Rationale of the research
In today's digital age, online news has become a crucial source of information, yet its objectivity and impartiality are often questioned due to varying narratives presented across different outlets This raises concerns about the potential manipulative power of the media and whether news coverage reflects biased perspectives Critical discourse analysis (CDA) reveals that media language is never neutral; it is infused with values and ideologies that can significantly shape public perception and attitudes, especially during political conflicts As each side of a political divide seeks to influence public opinion and bolster their image, understanding the underlying social and power dynamics within news reports becomes essential Employing CDA allows us to uncover hidden ideologies and assess how issues and individuals are portrayed in the media.
The relationship between Vietnam and China is marked by complexity, tension, and conflict, despite their geographical proximity and historical ties Continuous efforts have been made to foster cooperation between these two nations; however, political tensions often arise due to overlapping sovereignty claims in the South China Sea, known as the East Sea in Vietnam This ongoing dispute has garnered significant attention from politicians, journalists, and scholars, especially in recent years As a Vietnamese citizen, I am particularly concerned about this issue, yet there has been limited analysis of language use in online news coverage related to the conflict between these two countries Consequently, I conducted a study on the East Sea dispute, focusing on English-language online media coverage from both Chinese and Vietnamese perspectives, employing critical discourse analysis to understand how media institutions shape their representations of reality for their audiences.
Scope of the research
This study focuses on online news reports regarding the East Sea dispute from May 1, 2014, to July 16, 2014 While a broader data range typically enhances the reliability of research findings, time constraints and the limited scope of a minor thesis necessitate a more focused approach Consequently, this analysis examines only twelve selected news reports from Chinese and Vietnamese sources, rather than a comprehensive review of all available articles.
Times, Xinhua Agency News of China and the Vietnamplus, Vietnamnet of Vietnam
This study is strictly a linguistic analysis and does not reflect the author's personal political views It remains neutral and does not endorse any political parties or seek to influence political opinions The research is intended solely for academic purposes.
Aim and objectives of the research
The study primarily aims to analyze Chinese and Vietnamese online media coverage of the East Sea dispute under the light of critical discourse analysis
To achieve this aim, the following objectives are set:
to investigate the manner in which the conflict and main participants are approached and represented in the media discourse
This article aims to examine the underlying ideologies of journalists by analyzing the grammatical and lexical features of news reports It highlights the significant relationship between these ideologies and media language, particularly in the context of political communication.
In order to realize these objectives, the study is intended to answer the following questions:
What are the underlying ideologies of each side with respect to the issue of the dispute?
The ideologies of news agencies are shaped by the values of their producers, including journalists and media institutions Consequently, news reports can present varying perspectives on contentious issues and the parties involved, leading to distinct ideological representations across different news outlets.
Significance of the research
This study aims to deliver both theoretical and practical benefits Theoretically, it seeks to enhance understanding of critical discourse analysis Practically, the findings are intended to assist researchers and readers in developing a critical awareness of the news encountered in everyday life.
Research methodology
To carry out this study, the following procedures and techniques involving both qualitative and quantitative research method will be employed
Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) will be utilized to reveal underlying ideologies within the text This analysis will follow the three stages outlined by Norman Fairclough (2001) and will incorporate Halliday’s Systemic-Functional Grammar to enhance understanding.
This study analyzes twelve genuine news reports in English sourced from both Chinese and Vietnamese news agencies Among these, five reports are derived from China's leading authoritative media, including the Global Times and Xinhua Agency News, while the remaining seven reports are gathered from Vietnam's top influential media outlets.
Vietnamplus, Vietnamnet The news reports in the research are selected in a range of time from May 1, 2014 to July 16, 2014
For further description of the research method, see chapter 2.
Design of the research
The study consists of three parts They are:
Part A – Introduction – presents the rationale, scope, aim and objectives, significance, general methodology, and design of the study
Part B – Development – constitutes the main part and consists of three chapters
This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA), including its definitions, principles, and various approaches It explores Fairclough's three-dimensional framework and Halliday's Systemic-Functional Theory, with a particular focus on transitivity Additionally, the chapter presents an overview of relevant studies in the field.
Chapter 2: Methodology and analytical procedures
This chapter presents the background to the dispute After that, the methodology and data analysis procedures are mentioned
Chapter 3: A critical discourse analysis of online news about the East Sea dispute
The CDA procedure addressed by Fairclough and Halliday‟s Systemic-functional theory are used to analyze the news reports to find out the connection between ideologies and language use
In conclusion, this study highlights the key findings regarding transitivity and overwording in online media coverage of both sides, identifying both commonalities and differences Additionally, it proposes recommendations for future research in this area.
LITERATURE REVIEW
An overview of CDA
Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA), which originated from Critical Linguistics (CL) in the 1970s through the work of linguists like Fowler et al (1979) and Kress and Hodge (1979), has evolved significantly over the years Key figures such as Norman Fairclough (1989), Ruth Wodak (1989), and Teun A van Dijk (1998) further developed CDA in the early 1990s, establishing it as a pivotal branch of discourse analysis This evolution marked a significant shift in linguistic research, transitioning from a focus on formal language structures to an emphasis on the functional aspects of language in social contexts.
Discourse, whether written or spoken, is influenced by social structures and practices, as noted by Fairclough (2001) and supported by various scholars (Titscher et al., 2000; Weiss and Wodak, 2003) Language serves as a social semiotic that reflects societal circumstances while also having the power to shape and alter social relationships in return (Wodak and Weiss, 2004; Jørgensen and Phillips, 2002).
Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) serves as a method for examining the relationship between language use and social variables, particularly focusing on the dynamics of power and the conflicts surrounding it within discourse Through CDA, one can reveal the ideological underpinnings related to power relations embedded in communication.
Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) systematically examines the complex relationships between discursive practices, events, texts, and broader social and cultural structures It investigates how these elements are influenced by power dynamics and ideological struggles, revealing the ways in which discourse both shapes and is shaped by power relations Furthermore, CDA explores how the obscurity of these relationships contributes to the maintenance of power and hegemony in society.
Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) extends Fairclough's concept of power relations by examining how social power abuse, dominance, discrimination, and inequality are expressed and challenged within discourse According to Wodak and Meyer (2001), CDA investigates these dynamics in social and political contexts, while Van Dijk (2001) emphasizes its role in revealing and resisting such power structures Van Dijk (2008) also describes CDA as a vital diagnostic tool for assessing social and political dominance.
Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) is a comprehensive approach to language analysis that examines the intricate relationship between language, power, and ideology By providing detailed descriptions, explanations, and critiques, CDA seeks to challenge and recontextualize familiar discourses, fostering a deeper understanding of their social implications.
“naturalized” language used in the discourse, then reveal the power or struggles over power as well as ideologies hidden
Although the pioneers in CDA such as Fairclough, Wodak, and Van Dijk contributed different methods for CDA, they all shared the same viewpoints of CDA‟s principles
CDA‟s primary interest is to address social problems It does not rely solely on any particular discipline or discourse theory but a multidisciplinary approach and methodology to reveal such problems
Power relations are discursive That is CDA explains how social relations of power are exercised and negotiated in and through discourse
Discourse constitutes society and culture It means that the language use in discourse can contribute to reproducing and transforming social structures and practice, including relations of power
Discourse is ideological because linguistic features and structures are not arbitrary but purposeful in a particular social context By means of discourse, power relations are produced, exercised, and reproduced
Discourse is historical in the sense that texts attain their meanings by existing in specific social, cultural and ideological contexts, time and space
A socio-cognitive approach is needed to understand how relations between texts and society are mediated
Discourse analysis is interpretive and explanatory
Discourse is a form of social action
1.1.3.1 Van Dijk’s socio-cognitive approach
Van Dijk‟s approach to CDA is a socio-cognitive approach It is concerned with the relationship between discourse, cognition and society
Discourse is a multifaceted communicative event that extends beyond mere text or dialogue, encompassing a rich social context It involves various participants, each with distinct characteristics, and incorporates both the processes of production and reception.
Social cognition plays a crucial role in linking discourse structures to social structures, revealing the social representations, attitudes, and ideologies of social actors Van Dijk defines social cognition as the mental representations and processes of group members that influence their actions, speech, writing, and understanding of others' social practices To explore this relationship, he proposed a socio-cognitive framework that encompasses three key components: social analysis, cognitive analysis, and discourse analysis.
Van Dijk emphasized that a key aspect of discourse analysis is understanding how mental representations often reflect an "Us versus Them" dynamic He noted that speakers typically portray their own group positively while depicting opposing groups negatively To address this ideological dichotomy in discourse, he proposed a structured framework for analysis (Van Dijk, 1995:2-22).
1 Examining the context of the discourse: historical, political or social background of a conflict and its main participants
3 Identifying positive and negative opinions about Us versus Them
4 Making explicit the presupposed and the implied
5 Examining all formal structures: lexical choice and syntactic structure, in a way that helps to (de)emphasize polarized group opinions (Van Dijk, 1998: 61-63)
1.1.3.2 Fairclough’s systemic functional grammar approach
Fairclough's approach, as discussed by Jűrgensen and Phillips (2002), emphasizes the dialectic relationship between language and society, highlighting how language both reproduces and transforms knowledge, identities, and power relations while being influenced by social practices and structures This perspective is rooted in Systemic Functional Grammar, illustrating that language is both socially constitutive and shaped by its context (Fairclough and Wodak, 1997) Fairclough (2003) identifies three key aspects of this dialectic relation: social events (texts), social practices (orders of discourse), and social structures His framework thus includes a comprehensive analysis of text, discursive practices, and sociocultural practices.
1 Text analysis is concerned with linguistic analysis pertaining to four criteria: vocabulary, grammar, semantics and cohesion-organization above the sentence level (Fairclough, 2003) Halliday‟s Systemic functional linguistics is exploited for detailed textual analysis
2 As Fairclough (2003) defined, “discursive practices” involves the production and consumption of texts Thus, the second analysis – analysis of discursive practice – is an analysis of how texts are produced, received and interpreted
In other words, this stage of analysis depends on background information the participants have, which affects the text production and consumption process
3 The sociocultural analysis is concerned with economy, politics and culture of a communicative event (Fairclough, 2003)
(The detailed framework with three stages will be discussed later in Part 1.2)
Fairclough's three-dimensional framework parallels Van Dijk's ideology analysis, yet highlights distinct mediating factors; Van Dijk emphasizes social cognition's role between discourse and society, while Fairclough focuses on text production and consumption as intermediaries connecting discourse with social structures (Wodak and Meyer, 2001).
Fairclough's three-dimensional framework offers a structured approach for textual analysis, making it particularly beneficial for novice analysts By providing a step-by-step analysis and a comprehensive list of suggested questions, this framework simplifies the analytical process Consequently, the researcher opted to utilize Fairclough's framework for her thesis.
Fairclough‟s three-dimension framework of CDA
The initial stage of text analysis emphasizes the formal properties of a text, focusing on vocabulary, grammar, and textual structure (Fairclough, 2001:21) Fairclough identifies three key values that influence these formal features: experiential value, which reflects the text producer's personal experiences and beliefs; relational value, which reveals social relationships; and expressive value, which evaluates aspects of reality or social identities (Al Ghazali, 2007: 4) Furthermore, Fairclough (2001: 92-93) outlines ten primary questions, along with sub-questions, that help analysts uncover the ideologies embedded in the discourse through naturalized language use.
This stage emphasizes the dynamic relationship between text and interaction, viewing text not merely as a final product but also as a valuable resource for interpretation The characteristics of both the text and its context—situational and intertextual—act as essential cues for understanding, grounded in shared common-sense assumptions (referred to as Member Resources, or MR).
The six major elements of MR (Mediated Reality) include a distinction between interpreting situational context and intertextual context Situational context refers to external cues such as the physical environment, participant characteristics, and prior communication, necessitating an understanding of social orders In contrast, intertextual context requires knowledge of the interactional history, as outlined by Fairclough (2001).
In the interpretative stage, various factors influencing how individuals produce and interpret discourse are crucial These include textual features, contextual elements, and the background assumptions of the reader, all of which play a significant role in understanding the discourse effectively.
The final stage examines how interaction and social context influence the social determinants of production and interpretation processes, as highlighted by Fairclough (2001:21-22) Social structures shape mediated representation (MR), while MR simultaneously influences discourses This dynamic interplay means that discourses can either reinforce or transform MR, which subsequently affects the underlying social structures.
At this stage, usually the underlying ideological perspectives are exposed
Halliday‟s systemic functional approach and CDA
Systemic functional grammar (SFG) is a purposeful approach to language that emphasizes its use within specific social contexts By analyzing the formal features of a text through the systemic functional lens, one can uncover the producer's intentions behind their linguistic choices, revealing underlying ideologies and social structures This methodology aligns closely with the practices of critical discourse analysts, making SFG a common tool in critical discourse analysis (CDA).
In Systemic functional linguistics, language is structured to perform three metafunctions:
The ideational metafunction is essential for expressing both individuals' experiences of the external world and their internal consciousness According to Halliday and Matthiessen (2013), this metafunction is divided into experiential and logical components, with the experiential aspect focusing on how we represent our experiences and perceptions of the natural world (Thompson, 2004; Halliday and Matthiessen, 2013) It addresses the question, "What is going on?" and is realized through a transitivity system that categorizes the world of experience into six distinct process types.
The interpersonal metafunction focuses on the social dynamics between speakers and listeners, emphasizing the role of language in facilitating exchanges It allows individuals to express comments, attitudes, and evaluations, thereby establishing, maintaining, or altering their social relationships This aspect of communication is crucial for understanding how interactions shape and reflect the social world.
“How do we use language to exchange?”, it is realized mainly through mood and modality
The textual metafunction focuses on the organization of information within a text, emphasizing the importance of coherence between its components and the surrounding context It plays a crucial role in how individuals express their experiences and engage in communication, ensuring that messages form a unified whole To analyze the thematic structure of a text, one can utilize the Theme/Rheme system, which addresses the question, “How is the content of the text organized?”
Transitivity
Transitivity categorizes our experiences into distinct process types, forming a key aspect of the ideational function of clauses These "processes," whether physical, relational, or state-based, reflect our perceptions of the world and are conveyed through language (Halliday, 1970, as cited in Zhang).
The selection of "processes" in a text carries ideological significance, as transitivity plays a crucial role in identifying the social, cultural, ideological, and political factors that influence the choice of process types in discourse This analytic approach aids in uncovering the writer's underlying meanings and motivations behind specific linguistic choices.
Transitivity encompasses various process types, participants involved in actions, and circumstantial details such as time, place, cause, or manner The nature of participants in a clause is dictated by the process type, highlighting the significance of verbal groups within clauses (Thompson, 2004:89).
In Halliday's Introduction to Functional Grammar (2013), Halliday and Matthiessen present six process types, each comprising three key elements: the process, the participants, and the circumstances The process is generally expressed through a verbal group, while participants are represented by nominal groups, and circumstances are conveyed using an adverbial group or prepositional phrase.
Material process: concerns actions, events taking place in the domain of
The term "outer experience" refers to a tangible process where an entity actively engages in actions This typically involves two key participants: the Actor, who performs the action, and the Goal, which is the person or entity impacted by this process.
The mental process refers to the internal activities occurring within an individual's mind, encompassing perception (such as seeing and hearing), affection (including feelings like love and hate), and cognition (which involves thinking, knowing, and understanding) This process involves two key participants: the Senser, representing the conscious being, and the Phenomenon, which is the object or person that the Senser perceives, feels, or thinks about.
The verbal process involves the act of speaking and includes key elements such as the Sayer, who is the entity producing the utterance; the Receiver, the individual receiving the message; the Verbiage, which represents the content of the communication; and the Target, the entity that is subject to verbal judgment.
The relational process encompasses the concepts of "being," "having," and "being at," and includes three types of relational clauses: intensive, circumstantial, and possessive These clauses can be further categorized into attributive and identifying modes In the attributive intensive mode, a quality is assigned to an entity, known as the Carrier, while in the identifying intensive mode, an identity is attributed to an entity referred to as the Identified Additionally, the possessive mode defines the relationship between a Possessor and the Possessed, indicating ownership or belonging.
Behavioral process: is the process of physiological and psychological behavior The obligatory participant is Behaver (a conscious entity that behaves)
Existential process: is the process of existing, indicating that something or some natural force exists.
Overview of related studies
The ongoing maritime confrontation between Vietnam and China has generated significant controversy and media coverage; however, critical discourse analysis (CDA) of English-language news reporting on the East Sea dispute remains underexplored This study aims to investigate the ideologies of journalists from both Vietnam and China in their reporting of this contentious issue, shedding light on the narratives presented by each side.
Studies employing the Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) approach reveal that media institutions tend to portray a positive self-image while exhibiting negative representations of others, particularly when reporting on issues related to their own countries or allies.
He and Zhou (2015) examined the lexical choices in six news reports covering three safety accidents in China, published in China Daily and The Washington Post Their findings revealed that the two newspapers depicted the same events in contrasting ways, highlighting differences in ideological perspectives and national interests Specifically, China Daily employed derogatory language for the terrorists responsible for the accidents while using more neutral commentary to describe government actions In contrast, The Washington Post opted for neutral terminology regarding the perpetrators but used derogatory terms to characterize the government's response.
In their 2015 analysis, Taiwo and Ota examined news reports regarding the Bakassi Peninsula conflicts between Nigeria and Cameroon, revealing that both countries' newspapers emphasized their own positive portrayals while depicting the other as the aggressor Nigerian media highlighted human rights violations and injustices perpetrated by Cameroonian security forces, whereas Cameroonian outlets characterized their security forces as effective and adept at managing the conflict.
Zhang (2014) examined the political news reports on Iraq war in the New York
Using Fairclough's three-dimensional framework and Halliday's functional grammar, the analysis uncovered various underlying ideologies The findings indicated that reporters depicted the Bush administration in a favorable light, presenting it as a friendly nation and a liberator In contrast, the Iraqi community, under the leadership of Saddam Hussein, was portrayed negatively and labeled as the enemy.
In a 2012 analysis, Yang examined the news coverage of the Chinese government by the New York Times and China Daily, highlighting distinct portrayals by each publication The study found that while there were some similarities in their coverage, the New York Times often adopted an anti-government stance, contrasting with the more favorable depiction by China Daily.
Chinese government frame”, a “pro-government frame” is preferable in the China Daily
In his 2008 analysis of news reports on Sino-Japan conflicts in the New York Times, Chen employed Fairclough's framework and Halliday's three metafunctions to examine linguistic features such as lexicalization, transitivity, and thematization The study revealed that the New York Times often depicted China as aggressive, dominant, and violent, highlighting the newspaper's representation of the two nations.
In contrast, Japanese government and its people were depicted more rational and courteous
Ahmadian and Farahani (2014) conducted an analysis of the editorials from the Los Angeles Times and Tehran Times to explore the ideological disparities in their coverage of Iran's nuclear program Their findings revealed a clear media bias, with each outlet portraying a favorable perspective towards its own side while depicting the opposing side negatively.
METHODOLOGY AND ANALYTICAL PROCEDURES
The background to the event
Tensions in the East Sea escalated on May 1, 2014, when China deployed the HD-981 drilling rig near the Hoang Sa Archipelagos, claiming the waters as its territory, prompting Vietnam to protest vigorously In response, Vietnam sent 29 ships to disrupt the rig's operations but faced fierce resistance from Chinese vessels The situation intensified with three significant incidents: on May 7, China used water cannons, causing severe damage to Vietnam's ships; on May 13 and 14, anti-China protests in Vietnam erupted into riots targeting Chinese businesses and workers; and on May 26, a Vietnamese fishing boat sank after being struck by Chinese vessels.
Data collection
This thesis analyzes twelve genuine news reports in English sourced from both Chinese and Vietnamese news agencies It includes five articles from China's leading media outlets, specifically the Global Times and Xinhua Agency News, alongside seven reports from Vietnam's most authoritative and influential online media platforms.
Between May 1, 2014, and July 16, 2014, an analysis was conducted on news reports from Vietnamplus and Vietnamnet regarding the East Sea dispute For each incident, a pair of articles from both sides was selected to explore the similarities and differences in reporting styles, revealing the underlying ideologies of each country’s journalism.
The selected newspapers are prominent representatives of influential media in China and Vietnam, chosen not only for their popularity but also for their hierarchical position in media management This hierarchy often leads researchers to speculate about varying levels of news censorship and political manipulation present on each platform (Nhung, 2012).
The Global Times, a state-run newspaper in China, is recognized as a highly reliable and authoritative source of information It offers valuable insights into China's perspectives on both domestic and international events, making it an essential resource for understanding the country's stance on various issues.
As a leading English-language newspaper in China, it is widely published and distributed across most cities in the country and in over 150 countries and regions worldwide, significantly influencing its readership.
Xinhua is considered as “official mouthpiece” of the Chinese Communist
Party It plays a unique role in creating China‟s national image and in articulating the Chinese government‟s policies with its ideological orientations (Li, 2010)
Vietnamnet is a leading online newspaper in Vietnam, recognized for its reliability and influence as a source of information Operating under the Ministry of Information and Technology, it significantly shapes readers' perceptions and emotions, potentially impacting their political ideologies (Nhung, 2012).
Vietnamplus of the Vietnam News Agency is directly under the Communist
Party management Therefore, it is considered as the “mouthpiece” of the Party
The thesis aims to explore the beliefs surrounding the actions of both sides and how these beliefs are communicated to foreign audiences through public diplomacy messages in online media Given that news reports in native languages are often seen as tools for governments to shape domestic opinion (Nhung, 2012), English-language media are selected to effectively inform international audiences about these critical issues.
Research method
This study employs Fairclough's three-dimensional approach to Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) and Halliday's Systemic-Functional Theory to uncover the ideologies of reporters in news articles Utilizing both quantitative and qualitative methods, the research intertwines Fairclough's three stages—description, interpretation, and explanation—to demonstrate the direct connections between textual properties and reporters' ideologies Each aspect of the textual analysis reveals how the formal characteristics of news relate to the underlying beliefs of the journalists involved.
Fairclough's approach to Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) serves as a flexible guide rather than a strict blueprint, allowing researchers to tailor their focus based on specific research objectives By utilizing Fairclough's model, which includes ten questions to examine the formal properties of texts, researchers can concentrate on particular linguistic features that reveal how journalists' ideologies are embedded in their language choices This analysis emphasizes grammatical aspects, particularly transitivity, while also examining lexical choices, specifically the use of overwording.
Data analysis procedure
Fairclough’s framework involves three critical steps for analyzing news content The first step, descriptive analysis, focuses on transitivity and overwording to uncover the ideologies embedded within journalistic narratives The second step, interpretation, examines the situational context by addressing key questions such as what is happening, who is involved, the nature of their relationships, and the role of language in the situation Finally, the explanation stage explores the connection between interaction and social context, highlighting how discourse production and interpretation are influenced by social structures and the potential impact of discourse on those structures.
A CRITICAL DISCOURSE ANALYSIS OF ONLINE NEWS
Transitivity analysis
The analysis in Figure 3 reveals a similar transitivity pattern in the news coverage of the Vietnam-China dispute, with both sides predominantly utilizing material, verbal, and relational processes Specifically, material processes are the most prevalent, comprising 61.9% in Vietnamese news and 44.9% in Chinese news The verbal process follows as the second most frequent, accounting for 17.2% in Vietnamese coverage and 32.9% in Chinese coverage, while relational processes make up 15.7% and 13.9% respectively.
The frequent use of relational processes is justifiable, as they primarily served to illustrate the country's legitimate ownership of the waters This assertion of ownership has been a significant factor in the conflict between the two nations, with each side asserting its legal claims.
Pm Pv Pr Pmen Px
Figure 3: The distribution of processes in Vietnamese news and Chinese news
Vietnamese and Chinese news often reflect opposition and disruption between the two nations, primarily focusing on conflicting actions and events in disputed areas This emphasis on material and verbal processes highlights the lack of subjective perspectives, as the coverage tends to prioritize reporting over emotional or personal viewpoints.
A notable aspect of the analyzed news is the absence of any mention of behavioral processes This is understandable, as news reporting typically emphasizes the intense conflicts between opposing sides, with journalists prioritizing the conveyance of key events over the physiological and psychological behaviors involved.
A notable difference in press coverage between Vietnam and China is observed in the use of material and verbal processes Vietnamese news reports utilize material processes at a rate of 61.9%, significantly higher than the 44.9% found in Chinese news, indicating a nearly 1.5 times variance Conversely, Chinese news employs verbal processes almost double that of Vietnamese reports This suggests that Vietnamese online news focuses on narrating actions and events of disputes, portraying journalists as eyewitnesses who detail confrontations for readers In contrast, Chinese media tends to relay official statements about the disputes, aiming for a more objective perspective rather than sharing personal experiences.
The analysis reveals that newspapers in both countries primarily focus on reporting actions and events, with writers adopting a seemingly neutral third-person perspective However, a closer examination of the distribution of the three most frequently used processes indicates that the news reports may not be as objective as they initially appear.
The analysis of material processes in the news coverage from Vietnam and China reveals a striking similarity, with both countries predominantly portraying the opposing party as the main actor In Vietnamese media, China is depicted as the primary aggressor, responsible for 53.2% of the aggressive actions reported Conversely, Chinese news outlets primarily blame Vietnam for regional tensions, attributing 48.3% of the provocative actions to it This trend suggests that both nations' news coverage heavily emphasizes the activities of their adversaries in the contested waters.
Take the following sentences as examples when the writers presented their country‟s opponent:
(1) …the Vietnamese side deployed a large number of vessels to forcefully disrupt and obstruct China's operations, and rammed Chinese government vessels (news.xinhuanet.com/english)
(2) Vietnam slammed a Chinese oil company's launch of an oil rig
(3) …thousands of people smashed and looted foreign plants in industrial zones (globaltimes.cn)
(4) Vietnam's actions have violated international laws, infringed on China's sovereignty and jurisdiction, and endangered navigational freedom
Figure 4: The distribution of Actors in the material processes
(5) China has so far deployed many vessels, up to 80 at peak time…
(6) Chinese ships encircled and intentionally rammed at, fired high-pressure water cannons on Vietnamese coast guard and fisheries surveillance vessels… (english.vietnamnet.vn)
(7) Vietnamese fishermen were beaten with two badly injured and their tools were destroyed (english.vietnamnet.vn)
China's recent unlawful actions in the East Sea have significantly violated Vietnam's sovereignty, contradicting international law and norms, and undermining global trust in the region.
The analysis of examples (1-4) and (5-8) reveals a clear similarity in how journalists utilize material processes to portray the opposing party This is evident through their choice of powerful action verbs like "deployed," "rammed," "slammed," "smashed," and "looted," which convey a strong sense of aggression and conflict.
Chinese online media has characterized Vietnam as an aggressive nation exhibiting irrational and unlawful behavior Furthermore, Vietnam is portrayed as the instigator of conflict, engaging in numerous anti-Vietnam actions that suggest a strategy of encirclement.
“(intentionally) rammed”, “fired”, “beat”, “destroyed”, China was displayed on Vietnam‟s media coverage as a bully neighbor who is belligerent and could act brashly, illegally in the rule-based community
However, when portraying their own country, writers rendered the opposite images
Recent Chinese news highlights two primary themes regarding China's actions: the emphasis on peaceful measures to safeguard its sovereignty and citizens (57.1%) and the normal drilling operations in the Sea (28.6%) These themes reflect the journalists' ideologies, portraying China as a calm and sensible nation that prioritizes regional stability through diplomatic efforts over violent confrontations.
(9) Taking into consideration the overall bilateral relations and peace and stability in the South China Sea, China has exercised great restraint towards Vietnam's actions (news.xinhuanet.com/english)
(10) It would be the last way to organize nationals to withdraw from Vietnam…to protect our nationals (globaltimes.cn)
Over 25% of the material processes used to report on China's oil drilling activities suggest that journalists perceived China's operations as legal, reinforcing the notion that these waters are part of China's territory.
Vietnamese online news consistently portrays the country as a peace-loving nation that prioritizes respect for its sovereign rights Approximately 60.4% of the content in these reports emphasizes this perspective While Vietnam is depicted as flexible in seeking peaceful resolutions to disputes, it also asserts the importance of a strong and determined stance on sovereignty issues.
(11) The Vietnam Fisheries Surveillance Force has exercised their utmost restraint (english.vietnamnet.vn)
(12) Vietnam will take all necessary and proper measures to defend its legitimate rights and benefits and safeguard its sovereignty (en.vietnamplus.vn)
With respect to the role of participants as Goals taking place in the subject position (see Figure 5), there witnesses a different pattern
In the news discourse of Vietnam, the country is prominently featured, accounting for 8.5% of the coverage Notably, Vietnam is often portrayed as a victim of China's irrational and hegemonic actions, highlighting the ongoing tensions between the two nations.
(13) [Boat DNa 90152] was deliberately encircled by 40 fishing vessels of China before it was attacked by the Chinese ship 11209 (en.vietnamplus.vn)
Figure 5: The distribution of Goals in the material processes
In Chinese news, foreign corporations resembling Chinese entities (6.1%) and Chinese citizens (4.1%) emerged as the primary victims of Vietnam's violent actions during the riots against China's operations This portrayal positions Vietnam as an aggressive nation, acting recklessly and unwisely driven by blind patriotism.
(14) …at least two Chinese nationals were killed and more than 100 injured
(15) 16 other people described as Chinese were killed on Wednesday night in rioting (globaltimes.cn)
Overwording
Overwording, or over-lexicalization, refers to the excessive use of near synonyms or quasi-synonyms, as noted by Fairclough (2001) and Fowler (1991) Jackson and Amvela (2004) expand this concept to include hyponyms and antonyms, highlighting the complexity of word choice Despite differing categorizations, it is widely accepted that overwording serves to convey specific meanings and focal ideologies intended by the writer.
Overwording refers to the excessive repetition of words or phrases that convey a single concept, aimed at uncovering underlying ideologies.
The repetitive words and inter-related terms with high degree of frequency in a series of news analyzed are divided into six main themes for each side (See Tables 1 and
Table 1:The main themes in
Table 2:The main themes in Chinese online news coverage
Key concept Time of occurrence Key concept Time of occurrence
China‟s illegal operation and disruptive activities 170 China‟s sovereignty over the waters 69
Vietnam‟s sovereignty over the waters 95 Vietnam‟s disruptive activities 66
Vietnam‟s legal operation and defense 49 China‟s legal operation 33
Viewpoints on China‟s activities of Vietnam and 42 China‟s peaceful measures and strategies 32 international community
Vietnam‟s peaceful measures and strategies 23 China‟s viewpoints on
Vietnam‟s activities 27 International law/Acts 16 International law/Acts 13
The media narratives from Vietnam and China consistently focus on six key topics, emphasizing the legitimate ownership of their respective waters by their citizens Intrusions into these exclusive economic zones are portrayed as illegal and provocative, reflecting a disregard for international law Despite facing aggressive actions from opposing nations, both countries prioritize peaceful resolutions, viewing violence as a last resort for self-defense The storytelling techniques employed by journalists reveal their underlying ideologies, prompting a detailed analysis of how reiteration is used to convey these messages to readers.
In analyzing the media coverage from China and Vietnam regarding their territorial disputes, it is evident that both countries adopted distinct approaches China's media equally emphasized its sovereign rights over the contested waters and Vietnam's provocative actions, with 69 and 66 mentions respectively This balanced focus reflects China's need to address global criticism of its claims and operations in the disputed area Chinese reporters aimed to validate their stance to the international community while also highlighting Vietnam's aggressive moves, portraying it as a threat to establish a clearer narrative of the situation.
Vietnam's news coverage heavily focused on China's illegal operations and disruptive activities, mentioned 170 times, while discussions of Vietnam's sovereign rights appeared 95 times This stark contrast highlights Vietnam's differing priorities compared to China With global support for its stance, Vietnam aims to showcase China's image as a belligerent and law-breaking nation Nonetheless, Vietnam's legitimate ownership of the waters remains indisputable, which is reflected in the significant emphasis on sovereignty-related topics in the discourse.
Sovereignty-related issues are a primary focus for journalists, as evidenced by their significant mention in news reports, appearing 95 times in Vietnam's media and 69 times in China's media.
Table 3: The frequency of inter-related words to sovereignty in Vietnamese online news coverage
Vietnam’s sovereignty over the waters 95
(Vietnam‟s/ its/ Vietnamese) waters sovereignty, sovereign rights, jurisdiction continental shelf of Vietnam, Vietnam‟s continental shelf mainland coast of Vietnam, its coast exclusive economic zone the East Sea
Hoang Sa (archipelago/area), Tri Ton Island, Ly Son Island
Table 4: The frequency of inter-related words to sovereignty in Chinese online news coverage
China’s sovereignty over the waters 69
(Chinese/ its/ territorial) waters sovereignty, sovereign rights, jurisdiction
Xisha Islands, China‟s islands the South China Sea (waters)
China‟s inherent territory, Chinese territory
China‟s maritime rights disputed waters,controversial islands
The article highlights key phrases that emphasize Vietnam's maritime boundaries, including "Vietnamese continental shelf," "mainland coast of Vietnam," "Vietnam's waters," and "Vietnam's exclusive economic zone," while contrasting them with China's claims of "China's inherent territory."
“Chinese territorial waters” (in China‟s news) To make that territorial claim more persuasive, the exact position of the zone was also described Take these following as examples:
(37) “The location was 80 nautical miles deep in Vietnam’s continental shelf and was 119 nautical miles to Vietnam’s Ly Son Island and 130 nautical miles to its coast.” (en.vietnamplus.vn)
(38) “…the waters where Chinese company operates is close to China's Xisha Islands, being only 17 nautical miles away from China's Zhongjian Island…” (news.xinhuanet.com/english)
Additionally, with any territorial violation, “sovereignty”, “sovereign rights” and
“jurisdiction” were always stated as an affirmation of their motherland‟s entitlement of the waters
(39) “China has irrefutable sovereignty over the Nansha Islands and their adjacent waters.” (globaltimes.com)
Vietnam possesses comprehensive legal and historical evidence to assert its sovereignty over the Hoang Sa and Truong Sa archipelagos, along with its sovereign rights and jurisdiction over its exclusive economic zones and continental shelf.
The designation of names for the body of water highlights ownership claims, with Chinese media referring to it as the "South China Sea" 14 times, while Vietnamese journalists prefer the term "East Sea," using it 16 times.
Likewise, the islands by which the oil rig was located were named Xisha in Chinese but “Hoang Sa” in Vietnamese (14 and 16 times respectively)
Apparently, the use of overwording indicates the reporters‟ political stance However, it is noteworthy that in Chinese news, there are three times “disputed” and
“controversial” was tagged as the attribute of the zone It shows the reporters‟ strong belief to China‟s legal ownership of the waters, to some degree, seemed to be shaken
Both sides firmly believe that the waters belong to their respective maritime territories, leading residents to view their activities as legal Any intrusion or action by the opposing party is perceived as illegal, jeopardizing sovereignty and jurisdiction Consequently, it is evident that reporters tend to portray their own side positively while casting their opponents in a negative light.
Table 5: The frequency of inter-related words to China’s legal operation in
China's legal oil drilling operations involve thorough investigations and development activities in designated drilling fields These tasks are supported by civil and government vessels that ensure safety and security during the exploration and extraction of oil and gas resources.
China asserts its authority over its claimed territory, emphasizing its right to conduct "oil and gas exploration and development activities." Terms such as "China's legal drilling operation" and "legitimate oil drilling" were mentioned 24 times, reflecting the nation's insistence on its "normal operation." Additionally, the presence of civil vessels engaged in routine work and government vessels on "escort and security missions," cited nine times in the news, underscores the justification of China's activities in the region.
Vietnam's actions are portrayed as illegal disruptions to the operations of Chinese companies, leading to a depiction of Vietnam as hostile and irrational The article emphasizes the frequent mention of "armed" or "military" vessels, with a total of 12 occurrences, alongside strong action verbs and negative connotations such as "rammed," "slammed," "smashed," and "rampaged," highlighting the aggressive nature of Vietnam's activities.
The article highlights the intense portrayal of Vietnam's turmoil, emphasizing terms like "damage," "collision," and "disruptive" to illustrate the country's severe disruptions Additionally, the frequent use of related words such as "atrocity," "rioting," and "rioters" underscores the brutality and fervent nationalism among Vietnamese citizens This repetition clearly indicates the reporters' negative perspective on Vietnam's situation.
Table 6: The frequency of inter-related words to Vietnam’s disruptive activities in Chinese online news coverage
Armed military vessels have been deployed to target and disrupt activities at sea, often resulting in collisions that cause significant damage These vessels are frequently dispatched to respond to rioting or acts of aggression, where they may ram or slam into other ships, creating an atmosphere of tension and obstruction The ongoing attacks and rampaging behavior of some vessels contribute to a chaotic environment, leading to serious atrocities and disruptions in maritime operations.
A summary of the findings
This study employs Fairclough’s three-dimensional framework and Halliday’s Systemic Functional Grammar to explore the intricate connections between language, ideology, and political stance The analysis reveals the underlying ideologies that shape perceptions of “us,” highlighting how language reflects and reinforces political identities.
The online media coverage from both sides aims to promote a favorable self-image while undermining the opposing view This article will outline the commonalities and distinctions in how journalists from two countries utilize transitivity and overwording to express their ideologies.
Reporters predominantly utilized material clauses to highlight the "aggressive" and "irrational" actions of the opposing party, portraying them as the main instigators of regional tension In contrast, they emphasized their own side's legal operations and peace-loving nature, often employing a self-victimization strategy to portray the opponent's actions as illegal and reckless, thereby damaging their image Verbal clauses reflected a bias, with a majority of voices favoring one side while excluding the perspective of the "other." Similarly, relational clauses focused on the legitimacy of each side's claims regarding territorial waters, reinforcing their respective narratives.
The opponent's actions reflect a blatant disregard for international law, portraying them as a warmonger, lawbreaker, and a source of regional instability.
Both sides emphasized six key themes in their discourse, highlighting their respective countries' legitimate rights and operations in the disputed area They expressed a preference for peaceful measures and strategies in response to perceived provocations from the other side, while also underscoring their commitment to international law Additionally, both parties sought to assert their sovereignty by referencing the names they assigned to the contested region, with Vietnam specifically highlighting its claims.
“East Sea” and “Hoang Sa Archipelagos” to refer to the zone, China insisted on the
“South China Sea” and “Xisha Islands” Another similarity is in the lexical choices used to depict each side Positive or neutral lexis was likely to be employed to portray
In the analysis, our side employed positive language to frame our actions favorably, while their side was characterized by negative lexical choices This contrast was evident through a selection of strong verbs and words with negative connotations, highlighting the law-breaking tactics attributed to the opposing party, which they viewed as entirely legitimate.
The common characteristics highlighted reveal the ideologies of news reporters, who tend to depict their own nations positively to garner global support in water ownership disputes In contrast, opposing parties are often portrayed negatively, characterized as aggressive and acting unlawfully within a rule-based community.
The differences between the online media coverage of both sides mainly lay in the proportion of their attention paid to each matter
Vietnamese online news coverage exhibits a tendency to utilize material processes to portray China's actions as "disruptive," while positioning Vietnam as a victim of Chinese aggression This approach reflects the journalists' ideologies aimed at tarnishing China's image and garnering international disapproval of its activities The employment of third-party voices serves to illustrate China's isolation in its territorial claims, as global sentiment largely condemns its actions In contrast, the use of external voices in Vietnam's coverage tends to support Vietnam's stance, characterizing China's behavior as belligerent and threatening The focus of relational clauses differs between the two nations; China emphasizes its territorial rights and the legitimacy of its oil drilling, while Vietnamese reporters highlight the illegal nature of China's operations This strategy aims to assert Vietnam's rightful claim to the disputed waters and to depict China as aggressive and irrational.
The analysis of lexical choices reveals distinct priorities in the online media coverage of China and Vietnam, reflecting their respective ideologies Chinese media focused equally on asserting sovereignty over contested waters and portraying Vietnam's actions as provocative, aiming to persuade the international community of China's legitimacy in the region By highlighting Vietnam's perceived aggression and lawlessness, China sought to garner global support Conversely, Vietnamese news prioritized the portrayal of China's illegal operations and disruptive activities, framing it as a warlike and law-breaking nation to attract sympathetic votes from the international audience Notably, Chinese journalists expressed uncertainty regarding China's claims by referring to "the disputed waters," a nuance absent in Vietnamese reporting.
The analysis reveals notable disparities in the portrayal of two political parties within news reports, indicating a clear connection between media coverage and political ideologies This suggests that journalists and media organizations may be subject to political influence, impacting the objectivity of their reporting.
In conclusion, language serves as a powerful tool for asserting control and ideology, significantly influencing readers' thoughts and actions This manipulation is particularly potent in newspapers, where the strategic use of language can shape perceptions Consequently, it is essential for readers to recognize how language is employed in news media to reveal the underlying ideological messages.
Limitation and recommendation for further studies
One key limitation of this study is its small-scale database, as it only analyzes twelve news reports Consequently, the findings cannot be generalized to represent the broader characteristics of Vietnamese and Chinese news coverage regarding the dispute.
Due to the researcher's time constraints and limited expertise, this study focused on specific textual features of language Future research could explore additional aspects of news discourse, including passivization, nominalization, sentence modes, and thematization.
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APPENDIX 1: THE 10-QUESTIONS MODEL OF THE DESCRIPTION
1 What experiential values do words have?
What classification schemes are drawn upon?
Are there words which are ideologically contested?
Is there rewording or overwording?
What ideologically significant meaning relations (synonymy, hyponymy, antonymy) are there between words?
2 What relational values do words have?
Are there markedly formal or informal words?
3 What expressive values do words have?
5 What experiential values do grammatical features have?
What types of process and participants predominate?
Are processes what they seem?
Are sentences active or passive?
Are sentences positive or negative?
6 What relational values do grammatical features have?
What modes (declarative, grammatical question, imperative) are used?
Are there important features of relational modality?
Are the pronouns we and you used and if so, how?
7 What expressive values do grammatical features have?
Are there important features of expressive modality?
8 How are (simple) sentences linked together?
What logical connectors are used?
Are complex sentences characterized by coordination or/ subordination? What means are used for referring inside and outside the text?
9 What interactional conventions are used?
Are there ways in which one participant controls the turns of others?
10 What larger scale structures does the text have?
China urges Vietnam to respect its sovereign rights over Xisha Islands
Source: globaltimes.cn Published: May 9, 2014 – 21:40:14
China on Friday again urged Vietnam to respect China's sovereign rights and jurisdiction over the Xisha Islands in the South China Sea and stop provocative actions
During a regular press briefing, Foreign Ministry Spokeswoman Hua Chunying emphasized that the Xisha Islands are an integral part of China's territory and asserted that there are no disputes regarding this region.
The waters of China's drilling operations are only 17 nautical miles from China's Xisha Islands, she said, adding that the operations are about 150 nautical mies from Vietnam
Chinese companies' operations in the waters surrounding the Xisha Islands are fully aligned with China's sovereignty It is unacceptable for any nation to issue irresponsible statements or obstruct China's legitimate oil drilling activities within its territorial waters.
From May 3 to 7, Vietnam dispatched 36 vessels, which rammed Chinese vessels up to 171 times
According to Yi Xianliang, deputy director-general of the Department of Boundary and Ocean Affairs of China's Foreign Ministry, the Chinese presence in the area consists solely of government and civilian vessels, whereas Vietnam has deployed numerous armed vessels.
During the recent collisions, the Chinese authorities identified Vietnamese frogmen operating just 5 meters from Chinese government vessels Additionally, the Vietnamese side deployed numerous fishing nets and large obstacles in the waters, which not only posed security threats to Chinese vessels and facilities but also endangered safe navigation in the area.
Hua said Vietnam's actions have violated international laws, infringed on China's sovereignty and jurisdiction, and endangered navigational freedom
The recent disruptions caused by Vietnam have prompted China to implement additional security measures to safeguard maritime operations and ensure safe navigation, which she stated is essential for maintaining regional peace and stability.
The US State Department, represented by spokeswoman Jen Psaki, expressed opposition to provocative or unilateral actions that threaten peace and security in the South China Sea Additionally, the US criticized China for its exploration activities, labeling them as "provocative and unhelpful" to the region's peace and stability.
Hua said the US has made irresponsible remarks over the maritime issues in recent days, which have encouraged some countries' provocative activities
She called on the United States to speak and act cautiously, stop making irresponsible remarks, and do more to safeguard regional peace and stability
Japanese Foreign Minister Fumio Kishida stated that Japan considers China's drilling operations in the South China Sea to be "provocative" to regional security He emphasized that Beijing should provide clarity to Vietnam and the international community regarding the rationale behind its escalating maritime activities.
In response to Kishida's remarks, Hua said relevant Japanese officials should not make comments before figuring out basic facts
"Japan itself should respect the basic facts and international laws through concrete actions," she added
On May 16, 2014, China formally protested to Vietnam following violent riots against Chinese companies, which were sparked by ongoing disputes in the South China Sea The unrest resulted in the deaths of at least two Chinese nationals and left over 100 others injured.
The riots have spread to central Vietnam, after thousands of people smashed and looted foreign plants in industrial zones in the country's south Tuesday
One casualty was caused in an overnight riot at an iron and steel complex in Ha Tinh Province, invested in by Taipei-based Formosa Plastics Group
Formosa reported that a strike involving hundreds of Vietnamese workers at its plant escalated into violence, leading to attacks on Chinese mainland workers and damage to offices and equipment.
China 19th Metallurgical Corporation (MCC19), a contractor for construction of the plant, was one of the worst hit companies
"As we counted, the hospital has received 75 Chinese nationals, while the hospital says 101 are admitted," a high-ranking official with MCC19 was quoted by the Xinhua News Agency as saying
The official said the Chinese victims died before reaching hospital, and around 10 others still remain unaccounted for
Dang Quoc Khanh, a local official in the province, told state-run VTV that at least 149 people were injured, and police had arrested 76 people and opened an investigation
A worker from mainland China was discovered deceased at a Taiwan-funded factory located in Binh Duong Province, southern Vietnam, according to David Chen, the former chairman of the Council of Taiwanese Chambers of Commerce in the region, as reported by the Global Times.
A staff member of a Chinese business association in Hanoi told the Global Times that there have been around 90 Chinese people injured in riots as far as they know
According to Reuters, the death toll from the recent riots has risen, with a doctor in Ha Tinh reporting that five Vietnamese workers and 16 individuals identified as Chinese were killed on Wednesday night.
However, Vietnam's foreign ministry spokesperson Le Hai Binh only confirmed one death in
Ha Tinh, and described media reports and accounts on social networking sites of higher casualties as "groundless," reported Reuters
On Thursday night, China's Foreign Minister Wang Yi spoke with Vietnamese counterpart Pham Binh Minh, condemning the recent riots and expressing a formal protest Wang emphasized that Vietnam holds "inescapable responsibility" for the attacks on Chinese businesses and citizens, urging Hanoi to halt the violence and ensure the safety of Chinese nationals and enterprises He also called for a thorough investigation into the incidents and compensation for the damages suffered by Chinese firms and individuals.
Minh said more than 1,000 suspects have been arrested, and Hanoi will severely punish those responsible
The Chinese government has dispatched a work group to Vietnam