termed “suffocating” and “stuffy ” Respondents mentioned that geography in the United States is practiced within a more open environment, with “more energy and dynamism to try new things ” Perhaps the most commonly stated difference between the work environment in the two countries is the lower salaries in Britain and the greater amount of research money in the United States Respondents noted, in particular, the connection between “financial reward and effort.” In response to the question concerning what would improve geography in Britain, better funding was the most common answer, particularly “the restoration of all the cuts that have been made in university since 1979.” T h e quantitative portion of the survey also revealed the opinion that Britain was less supportive of academic research (Table ) Despite the impression of a more congenial and less pressured academic atmosphere in Britain, the flexibility, professional opportunities, informality, greater democracy, and zyx zy zyxwvutsr zyx Operational Geography of Great Britain 303 Table Support for Research ResDonse Cateoorv 1%) zyxwvutsrqpon zyxwvutsrq Which country is more supportive of academic research, Year 0 12 27 29 54 35 29 12 15 29 27 23 1990 1980 1970 Categories: I -Much more in Britain -More in Britain - Abwt the same in United Stales and Britain - More in United States - Much more in United Statrs Downloaded By: [Arizona State University] At: 19:51 16 February 2009 higher pay of the United States continues to exert a strong pull on geographers from Britain Publications and Productivity A central feature of the national geography of Great Britain is its robust publication activity, despite the distractions of budgetary constraints, impressions of less pressure to publish, internal job scarcity, and professional immobility During one five-year period, a faculty of fewer than 20 at a leading English department of geography produced over 30 books, more than 200 articles and almost 150 book chapters No American geography department I can identify can proportionally match this record, especially with regard to books produced Clout (1988) noted this output in his 1988 survey, and it is apparent as well in Table Also apparent is the emphasis on quality over quantity, a refreshing relief from the number-counting which has come to dominate many internal American academic appraisals What is the source of such fertility? The answer cannot lie in greater commitment, personal creativity, organization, or hard work, for these are traits of productive people everywhere It is also not likely that it has much to with smaller teaching loads or greater staff support (except, perhaps, a t the levels of Professor or Reader) Yet there must be some explanation Do they have more time? Are they better trained? Are British geographers just smarter? The explanation might be found in the ratio of geographers to the total number of “slots” available for publication Could this contribute to getting published in the United Kingdom? A definitive answer is elusive, but it is not difficult to show that more space is available in Britain Lee and Evans (1984, 1985) rated American and foreign geography journals on a 5-point scale with being excellent, good, adequate, less-than-adequate, and poor In examining their results for journals with “geography” in the title or journals traditionally used heavily by geographers, they noted that zyxwvu zyx Table Publication Patterns In which country is there more emphasis on publishing books? Where IS quality of publication stressed over quantity of publication? In which country is it more difficult to get published? Response Category (%) 17 24 29 28 38 19 54 38 52 0 0 1990 1980 1970 34 33 32 41 33 36 17 12 8 1990 1980 1970 26 21 13 71 75 65 0 1990 1980 1970 12 0 13 Categories: I - Much more in Britain -More in Britain - About the same in United States and Britain -More in United States - Much more in United States Year zyxwvu zyxwvut zyxwv 304 Volume 44, Number 3, August 1992 13 British journals were given a rating over 3.0: Progress in Human Geography, Progress in Physical Geography, Transactions o f the Institute o f British Geographers,Journal o f Historical Geography, Environment and Planning A , Geographical Journal, Scottish Geographical Magazine, Geoforum, Geograpby, Applied Geography,Journal of Geography in H@er Education, Geographical Magazine, and Geographical Research Forum Ten journals were identified in the United States (not including proceedings and yearbooks): Annals of the Association o f American Geographers, Geographical Review, Economic Geography, Geographical Analysis, The Professional Geographer, Physical Geography, Urban Geography, Journal o f Geography, Southeastern Geographer, and Historical Geography National Geographic is not included here, although Lee and Evans listed it, because it rarely publishes the work of academic geographers If the more recent additions of Environment and Planning B , Environment and Planning C, and Land Use Policy are included on the British side and Environment and Planning D (edited in the United States) is added to the United States side, the numbers are 16 for Great Britain and 11 for the United States If we take the memberships of the Association of American Geographers and the Institute of British Geographers-6,000 compared to 1,500-the ratio is one journal for every 600 in the United States and one for every 94 in Britain, an advantage of 6.4 to for British geographers Even after we discount a liberal 33% for the number of articles in British journals by American geographers, we have better than a to advantage for British geographers on the availability of principal outlets,’ an advantage that is likely to increase with new geography journals appearing with amazing frequency in Britain, while several journals in the United States are now in financial trouble In Britain, books are considered to be the primary place to publish However, respondents thought British publishers were no more responsive to book ideas than in the United States There are, nevertheless, some indications to the contrary No general store in the United States equals the collections of geography books in British bookshops such as Dillon’s, Blackwell’s, Foyles, and Heffer’s No American publishers can match the extensive listing of scholarly geography books of Britain’s Basil Blackwell or Unwin Hyman As Clout (1988, 5) suggests, “the links between publishing houses and professional geographers remain strong, with the discipline enjoying the privilege of having a number of geography graduates who are now commissioning editors.” Downloaded By: [Arizona State University] At: 19:51 16 February 2009 zyxwvuts zyxwv zyxw Conveniences and Facifities There is a greater market for geography publications in Britain, and this must have its origins in the basic national support for the discipline itself Such support provides the geographer with ample conveniences and facilities Britain, especially the London area, is particularly attractive for scholarly research Virtually any place, person, or document in the counrry is either in London or within a day’s return journey of the city Part of London’s unique character stems from its combination as national capital and predominant city No city in the United States can match London’s professional and research conveniences Government agencies, corporate headquarters, book shops, and geographical libraries such as that of the Royal Geographical Society are all in close proximity In contrast, a geographer in the United States wishing to consult our premier geographical collectionthat of the American Geographical Societymust travel to Milwaukee, Wisconsin (where the collection was moved for financial reasons) Another advantage of London is its function as a hub of travel for movements east to Europe and west to North America This central location makes it a convenient meeting place There is no better place to work than London for purposes of gathering research materials, browsing bookstores, consulting government agencies, or having access to field sites Such conveniences of location are part of the operational element of Britain’s geography zyxwvuts Employment Patterns Geographers tend to find four different types of work: government, research establishments, the private sector, and educational institutions The academic sector has reached saturation in Britain, at least at the university level There is little opportunity for movement between universities or even within departments Such immobility is particularly notable at the rank of Professor because common policy more se- Downloaded By: [Arizona State University] At: 19:51 16 February 2009 Operational Geography of Great Britain verely limits the number of people at that rank within a single department than in the United States Such restrictions help prompt emigration to United States departments, especially by talented people who see only dim prospects for advancement in Britain In this manner, British policy and economic conditions influence the job market in the United States As in the United States, British geographers work outside academe, but apparently not as much as many of the survey respondents would prefer This opinion was expressed often in response to the last open-ended question which asked respondents to identify any remaining shortcomings in British geography T h e most frequent response was that there was “not enough concern for applied geography.” Several people pointed out that there is “too little training in applications beyond the academic sphere.” This response seems paradoxical in view of the boost applied geography has received from the initiation and continued publication of the British journal Applied Geography zy z 305 Other aspects, however, can be exchanged We could give more essay exams (having Britain’s system of external readers would encourage this), more field experiences, more challenging reading and discussion, and more attention to geography in college preparatory curricula We could beat the “publish or perish” drum more softly to free up some time for other things For their part, the British could pay more attention to their students and broaden student experiences, thereby giving the students more classroom time and guidance as they move through the M.A and Ph.D programs The British could be more responsive to new ideas and more flexible about making useful changes, and edge a bit closer to fuller democracy within departments The most important thing we can learn from the study of operational geography is that there exists a breadth of alternatives to our approach Knowing the operational characteristics of these alternatives can be a first step toward improving ourselves We might also become aware that high productivity and a more relaxed lifestyle are not necessarily incompatible Most positively, we can come to appreciate that the very system in which we in the United States now toil is not as flawed as we sometimes think it is Why else would so many people be interested in coming here? In addition to all these positive attributes, the study of operational geography can be a benefit to students interested in studying abroad We could suggest to them, for example, that a particularly effective approach to their education could be to take the B.A degree in Britain, but acquire the M.A and Ph.D degrees in the United States Another change we might wish to consider is the merit of a more standardized approach to geographic education Many respondents thought the United States should move closer to the British model, and this seems to be a sensible goal Most of all, a study of operational geography in different countries can help us understand that, despite instinctive and historical linkages among various national bodies of geographers around the world, its professional practice does develop somewhat differently from one country to another These differences are largely linked to variations in physical and cultural infrastructure Subject matter, zyxwvu zyxwvuts Conclusions The study of operational geography helps us understand the interplay of collegial, educational, historical, political, and social conditions within which we geographers work It communicates a sense of the discipline, its “ambiance,” which encompasses everything from the degree of personal satisfaction to the depth of scientific contribution When we conduct such studies abroad, we gain a comparative perspective for observation and reflection upon our own system Once we know the similarities and differences between such alternative approaches, we can evaluate effectiveness and deficiencies with an eye toward mutual improvement Whereas there seems to be reciprocal advantages to such blending, some of the traits that I have noted in this article are features of the culture and are difficult to transfer For example, whereas we may learn that restrictive student selection can result in higher average performance in the classroom, this system is tied to a national-level decision we have not been willing to make in the United States; in fact, we have chosen to move in the opposite direction zyxwvu Downloaded By: [Arizona State University] At: 19:51 16 February 2009 306 zyxwvu zyxwv Volume 44, Number 3, August 1992 methodology, philosophy, application, and the various elements that make up operational geography are all tied strongly to problems and interests internal to each individual country When geographers practice their profession in other countries, they bring along their disciplinary and related national backgrounds T h e more people who make these journeys, the more likely and complete the transfer and mix will be In such circumstances, it becomes increasingly important for all parties to understand, as John K Wright might phrase it, that w e are all members of the same family, descendants as well as ancestors, and that we can all learn from one another-even at the operational level W another exam in three subjects is taken, the “ A levels The results of this exam determine whether the student will go to university or not and what subject he or she will study ’The total number of articles and pages in articles in a year’s publication of the United States and British zyxwvuts zyxwvuts Notes ‘As an example, Ronald Johnston of the University of Sheffield was honored in 9 by the Association of American Geographers for his contribution to the discipline journals is approximately the same proportion Literature Cited Abler, R 1989 The Redcoats keep coming Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Association of American Geographers, Baltimore, Maryland Boardman, D 1987 Politically controversial issues in the GCSE: The case of nuclear power Teaching Geography 12(3): 100-04 Clout, H 1988 British Scientific Literature on Geography 1984-1988 Edgecliff, UK: The British Council Drdos, Jan 1991 Slovak geography: Its history and current status The Profesrional Geographer 43(3):356-58 Fotheringham, A S 1984 Geography in the United Kingdom The Profeerrional Geographer zyxwvu ’In view of the notoriety which British geographer immigration gets, I was surprised to find only 61 persons listed as members of the AAG One would of course hope for a larger sample The break-down was: all-British educated, working in U.S = 29; Americans with a degree from Britain, now working in the U.S = ; British and American-educated, working in U.S = 19 Of course, these are the people who have left, not the ones who have stayed Accordingly, they might tend to be more critical of Britain To be on the safe side in interpreting these data, I have used only the results which were heavily weighed to a particular response ’Some clarificationof these terms seems appropriate Universities include the elite Cambridge and Oxford-roughly similar to Ivy League universities in the United States-plus the older regional universities such as Birmingham and the newer regional universities such as Sussex Polytechnics are more numerous and local Although student qualification is less demanding as one drops from Oxbridge to the polytechnics, average student quality is higher than in the United States, largely because the whole selection process is much more demanding In my experience, polytechnic students are approximately comparable to the better upper division students in a well-respected public university in the United States, and almost as good as typical masters students in the same institution 4A high school student has to pass at least five subjects at “0”level when age 15 to get into the two years of sixth form (grades 12 and 13), after which 36:482-86 Grosvenor, G M 1988 Those Panamanian pandas The New Ywk Times, July Haigh, M J 1985 Geography in the United Kingdom 11: The public sector The Professional Geographer 37:345-48 Lee, D., and A Evans 1984 American geographers’ ranking of American geography journals The Professional Geographer 36(3):292-300 Lee, D., and A Evans 1985 Geographers’ rankings of foreign geography and non-geography journals The Professional Geographer 37(4):396402 Leslie, C 1988 Lost on the planet Earth Newsweek, August, Marcus, M G 1987 New Zealand geography from a distance In Southern Approacbes: Geography in New Zealand, ed P G Holland and W B Johnston, 2+30 Christchurch, NZ: New Zealand Geographical Society Mikesell, M W 1973 Geographers Abroad: Essays ~2 the Prospects of Research in Foreign Areas Chicago: Department of Geography, University of Chicago, Research Paper 152 Naish, M., E Rawling, and C Hart 1987 Geography 16-1 9: The Contribution of a Curriculum Development Project to 16-19 Education, London: Longman Pabst, D 1987 Geographic ignorance: Time for a turnaround Teaching Geography 12: 175-76 Rawling, E., M Williams, H Ward, and T Binns, 1988 Comments from the Geographical Association on the HMI Discussion Paper Geography from to 16 Geography , Part I:41-46 zyxw zy z zyxwvut Avalanche Climatology Salter, C L 1987 The nature and potential of a geographic alliance Journal of Geography 86:2 11IS Walford, R 1989a Geography and the national curriculum: A chronicle and commentary Area 1:161-66 Walford, R 1989b personal correspondence Walford, R and Williams, M 1986 Geography and the school curriculum: T h e recent role of the Geographical Association Area 17: 17-2 l Wright, J K 1966 What’s “American” about American geography? In Human Nature in Geogra- 307 phy, ed J K Wright, 124-29 Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press Downloaded By: [Arizona State University] At: 19:51 16 February 2009 zyxwvut MARTIN J PASQUALETTI (Ph.D., University of California, Riverside) is Professor of Geography at Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287 In addition to his interest in British geography, he specializes in the spatial relationships between energy and the environment, particularly energy and land use Current work has concentrated on nuclear power plant decommissioning zyxw zyxwvuts Avalanche Climatology of the Western United States, with an Emphasis on Aka, Utah* Cary J Mock University of Oregon Paul A Kay Univem’tyof Nebraska Climate and snowpack characteristics of avalanches vary spatially across the western United States, distinguishing three regions The coastal mountain ranges have warmer, denser snow; interior (continental) ranges have colder, less-dense snow; and intermountain ranges have intermediate characteristics Avalanche character of Alta, Utah, is related to eastern Pacific 700-mb height anomalies for December, January, and March, but not for February Avalanche conditions around Aka not always relate to localized pressure gradient winds for December and February Key Words: avalanche, Aka, synoptic climatology, 700-mb heights, pressure gradient Introduction T he potential hazard of snow avalanches in the western United States has increased in the past several decades due to the growing popularity of snow sports, increasing numbers of mountain residents, and the spreading network of transportation routes in higher elevations (White and Haas 1975; Armstrong and Williams 1986; Voight 1990) Avalanches destroy homes, property, and roads, disrupt transportation, and occasionally cause deaths Skiers are particularly vulnerable when they venture outside of controlled ski areas Risk of exposure to avalanches is high at ski resorts due to the concentration of people at these sites (White and Haas 1975; Smith 1988) Annual numbers of avalanche accidents and fatalities in the United States have increased steadily, with the average annual fatality rate of 17 by the mid-1980s being more than four times greater than the average rate in the early 1950s (Armstrong 1984; Armstrong and Williams 1986) Reliable advance warnings of avalanches, therefore, would prove useful Variations in weather during a season affect tendencies of the snowpack toward either failure or increased stability (Perla and Martinelli 1978, 7) Site-specific statistical models that use daily meteorological and snowpack data can be applied to estimate local avalanche activity (e.g., Bovis 1977) However, such models are not available for some locations, and they must still be supplemented with conventional and intuitive methods to achieve accurate forecasting (Voight 1990) Analyses of snowpack and weather data at the regional scale can also provide additional useful infor- zyxwvuts zyxwvuts *Wegratefully acknowledge the help of Kirk Nichols during early phases of data collection and analysis, Knox Williams of the U.S Forest Service’s Westwide Avalanche Network for help in obtaining the data, Pat Barrlein for his helpful comments, the snow safety permnnel of Alta and Snowbird ski areas, and the staff of the Utah Avalanche Forecast Center Professional Geographer, 44(3) 1992, pages 307-318 Copyright 1992 by Association of American Geographers Initial submission, November 9 ; final acceptance, February 1992  ... geography, ” or ? ?geography in the trenches.” I call it ? ?operational geography. ” Operational geography is one of the five components of the larger “national geography? ?? of a country The other four are... facilities; and employment The goal of operational geography is to provide the basis for blending the strengths of different systems of geography which have much to offer one another This article uses... February 2009 Operational Geography of Great Britain 299 versity students in Britain were linked to what ness of the disciplinary focus Geography stumany call Britain? ??s “national geography curric-