EVALUATING SECOND LANGUAGE VOCABULARY AND GRAMMAR INSTRUCTION Providing a much-needed critical synthesis of research on teaching vocabulary and grammar to students of a second or foreign language, this book puts the research into perspective in order to distil recommendations for language teaching Boers evaluates a comprehensive range of both well-established and lesser-known research strands and classroom practices to draw out the most effective instructional approaches to teaching words, multiword expressions and grammar patterns Chapters discuss learning as a by-product of communicative activities, language-focused instruction, diverse types of exercises, mnemonic techniques and more, with a view to building bridges between the available research on such instructional approaches and how they are commonly implemented in actual language courses and textbooks This book helps teachers make research-informed decisions regarding their instructional approaches to words, phrases and patterns, and directs researchers to specific areas in need of further inquiry Boers not only demonstrates how research findings can inform effective teaching, but also calls for a deeper appreciation on the part of researchers of the realities of the teaching profession, making this a worthwhile text for preservice teachers, teacher educators, graduate students and scholars Frank Boers is Professor of Applied Linguistics and TESOL at University of Western Ontario, Canada EVALUATING SECOND LANGUAGE VOCABULARY AND GRAMMAR INSTRUCTION A Synthesis of the Research on Teaching Words, Phrases, and Patterns Frank Boers First published 2021 by Routledge 52 Vanderbilt Avenue, New York, NY 10017 and by Routledge Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2021 Taylor & Francis The right of Frank Boers to be identified as author of this work has been asserted by him in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 All rights reserved No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Boers, Frank, author Title: Evaluating second language vocabulary and grammar instruction : a synthesis of the research on teaching words, phrases, and patterns / Frank Boers Description: New York, NY : Routledge, 2021 | Includes bibliographical references and index | Identifiers: LCCN 2020043562 (print) | LCCN 2020043563 (ebook) | ISBN 9780367437664 (hardback) | ISBN 9780367437657 (paperback) | ISBN 9781003005605 (ebook) Subjects: LCSH: Language and languages Study and teaching Foreign speakers | Second language acquisition | Vocabulary Study and teaching | Grammar, Comparative and general Study and teaching | Teaching Methodology Classification: LCC P53 B637 2021 (print) | LCC P53 (ebook) | DDC 418.0071 dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020043562 LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020043563 ISBN: 978-0-367-43766-4 (hbk) ISBN: 978-0-367-43765-7 (pbk) ISBN: 978-1-003-00560-5 (ebk) Typeset in Bembo by Taylor & Francis Books In loving memory of Lucienne Boers-Schroyens, who taught me to question everything CONTENTS Author Biography ix PART I INTRODUCTION 1 The Aim, Scope and Organization of This Book Estimating the Chances of Incidental Acquisition 17 PART II IMPROVING THE CHANCES OF INCIDENTAL ACQUISITION 37 Enhancing Textual Input 39 From Input to Output (and Back Again) 69 PART III LANGUAGE-FOCUSED LEARNING 89 Evaluating the Merits of Inferencing and Discovery Learning 91 What Practice Makes (Almost) Perfect (and for What Purpose)? 126 Making it Stick 158 viii Contents PART IV CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS 189 Taking Stock 191 Avenues 207 Index 214 AUTHOR BIOGRAPHY Frank Boers is a Professor in Applied Linguistics and TESOL at the University of Western Ontario, Canada Before joining Western, he worked at various schools and universities in Belgium and at Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand His early publications were in the field of Linguistics, but his current interests stem from his extensive experience as a language teacher and teacher trainer He now publishes mostly about instructed second/foreign language learning 210 Avenues teachers consider such time investment truly ecologically valid? Might language teachers not also comment that they would find a combination of or more activities more suitable? When researchers want to compare the learning outcome of an innovative instructional procedure to that of another, more conventional procedure, then consulting language teachers may also help to verify that the latter is indeed considered conventional and that the way it is designed for the purpose of the experiment resembles how it is normally applied by teachers If not, chances are that the innovative procedure will be found superior merely because the so-called conventional procedure was implemented in a questionable, unconventional way A less direct way of investigating how vocabulary and grammar are approached in language courses is to examine popular L2 textbooks or course books This is an indirect way, because not all teachers use such resources and those who may not follow them to the letter Still, textbooks remain the backbone of many language courses, and, for publishers to successfully market a textbook it will need to accord sufficiently with teachers’ beliefs about what “works” An examination of textbooks also makes one realize that it is very rare for a segment of vocabulary or a certain grammar pattern to be tackled through just one single teaching step or one single activity in a language course As pointed out in chapter 8, textbooks typically make use of an ensemble of teaching steps and activities Researchers understandably wish to isolate the effect of a specific intervention, and that may be one of the reasons why so many experimental studies implement one single intervention in comparison to a no-intervention condition and/or in comparison to another treatment which also involves just one single intervention It is quite conceivable, however, that the relative effectiveness of a given treatment changes when it is part of an ensemble Educators may therefore be especially interested in the cumulative effects of different ensembles, including the ensembles proposed by textbooks Researching this does not preclude the possibility of isolating the contribution made by a specific component of the ensemble One could examine how a textbook approaches a given grammar pattern, modify one of the components, and compare learning outcomes from the modified version to those from the original version For example, the textbook might be one which deals with a given grammar pattern deductively, and a researcher interested in the merits of guided inductive learning might adapt this component so that learners are invited to discover the pattern themselves (chapter 5) The textbook may be one where much of the languagefocused practice consists of find-the-error exercises, and a researcher who feels sceptical about the usefulness of such exercises could substitute these by another exercise type (chapter 6) In case target items lend themselves to one or the other mnemonic technique (chapter 7), this could be introduced as a new variable as well Researchers who feel sceptical of decontextualized practice altogether may want to try replacing this by additional content-focused activities (chapter 4) The textbook may include an activity where learners can simply copy or imitate items Avenues 211 from an input text, and a researcher may want to modify this so the learners need to retrieve the items from memory instead (chapter 6) The textbook may suggest communicative output activities with opportunities for using certain lexical items or patterns, and a researcher interested in the benefits of task repetition might decide to have the learners one of them twice instead of doing each activity once (chapter 4) And so on An additional research option is to investigate whether changing the sequence of the activities that make up the ensemble makes a difference What would of course remain crucial to be able to determine cause-effect relations in such research projects is that the ensembles being compared differ in just one clearly defined respect, and that the total amount of time invested in implementing the different versions stays comparable If the latter condition is not met, then one might be able to make the claim that ensemble X is more effective than ensemble Y for a certain purpose, but if the former required considerably more time to complete, then it would not be justified to claim that it is also more efficient I am by no means suggesting that research of the above kind should supplant existing strands Researchers may even feel hesitant to embark on it, because the cumulative contribution to learning by the shared components may override the effect of the single component that was manipulated for the comparison, and so the likelihood of finding significantly different outcomes seems slim (and researchers may feel concerned that non-significant findings are hard to publish) However, I believe it is the kind of research that may forge a closer collaboration between researchers and educators But Don’t Take My Word for it Above, I mentioned state-of-the-art reviews as one of the sources that professional development providers can turn to in order to stay informed about developments in our discipline The book you have been reading was intended to be such a stateof-the-art review, albeit with a much broader scope than the typical review articles found in academic journals It is different from systematic review articles also in the sense that space was available for me to describe empirical studies in enough detail to evaluate the procedures used and to put the findings into perspective While I have tried to cover a lot of ground in this book, it is important to realize that it remains far from comprehensive or exhaustive (see chapter 1) Many more studies could have been included, but I have focused on ones published in the key journals of our discipline, and even within that range I must have missed numerous relevant publications Besides, as explained in the introductory chapter, I have reviewed only studies which included a comparative dimension, that is, studies that evaluate the merits of a certain intervention relative to a control and/ or comparison condition It is also vital to realize that a comment I made above about narrative reviews applies to this work, too—I have not just described research but have also interpreted it and evaluated the practical implications My 212 Avenues interpretations and evaluations are inevitably influenced by my individual history as a language learner, linguist, language teacher, teacher trainer, researcher, parent of multilingual children and much more They are influenced by the views of scholars and colleagues that I admire and by the reflections about language learning and teaching that many generations of students have generously shared with me Others may look at the same collections of studies through their own lens and may as a result paint a picture in shades different from mine In the time span between publication of this book and the moment you decided (or were told) to read it, many new relevant empirical studies will undoubtedly have become available The chapters presenting systematic reviews in this book will thus no longer be “state-of-the-art” I hope the book will nonetheless serve as a useful, critical synthesis of the research published between the late 1990s and 2020, and make it easier for you to understand and situate the work that has followed More importantly, though, I hope the book has left you not only with answers to some questions (be they research questions, practical questions concerning pedagogy or—preferably—both), but also with a healthy curiosity to seek answers to questions which our discipline has not yet properly answered I mentioned in the introductory chapter that I thought the time was ripe for a research synthesis such as this, because I was (perhaps naïvely) hopeful that, considering the fast proliferation of empirical studies in the past decades, enough progress had been made to answer most of the questions about vocabulary and grammar instruction that I pondered myself as a language teacher and have often been asked as a teacher trainer Progress has certainly been made, and many questions can now be answered in a cautiously nuanced manner At the same time, it needs to be recognized that there is plenty of work left to be done References Benati, A (2019) Classroom-oriented research: Processing Instruction (findings and implications) Language Teaching, 52, 343–359 https://doi.org/10.1017/S0261444817000386 Boers, F., Bryfonski, L., Faez, F., & McKay, T (2020) A call for cautious interpretation of meta-analytic reviews Studies in Second Language Acquisition Online early view https:// doi.org/10.1017/S0272263120000327 Bryfonski, L., & McKay, T H (2019) TBLT implementation and evaluation: A meta-analysis Language Teaching Research, 23, 603–632 https://doi.org/10.1177/1362168817744389 DeKeyser, R., & Botana, G P (2015) The effectiveness of Processing Instruction in L2 grammar acquisition: A narrative review Applied Linguistics, 36, 290–305 https://doi org/10.1093/applin/amu071 Marsden, E., & Kasprowicz, R (2017) Foreign language educators’ exposure to research: Reported experiences, exposure via citations, and a proposal for action The Modern Language Journal, 101, 613–642 https://doi.org/10.1111/modl.12426 Norris, J M., & Ortega, L (2006) The value and practice of research synthesis for language learning and teaching In J M Norris & L Ortega (Eds.), Synthesizing research on language learning and teaching (pp 1–50) John Benjamins OASIS—Open Accessible Summaries in Language Studies https://oasis-database.org/about Avenues 213 Oswald, F L., & Plonsky, L (2010) Meta-analysis in second language research: Choices and challenges Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 30, 85–110 https://doi.org/10 1017/S0267190510000115 Shintani, N (2015) The effectiveness of Processing Instruction and Production-based instruction on L2 grammar acquisition: A meta-analysis Applied Linguistics, 36, 306–325, https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/amu067 INDEX Abraham, L B 45, 63 Acha, J 47, 63 Achard, M 184, 186 Acklam, R 105, 122, 138, 141, 152, 195, 199, 205 Adams, R 77, 83 adverbs 23, 28, 35, 78, 110, 144–5, 195 Ahmadian, M J 74, 83 Ahn, J 32 Akbulut, Y 48, 63 Alali, F A 138, 151 Alba, M 178–9, 186 Alderson J C., 16 Alexopoulou T., 26, 34 Aline, D., 156 alliteration 24, 31, 96, 159, 172–3, 180–1, 183, 185 Ammar, A 72, 83, 160, 182 Amor, A 183 Anderson, J R 12, 15, 126, 151 Anderson, R W 48, 65 annotations see glosses Arnaud, P J L 64 articles 5, 13, 23, 26, 29, 60, 79, 109–10, 113, 115 articulation see pronunciation assonance see rhyme Atkinson, R C 176, 182 Audio-Lingual Method 142 audiovisual input 19, 23, 33–4, 41, 45, 48, 51, 61–2, 65–6, 77, 79, 87, 106, 201 Aue, W R 153 Ayỗiỗeg i, A 25, 31 Bahrick, H P 127, 132, 134, 151 Balakumar, M 47, 66 Ballard, L 32 Baralt, M 75, 83 Barcroft, J 131, 136, 151, 159, 179, 181–2 Barfield, A 123–4 Barnden, J 95, 123 Barsky, D 32 Batziou, M 112, 120 Bauer, L 20, 31 Bejoint, H 64 Beliaeva, N 122 Bell, P 184 Benati, A 16, 111–2, 114, 120, 197–8, 204, 208, 212 Benson, S D 75, 83 Bensoussan, M 27, 31, 42, 63 Beréndi, M 163, 182 Bergsleithner, J M 32 Bestgen, Y 7, 15 Bigelow, M 80, 84 Bhatia, T 16, 85 Bimmel, P 87, 206 Bird, S 143, 149, 151 Bjork, Robert A 12, 15, 91, 114, 127, 132, 151 Bjork, Elizabeth L 91, 114, 132, 151 Bley-Vroman, R 74–5, 85 Bloom, K C 132, 151 Index 215 Bogaards, P 27, 31, 121, 154, 183 Boers, F 14–5, 16, 23, 32–3, 50, 63, 65, 102, 104, 120–5, 153, 167, 184–6, 208– 9, 212; and collocation exercises 99–101, 140, 151, 196, 205; and figurative idioms 95–7, 163–4, 171, 182, 183, 187; and glossing 45, 47, 49, 63, 67; and phonological repetition 24, 31, 172, 180, 183; and phrasal verbs 98–9, 134, 140, 156, 166; and speaking tasks 73, 77–8, 83–7, 139, 156 Borg, S 15 Boston, J S 75, 83 Botana, G P 111–2, 122, 208, 212 Boulton, A 104, 108, 121 Bourne, L E J 154–5 Bovée, A G 168, 183 Bowdle, B 14–5, 163, 184 Braaksma, M 87, 206 Bransford, J D 154, 185 Brindley, G 34 Brumfit, C J 72, 83 Brunfaut, T 16 Bryfonski, L 120, 208, 212 Brysbaert, M 25, 31, 33 Bui, Gavin 73, 83 Bui, Thuy 103, 121, 204–5 Butler, A C 127, 155 Bygate, M 75, 83, 86 Bygrave, J 122, 152, 184, 205 Cadierno, T 116, 125 Cameron, Lynne 183 Cameron, Richard 67, 86 Campos, A 177–8, 183 Candry, S 130, 151, 179, 183 captions 19, 31–4, 41, 45, 51, 61–6, 78, 206 Cara, A 121 Cardoso W 31 Carpenter S K 92, 121, 168, 183 Carter, R 52, 67 case markers 79, 106, 109–10, causative construction 57, 60 –1, 112, 120, 197–8, 204 Cavalcanti, M 183 Cepeda, N J 132, 134, 151, 156 Cerezo, L 106, 121 Cermak, L S 158, 183 Chan, M 112, 121 Chang, A C.-S 23, 31, 68 characters see logographic script Chen, Chuntien 41, 63 Chen, Hsin-Ying 110, 114, 124 Chen, Phyllis Trautman 95, 123 Chen, Yuzhen 46, 63, 100, 121 Cheng, Y.-H 44–5, 63 Cheung, A 132–3, 155 Cho, K 169–70, 183 Choi, I 32 Choi, S 51, 54, 63–4 choose-the-correct-option exercises 47, 55, 99, 101, 106, 110–5, 140–2, 149, 170, 193, 200; see also multiple-choice exercises Cintrón-Valentín, M 19, 24, 31, 42, 61, 63, 117, 121 Clarebout, G 33, 66 Clarke, D F 118–9, 122 closed-class words see function words Coady, J 33 Cobb, T 32, 64, 104, 108, 121 Coburn, N 151 codeswitching 67–8, 159, 186–7 cognates 26–7, 29, 31, 35, 136 cognitive effort 12, 46, 49, 77, 91, 97, 105–7, 114, 127–38, 145 Cognitive Grammar 8, 16 Cognitive Semantics 166–71 Cole, S P 122, 125 Collins, L 21, 28, 31–2, 70, 86, 143, 152, 187 collocations 7, 13, 16, 22, 26, 33–5, 49–52, 63, 66–8, 99–105, 108, 221–5, 138, 140, 151, 156–7, 160–1, 166, 172, 185–7, 205 Combs, C 64 Communicative Language Teaching 72, 85, 152 communicative activities 10–1, 17–8, 39, 69–75, 82, 85, 118, 127, 139–42, 150, 191–193, 196, 201–2, 211 communication gap 73–74, 86 comparative construction, 20, 74–5, 105 comparing and contrasting with L1, 159–62, 180 comparing and contrasting within L2, 143, 148–9 completion exercise see fill-in-the-blanks exercise complexity 24–5, 59, 87, 105, 107, 114, 121, 124, 136, 145, 156 composition writing 80, 128–9, 157 compounds 172, 175, 185 comprehensible input 10, 22–23, 29, 45, 47, 69, 95, 108, 193, 199 216 Index concrete vs abstract meaning 5, 7, 25, 29, 33, 41, 48, 136, 162–3, 167–168, 175, 177, 195 conditionals 24–5, 80, 86, 108, 146, 170–1, 175, 184 Condon, N 166, 183 conjugation see inflectional morphology Conklin, K 15, 34 Connabeer, R 85 consolidation of knowledge 44, 69, 72–5, 99, 106–7, 115, 126–57, 158–87, 191, 202 Content-and-Language-Integrated Learning 201 content words 5, 13–4, 23, 78, 83, 109–10, 119, 171, 195 contextual clues 22–4, 27, 41–2, 46, 52, 59, 65, 92–5, 101, 118–9, 131, 156, 164, 193 Construction Grammar 8, 15 Cook, Allison E 186 Cook, Guy 16, 86 Cook, Vivian 159, 184 Cooper, T C 95, 122 corpus-based examples 61, 103–4, 108–9, 121, 123 corpus frequency 20–2, 29, 31–2, 35, 42, 52, 94–97, 108, 122, 124, 160, 164–5, 171 course books for language learners see textbooks for language learners Coxhead, A 121, 125, 151, 205 Crace, A 105, 122, 138, 141, 152, 195, 199, 205 Craik, F I M 158, 183–4 cramming 132, 138, 151–4; see also practice schedules Criado, R 140, 152 Crookes, G 85 Csábi, S 166, 182, 184 Cui, Y 32 Cunningham, S 105, 122, 141, 146, 152, 170, 184, 199–200, 205 Dancygier, B 170, 184 Dang, T C T 120, 151 Data-Driven Learning 104, 108, 121–125 Davies, M 20, 31, 97, 122 Day, R R 46, 65 DeCarrico, J 7, 16 declarative knowledge 11–12, 81, 122, 126, 139–40, 158, 182 Decloedt, J 151, 183 Deconinck, J 63, 151, 174, 184 deductive learning 12, 105–9, 116, 120–125, 210 de Groot, A M B 25, 31 de Jong, N 139, 152 de la Fuente, M J 71, 84 DeKeyser, R M 12, 15, 69, 83, 111–2, 118, 122, 127, 140, 145, 152, 156, 208, 212 De Knop, S 16, 123, 125, 183 Della Putta, P 55, 60, 63 Demecheleer, M 50, 63, 121, 151, 183, 205 De Ridder, I 45, 63 derivational morphology 5, 20 De Rycker, A 16, 123, 125, 183 desirable difficulties 91, 120, 127, 132, 136, 151 Desmet, P 33, 66 Deweerdt, J-P 22, 34 Dickhäuser, O 153 dictionary use 46, 63–5, 100, 103–4, 118–9, 121–3, 164, 193 dictogloss 76–8, 81, 85, 124–5, 150, 198; see also text reconstruction Dieter, J 130, 156 Dimidio, J 122 Direct Method 159, 168, 183 distributed practice see spacing Djigunovic, J M 183 Dobao, A F 77, 84 Doughty, C 5, 15, 32, 152, 205 drill 106, 139, 142, 198, Dual Coding Theory 48–9, 66, 167–8 Dziemianko, A 46, 64, 100, 122 Eckerth, J 127, 129, 152 Egbert, J 27, 32 Elgort, I 12, 15, 19, 21, 23, 31, 52, 67, 92, 93–4, 122, 151 Ellis, Nick C 19, 23–4, 27, 28, 31–2, 35, 63, 117, 121 Ellis, Rod 11, 15, 64, 72, 75, 84–6, 115, 122–3, 153, 198–9, 205 entrenchment of knowledge see consolidation of knowledge Erdfelder, E 153 Erlam, R 107, 114–5, 122 Erman, B 7, 15 Erten, I H 136, 152 essay writing see composition writing Estes, Z 33 etymology 121, 166, 180–6 Evans, V 165, 186 Index 217 explicit grammar explanations 12, 18, 56, 61–2, 81–2, 110, 111–6, 122–125, 150, 161–2, 171, 192, 195–7 Eyckmans, J 63, 85, 102, 121–2, 125, 151, 172–3, 183–4 eye-tracking 21, 34, 43–7, 55–8, 60, 64, 67, 84, 120, 123, 149, 197, 204–5 Faez, F 66, 120, 212 Farley, A P 125, 168, 184 Farrell, T S C 14–5 feedback 9, 11, 16, 69–73, 79, 82–7, 91–3, 97–100, 106, 110, 114–5, 121, 124, 131–7, 141, 144–8, 169–70, 193, 198, 220, 205; and recasts, 71–2, 79, 82–83, 86, 204 fill-in-the-blanks exercise 49, 55, 98–103, 111, 129–131, 139, 141–2, 147, 160, 161–3, 170 find-and-correct-the-error-exercise 54–5, 81, 140–2, 144–5, 149–50, 170, 196, 202 Finkbeiner, M 136, 152 flashcards 131–2, 153 fluency 9, 11, 16, 82, 87, 125, 139, 152, 156, 201 Folse, K S 129, 152 Fong, Y.-Y 97, 123 Foss, P 65 Foster, P 23, 32, 84 Foster-Cohen, S H 183 Franks, J J 154, 185 Freeborn, D 6, 15 frequent encounters see repeated encounters Frota, S N 32 Fujii, A 71, 84 Fukuya, Y J 26, 33 Fukuta, J 73, 84 function words 5, 13, 23, 109–110, 116 Gallini, J K 48, 65 gap-fill exercises see fill-in-the-blanks exercise García-Amaya, L 31, 63 García Mayo, M d P 70, 84, 154 Gardner, D 97, 122 Garnier, M 28, 32, 97, 122 Gass, S 85 Gatbonton, E 139, 152 Gentner, D 14–15, 163, 184 Ghominejad, S 83 Gibbs, R 15, 184 Gilabert, R 83 Girsai, N 138, 153, 160, 173, 185 glosses, 10, 18, 43–9, 59, 62–68, 86, 94, 103, 123, 127–9, 193–4, 205; and hyperlinks, 45, 63; and multimodal glosses, 47–8, 63, 66, 168; and multiplechoice glosses, 46–7, 67–8, 86, 193 Godfroid, A 9, 15, 17, 19, 21, 32 Goldberg, A 8, 15 González, M A 183 Good, R L 44–5, 63 Gorman, M 198–9, 205 Gowdasiaei, F 136, 152 Graham, S 43, 68, 160, 173, 187 Grammar-Translation Method 160 grammaticality judgement test 54–59, 81, 144–6, 148–9 Granena, G 8, 16 Greidanus, T 64 Griffin, G F 135, 138, 152 Grimshaw, G 45, 47, 63, 67 group work 70–7, 84–6, 150, 155; see also pair work guessing 18–9, 22, 31, 33, 41–4, 50, 55, 58–67, 91–100, 112–5, 118–25, 131, 151, 164, 174, 203 guided inductive learning 12, 86, 105–111, 114–6, 120, 121–5, 199, 202, 210 Gutierrez Mangado, M J 154 Gyllstad, H 26, 35, 123–4 Haight, C 106–7, 122 Hall, Graham 159, 184 Hall, Lynda K 132, 134, 151 Halter, R H 152 Han, Z 59, 61, 64, 153 Harley, T A 135, 138, 152 Harris, C 25, 31 Hashemi, M R 136, 152 Hashimoto, B J 27, 32 Hatami, S 19, 32 Haywood, S 102–3 He, L 63 Healy, A F 130, 154–5 Helms-Park, R 77, 85 Hennebry, M 43, 64 Henry, N 113–6, 122 Herron, C 105, 114, 122, 125 Heynen, E 34 Hidalgo, M A 70, 84 Hill, M 45–6, 64–5 Ho, V 187, 206 Hoang, H 78, 84 Hollander, M 64 218 Index Horst, M 19, 31–2, 40, 64, 160, 184 Hoshino, Y 136, 152 Housen, A 32, 125 Hu, H.-C M 22, 32 Hu, Y.-H 97, 123 Huang, Hsiao‐Yun 19, 35 Huang, Lo-Li 45, 64, 94, 123 Hubbard, E M 174, 186 Huckin, T 33 Hull, J 124, 155, 206 Hulme, R C 19, 32 Hulstijn, J H 17, 32, 35, 43, 46, 64–6, 128–9, 152–156, 194, 205 Hummel, K M 197, 205 Hunter, A.-M 83 Hyland, Ken 9, 16 Hyland, Fiona 9, 16 iconicity, 173–5, 180 idioms, 7, 13, 25, 35, 50, 53, 95–7, 101, 121–123, 138, 156, 164, 171–2, 179, 181–7 Imai, M 174, 184 imageability 25, 35, 48–9, 156, 162–7, 180–2 images see pictures Inceoglu, S 57–8, 65 Inclezan, D 125 Indrarathne, B 57, 61, 64, 81, 84, 116, 123, 195, 197, 199, 205 inferencing see guessing inflectional morphology 13, 20–7, 33–35, 58–9, 109–13, 116–7, 123, 145–7, 153–6, 195, 205; see also plurality information gap see communication gap Input Hypothesis 10 input modality 19, 21–23, 31–35, 39, 67 intensive programmes 142–3, 152 Interaction Hypothesis 10–12, 23, 32, 70–4, 77, 83–6, 104, 118 interference 29, 91–2, 96–7, 122, 136–8, 141, 144, 148, 161, 170, 175, 177 interleaving 132–7, 147, 154 interlingual (in)congruency 26–9, 33, 160–2, 173, 176 intralingual (in)consistency 20, 27–9, 41 Ishii, T 136, 152 Issa, B 56–7, 64 item learning 4–7, 58 Iwashita, N 71, 86 Izumi, S 76, 80, 84, 194, 205 Izumi, Y 76, 84 Jackson, C N 122 Jacobson, N D 170–1, 184, 198, 205 Jahan, A 55, 58, 64 Jiang, N 26, 33 Job, R 35 Joe, A 77, 84, 129, 152 Johns, T 104, 123 Johnson, Keith 72, 83, 140, 153 Johnson, Mark 97, 123, 163, 185 Johnston, Malcolm 34 Johnston, Suzanne 32 Jones, Ceri 105, 123, 141, 153, 160, 170, 184, 195, 199–200, 205 Jones, Linda C 48, 64 Jones, Martha 102, 123 Jung, J 44, 59, 64 Kagimoto, E 138, 157 Kang, Eun Young 23, 33 Kang, Hyeonah 43, 64 Kang, Hyun-Sook 86 Kang, Sean H K 133–4 Kantartzis, K 174, 184 Kapler, I V 156 Kappel, J 121 Karpicke, J D 127, 131, 153, 155 Kartchava, E 9, 16, 69, 84–5 Kasprowicz, R 15–6, 113, 116, 123, 145, 153, 196, 205, 207, 212 Keating, G D 128–9, 153 Keijzer, R 25, 31 Kerr, P 105, 123, 141, 153, 160, 170, 184, 195, 199–200, 205 keyword method 176–87 Khezrlou, S 45, 64, 195, 205 Kim, YouJin 73, 84, 128–9, 148, 153, 155 Kim, Young Ae, 154 Kim, Youngkyu., 41, 43, 65 Kita, S 184 Ko, M H 43–4, 65 Koester, A 95, 123 Komuro, Y 100, 123 Kormos, J 55–64, 81, 84, 116, 123, 195, 197, 199, 205 Kornell, N 132–5, 153 Kost, C R 47, 65 Kövecses, Z 163, 166, 182, 184 Krajnovic, M M 183 Krashen, S D 10, 12, 16, 23, 26, 33 Kremmel, B 7, 16 Kuperman, V 25, 31, 33 Kupferberg, I 161, 185 Index 219 Küpper-Tetzel, C E 132, 153 Kweon, S.-O 43, 64 L1 acquisition 10, 28, 30 Labrozzi, R M 54, 65 Lakoff, G 97, 123, 163, 185 Lam, Y 169, 185 Lambert, C 84 Langacker, R W 8, 16 language-related episodes 70–71, 76 language typology 27, 116 Lantolf, J P 9, 16, 204–5 Lapkin, S 70, 76, 86 Laufer, B 22, 26, 33, 99, 121, 138, 154, 160, 183; and contrastive analysis 160, 173, 185 and dictionary use 45–6, 64–5, 100, 123; and meaning guessing 27–8, 31, 33, 42, 63; and task-induced involvement 128–30, 152–3 Lee, Hansol 104, 123 Lee, Hyunyeong 33 Lee, Jang Ho 43, 65, 104, 123, 159, 185 Lee, Minjin 56, 65 Lee, Pinshuan 104, 123 Lee, Sang-Ki 54, 56, 65, 195, 204–5 Lee, Shinhye 32 Lee, Sunjung 23, 33 Lehman, M 153 Lenzini, J J 65 Leow, R P 121 Levels of Processing Theory 158, 183–5 Levin, J R 186 Levine, G S 43, 65, 159, 185 Lew, R 171, 186 Lewis, M 4, 16, 102, 123 Li, Jui-Teng 175, 185 Li, Shaofeng 8, 16, 81–2, 85, 116, 123, 149–50, 153, 195, 197, 199, 204–5 Li, Thomas Fuyin 164, 185 Liao, Y 26, 33 Lightbown, P M 126, 136, 152–3, 159, 182, 185 Lin, Chih-Cheng 45, 64, 94, 123 Lin, Huifen 104, 123 Lindsey, R V 153 Lindstromberg, S 31, 78, 85, 121, 139, 153, 165–173, 176, 180–186 literal vs figurative meaning 49, 95, 97, 121, 162–9, 171, 181–183, 187 Littlemore, J 95, 123, 176, 185 Littlewood, W 72, 85 Liu, D 97, 123, 166, 185 Llanes, A 34 Lockhart, R S 158, 184 Loewen, S 57–8, 65, 83, 86 logographic script 175, 177 Long, M H 11, 16, 32, 70, 72, 85, 205 Looft, R 121 Loschky, L 74, 75, 85 Lotto, L 35 Lovelett, J 155 Lowie, W 162, 169, 187 Lu, M 129, 154 Luppescu, S 46, 65 Lutjeharms, M 66, 155 Lynch, T 139, 154 Lyster, R 72, 87, 126, 154 Macaro, E, 43, 64, 67, 159, 186 Mackey, A 70–1, 83–85 Maclean, J 139, 154 MacWhinney, B 187, 206 Mahmoudi-Gahrouei, V 148, 154 Majuddin, E 51, 65 Malone, J 19, 33 Mansouri, S A., 83 Marsden, E 15–6, 110, 112–124, 153, 161–2, 185, 196, 205–7, 212 Martin, B 121 Martínez Adrián, M 154 Martinez, R 52, 75, 95, 124 massed practice see cramming Masuda, K., 33 matching exercises 46, 56, 98–101, 112, 119, 169, 199 matching test 41, 115 Mayer, R E 23, 33, 48, 65 McCarthy, M 101, 124 McKay, T 120, 208, 212 Mclean, S 154 McManus, K 64, 161–2, 170, 185 McNamara, D S 130, 154 Meara, P 32, 64 Medina, A 136, 157 Meguro, Y 55, 59, 66 Mestres-Missé, A 25, 33 metalinguistic awareness 63, 102, 158–76, 182, 187, 196–8, 200, 205 metaphor 13–16, 41, 49, 63, 75, 97, 120, 123, 163–71, 175–8, 182–7 Metcalfe, J 15, 151 Miles, S W 143–5, 154 Miller, G E 186 Min, H T 130, 154 mnemonics 25, 48, 121, 159–87, 203, 210 Mochizuki, N 81, 85 220 Index modal verbs 74–75, 165, 168–170, 187, 206 modified input see text modification Mohamed, A A 19, 21, 33 Mohd Jelani, N A 23, 33 Mohsen, M A 47, 66 Mondria, J -A 92–4, 124, 135, 138, 154 Montero Perez, M 19, 33, 39, 41, 45, 48, 66 Moor, P 122, 152, 184, 205 Morgan, B Q 159, 185 Morgan-Short, K 56, 64, 114, 117, 124 Morris, C D 136, 154, 159, 185 Mozer, M C 151, 153 Mueller, C M 187, 206 multimodality see audiovisual input multiple-choice exercise 46–7, 67–8, 86, 126, 141, 146, 148–9, 160, 193, 196 multiple-choice test 12, 44, 55, 107, 147 Muñoz, C 19, 34, 62, 66, 143, 155, 187, 195, 197, 206 Münte, T F 33 Murakami, A 26, 34 Muranoi, H 71, 85 Murphy, V A 64, 95, 124 Musumeci, D 71, 85 Myers, D 97, 123 Na, L 42, 66 Nagata, N 47, 66, 193, 205 Nagumo, M 184 Nakata, T 35, 132–138, 146, 154–5, Namy, L L 186 Nassaji, H 9, 15, 16, 42, 66, 69, 85, 95, 124, 150, 155 Nation, I S P 18, 20, 22, 31–34, 42, 66, 118–9, 122, 167, 187, 201, 206 Nattinger, J 7, 16 Natural Approach 10–12, 16 Nejadanasari, D 154 Nesselhauf, N 22, 26, 34, 50, 66, 99, 124 Newton, J 68, 73, 75, 85 Nguyen, Bao Trang Thi 73, 85 Nguyen, Chi‐Duc 77, 85 Nicol, J 136, 152 Niemeier, S 170, 184, 186 Niu, R 77, 85 Norris, J M 208, 212 noticeability 21–24, 32, 39, 41–59, 78, 191–2 Novokshanova, E 33 Nuckolls, J B 174, 186 Nygaard, L C 174, 186 O’Dell, F 101, 124 Ohta, A S 23, 32, 70–1, 84–5 Oikkenon, S 114, 125 Okada, H 184 Olson, K M 168, 183 Open Accessible Summaries in Language Studies 207, 212 open-class words see content words Ortega, L 81, 85, 208, 212 orthography 4, 24, 29, 130, 171, 177 Osuna, J 155 Oswald, F L 208, 213 Output Hypothesis 10, 69, 77, 84, 86 pair work 71–6, 81, 84, 150, 156 Paivio, A 48, 66, 167, 186 Pan, S C 147, 155 Park, E S 64 part of speech 118, 128, 130, 165 Parault, S J 174, 186 Pashler, H 151, 153 passive voice, 6, 13, 54–6, 65, 81, 107–10, 116–7, 120, 124–5, 149–50, 195, 205 Pauwels, P 138, 155 Peebles, A 33 Pellicer-Sánchez, A 19, 21, 23, 34, 50, 66 perceived relevance 18, 23–4, 29, 46, 56, 74, 93, 110–1, 127, 193 Pérez Serrano, M 67 personal pronouns 5, 13, 56–7, 114, 122, 125, 161 Peters, E 99, 103, 124, 127, 130, 138, 155, 161, 186; and audiovisual input 19, 23, 33–4, 48, 66; and attention-directing comprehension questions 46, 66 Perfetti, C A 139, 152 Phelps, E 127, 151 Philp, J 71, 86 phonology 4, 19, 24, 26, 29, 76, 96, 137, 157, 171–180, 185 phrasal verbs, 13, 26, 28, 32–3, 95, 97–9 122–5, 140, 150, 155–6, 165–6, 183, 186–7 Piasecki, A 130, 157 Pica, T 17, 34, 70–1, 76, 86 pictograms 175, 177 pictures 23, 43, 47–49, 56, 62–68, 78, 94, 110, 112, 115, 167–71, 175, 178, 181, 183, 186; and picture-based story telling, 58, 62, 70, 139, 142; and picture description, 62, 74, 78, 112–3, 142, 145, 147–8 Pienemann, M 24, 34 Index 221 Qin, J 112, 117, 124 question formation 24, 85, 107; and question tags, 55, 59, 66 relative pronouns 59, 80–1, 84, 108–9, 112, 116, 146–7 repeated encounters 19–22, 27, 30, 33–4, 39–44, 49–52, 59–60, 94, 137, 143, 152, 153 repeated practice 115, 126, 139, 140, 146, 148, 154; see also practice schedules Reppen, R 141, 155 retell activities 11, 76, 78–9, 85, 139, 142 retrieval from memory, 77, 94, 98–9, 102, 106, 120, 125, 127, 130–8, 142, 145, 151, 153–6, 167, 178, 183, 191, 202–3, 211 and productive vs receptive retrieval, 131, 135, 138, 202 Révész, A 56, 65 reviewing 126, 129–34, 155 rhyme, 24 172 Rijlaarsdam, G 87, 206 Reynolds, B L 20, 34 Richards, J C, 105, 124, 141, 146, 155, 195, 198, 203, 206 Rickard, T C 155 Ritchie, W 16, 85 Roberts, L 64 Robinson, P 32, 35, 67, 83, 106, 124 Robles García, P 67 Rodd, J M 32 Rodgers, Michael P H 23, 34–5 Rodgers, Theodore S 203, 206 Rodriguez-Fornells, A 33 Roediger, H L., III 127, 131, 153, 155 Roehr-Brackin, K 196, 206 Rogers, James 26, 35, 132, 133, 155 Rogers, Vivienne 64 Rohrer, D 151 rote learning,138, 176–9; and paired associate learning, 35, 131, 138, 156 Rott, S 39–40, 44, 47, 66–7, 77, 86, 193, 206 Rozovski-Roitblat, B 130, 153 Russell, V 80, 86 radicals see logographic script Ramachandran, V S 174, 186 Ramezanali, N 48, 66 Ramonda, K 171, 184, 186 Raney, G 64 Ranta, L 161, 187 Rassaei, E 45, 66, 79, 86 Ravenhorst-Kalovski G C 22, 33 Rawson, K A 132, 155 readiness 24, 74, 113, 146, 196, 204 Reinders, H 78, 86 Sachs, R E 121 Sadeghi, K 64, 205 Sagarra, N 23, 27, 32, 35, 178–9, 186 Salazar, H 125 salience see noticeability Sánchez-Gutiérrez, C H 42, 67 Sanz, C 114, 117, 124 Sarkar, A 32 Sasao, Y 119, 124, 166, 186 Sato, M 83, 86, 126, 154 Sauro, S 86 Piquer-Píriz, A M 183, 187 Plass, J L 48, 64 Plonsky, L 148, 155, 208, 213 plurality 4, 7, 13, 20, 23–30, 60, 70, 86, 107, 109, 115 Poehner, M E 9, 16, 204–5 polysemy 20, 27–8, 32, 41, 46, 96, 162–9, 184, 187 Potts, R 97, 214 practice schedules 125, 127, 133–139, 142–9, 155–6 practice-test congruency 111, 135, 160 prepositions 28, 74, 78–9, 165, 169, 183–187, 206 present – practise – produce (PPP) 127, 139–402, 150 Pressley, M 177, 186 procedural knowledge 12, 82, 126, 152, 156 Processing Instruction 35, 109–17, 120–125, 139, 147, 162, 169, 196–7, 202, 204–5, 212–3; and structured input, 110–1, 117, 120, 124–5, 204; and sentenceinterpretation exercises, 110–1, 114, 116–7, 162 Proctor, S 124, 155, 206 productive vs receptive knowledge 12, 24, 28, 51, 69, 106, 111–2, 118, 131, 135–138, 145, 148, 154, 157, 171, 175, 202 pronunciation 17, 26, 48, 70, 72, 172, 174, 177 prosody, 24 113, 116, 122, 174 Puimège, E 34 Pujadas, G 19, 34, 62, 66, 195, 197, 206 Pulido, D 22–3, 34 Pyc, M A.,132, 155 222 Index Schmidt, Kristian 121 Schmidt, Richard W 22, 35, 41, 67 Schmidtke, J 17, 32 Schmitt, Norbert, 19–20, 26, 28, 32, 34–5, 40, 52, 65, 67, 97, 122–3, 138, 151 Schmitt, Diane 20, 35 Schneider, V I 136, 155 Schuell, T J 132, 151 Schwanenflugel, P J 174, 186 Schwieter, J W 16 Segalowitz, N 139, 152 Segers, E 156 Seidhofer, G 16, 86 sentence writing 111–2, 129, 157 Sephton, N 123, 153, 205 Sercu, L 66, 155 Serrano, R 19, 34–35, 143, 155 Shanks, D R 97, 124 Sharwood-Smith, M 41, 67, Shen, H H 168, 186 Shintani, N 72, 75, 84, 86, 112, 125, 157, 208, 213 Shimamura, A 15, 151 Sim, D D 42, 65 Sinclair, J 7, 16 Situational Language Teaching 142 Siyanova-Chanturia, A 26, 35, 63, 65, 67 Skehan, P 61, 67, 84, 86 Skill Acquisition Theory 12, 15, 118, 122, 140, 152, 154 skill specificity 126–7, 135–6, 148 Smart, J 107–8, 125 Smith, M A 130, 155 Soars, John 105, 125, 195, 206 Soars, Liz 105, 125, 195, 206 Sobel, H S 132, 156 Sociocultural Theory 9, 16, 204–5 Sokalski, K J 69, 83 Sommers, M S 182 Sonbul, S 52, 67 Song, M 80, 86 sound symbolism 174, 184, 186 Spada, N 152, 159, 182, 185 spacing 83, 132–7, 151–156 spelling see orthography Springer, S 86, 70 Steinel, Margarita P 25, 35, 138, 156 Steinel, Wolfgang, 35, 156 Stengers, H 63, 97, 101–2, 121–2, 125, 172, 183 Stevens, M 31 Strong, B 98–9, 120–1, 125, 134, 140, 151, 156, 166, 186 Suh, B 80, 86 Sunada, M.112, 125, 146, 148, 156 Sunderman, G 182 supportive context see contextual clues Swain, M 10, 16, 69–70, 76, 86 Suzuki, Y 112, 125, 136–7, 145–148, 154, 156 Swan, M 75, 86 Sweetser, E 165, 170, 184, 186 synonyms 22, 42, 50, 99, 101, 119, 138, 157, 171 system learning 4–5, 58–9, 112–117 Szabó, P 166, 184 Szczepaniak, R 171, 186 Szudarski, P 52, 67, 138, 156 Tada, S 154 Tajran, J 155 Takaki, M 22, 35, 40, 67 Takashima, A 156 Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT), 11, 15–6, 72–5, 83–87, 123, 142, 148, 150, 153, 155, 205, 208–9, 212 task-essential language 23, 73–4, 76, 82, 102, 112 task-induced involvement 65, 128, 153 task repetition 73–4, 83–85, 139, 154, 202–3, 211 Task-Supported Language Teaching 85, 123, 142, 150, 153, 205 Tavakoli, P 7, 16, 127, 129, 139, 152, 156 Taylor, J 4, 16 Tekin, M 136, 152 Tellier, A 196, 206 Teng, F 19, 35, 42–3, 67, 138, 150, 156 tense and aspect 6, 35, 65, 117, 159, 165, 195, 204; and English 21–30, 59, 87, 111–2, 120, 139–40, 143–4, 146, 150, 161, 170–1, 176, 198–200; and French 112–3, 161–2; and Spanish 54, 57–59, 65, 80, 86, 147 Terrell, T D 10, 16 textbooks for language learners 12, 62, 72, 98, 101, 104–5, 117, 130–4, 138, 140–1, 146, 159, 168–71, 195–9, 210 text comprehension questions 45–6, 77, 80, 127–9, 193 text reconstruction 76–7, 80–2, 116, 194; see also dictogloss text modification 10, 22, 39–62, 69, 192, 195, 203 textual enhancement see typographic enhancement Index 223 Thai, C 73, 87, 139, 156 Thomas, M H 130, 156, 177, 187 Thomson, H 102, 125 Thornbury, S 14, 16 Tian, Jun 150, 155 Tian, Lili 43, 67, 159, 186 time investment 18, 52, 60–1, 80–1, 92, 104, 106–7, 112–6, 128–9, 135, 158, 161–2, 171, 195–6, 197, 209–11 Tinkham, T 136, 156 Tomasello, M 105, 114, 122 Tong, F 175, 185 Tonzar, C 25, 35 Toomer, M 52, 67 topic familiarity 22–3, 34, 57–8, 61, 65, 93, 202, 205 Toth, P D 70–1, 87, 112, 118, 125 Tracy-Ventura, N 73, 84 Tragant, E 34 transfer from L1 26–9, 50, 92, 96, 140, 160–1 transfer of knowledge 12, 74–5, 83, 118, 125–6, 141–8, 153–6, 166, 185 translation exercise, 160–2, 185, 197, 205 translation test 51, 54, 131, 127, 145, 153 Trenkic, D 64 trial and error 98–101, 119–20, 125, 148, 156 Trofimovich, P 31, 182 Truscott, J 41, 63 Tsai, M.-H 166, 186 Tulving, E 158, 184 Tyler, A 165, 168–9, 186–7, 196, 206 typographic enhancement 10, 22, 4–3, 51–67, 78–81, 103, 116, 195 Uchihara, T 7, 16, 19, 35, 41, 66–68, 139, 156 Uggen, M S 80, 87 Uludag, O 117, 125 Ur, P 139, 156 usage restrictions 28, 59, 109 Van Assche, E 31 van Compernolle, R A 9, 16 Van de Guchte, M 78, 87, 194, 206 Van den Branden, K 70, 87 Van den Broek, G S E 131, 156 Van Den Noortgate, W 33 Vanek, N., 64 VanPatten, B 15, 23, 35, 109, 114–7, 122, 125 van Zeeland, H 19, 35, 42, 67, 95, 125 Verhoeven, L 156 Verspoor, M 162, 169, 187 Vidal, K 19, 35, 39, 67 video see audiovisual input Villegas, B 64 visual enhancement see typographic enhancement visuals see pictures Vogel, S 106–7, 125 Wajnryb, R 76, 87, 150, 156 Waldman, T 22, 26, 33, 99, 123 Walker, C P 166, 187 Wang, Chuming 76, 87 Wang, Alvin Y 177, 187 Wang, Min 76, 87 Wang, Xin 33 Wang, Xinqing 164, 182, 187 Waring R 22, 35, 40, 67, 136, 156 Warren, B 7, 15 Warren, P 19, 21, 23, 31, 45–9, 63, 67, 187 Warriner, A B, 31, 33 Warschauer, M 123 Watanabe, Y 42–6, 68 Waterman, J 141, 157, 160, 187 Webb, S A 31, 44, 50, 63, 101, 121, 124, 130, 151, 157, 159, 185, 187, 205; and audiovisual input 19, 23, 34–5; and meaning guessing 42, 119, 124; and repeated encounters 41–2, 50, 67–8; and retrieval practice 135–138, 155; and word parts 119, 124, 166, 186 Wei, Z 167, 178, 187 Wen, Z 8, 16 White, J 31, 143, 152, 161, 184, 187 Widdowson, H G 72, 87 Wiersma, B 135, 138, 154 Wilcox, A 136, 157 Williams, J 5, 15, 32, 67, 86, 122, 152 Willis Dave 11, 16, 73, 87 Willis, Jane 11, 16, 73, 87 Winke, P 15, 55–6, 68, 195, 206 Wixted, J T 151 Wode, H 26, 35 Wolter, B 26, 35 Wong, M H I 169–70, 187, 196, 206 Wood, D 139, 157 word class see part of speech word order 5, 13, 24, 78, 109–10, 113–6, 125, 144 word parts 92, 119, 124, 167, 178, 186, 187; see also affixes 224 Index Yanagisawa, A 35, 43–4, 67–8 Yang, Y 72, 87, 128, 129, 157 Yasuda, S 166, 187 Yokosawa, S 156 Yoon, H.-J 32 York, Y 125 Yoshii, M., 43–8, 68 Yoshimura, F 76, 87 Yoshioka, J K 32 Youhanaee, M 154 Yun, J 47, 68 Zanotto, M 183 Zhang, Pengchong 43, 68, 160, 173, 187 Zhang, Xiaoyan 76, 87, 138, 157 Zhang, Yingli 157 Zhang, Yingyi 157 Zhang, Zhiying 44, 68 Zhao, H 187, 206 Zhouhan, J 159, 187 Zhu, Y 85, 123, 153, 205 Zou, D 129, 157 Zyzik, E 181, 187