Rationale of the study
Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) is an interdisciplinary approach that examines language as a social practice, highlighting its significance in understanding discourse In contemporary society, mass media—including newspapers, magazines, and broadcasts—plays a crucial role in shaping human life Media discourse, one of the key areas of CDA, serves as a primary source of information that influences and regulates social norms and personal values.
The South China Sea conflicts have sparked global controversy, particularly among powerful nations like the United States and China, as well as other Asian countries Every day, countless online articles are published on this topic across various websites This study employs Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) as outlined by Fairclough, alongside Systemic Functional Grammar (SFG), to examine the data and uncover American ideologies reflected in the discourse surrounding these conflicts.
O'Halloran (2003) defines Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) as a linguistic field focused on uncovering cultural and ideological meanings present in both spoken and written language.
Discourse is viewed as a system of statements that constructs meaning (1992, p.5) Extensive research in discourse analysis by experts has led to the emergence of Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA), aimed at uncovering the meanings behind both written and spoken texts Many speeches and news articles often contain hidden meanings, making it challenging for audiences to grasp their true significance CDA serves as an effective tool for clarifying the complexities of spoken and written language.
Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) employs various techniques to uncover the meanings behind texts in today's information-saturated society With news media presenting diverse perspectives and serving multiple purposes, understanding the underlying social dynamics, power relationships, and hidden ideologies in news reports is essential Employing CDA allows for a deeper comprehension of how issues and individuals are portrayed, revealing the true nature of the narratives presented.
Tensions between China and Vietnam in the South China Sea have reached a critical point, particularly following the deployment of China's HD-981 drilling rig by CNOOC in disputed waters near the Paracel Islands on May 2, 2014 Vietnam has strongly opposed this action, asserting that the rig is situated on its continental shelf, leading to a significant maritime standoff as both nations mobilized ships and military assets The situation escalated on May 7, when Vietnam accused Chinese vessels of aggressive tactics, including the use of high-powered water cannons and ramming incidents Given the gravity of these developments, there is a notable lack of analysis regarding the language used in online news coverage of the conflict This article aims to explore the underlying American ideologies reflected in online news narratives concerning the South China Sea disputes through the lens of Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA).
Aim and objectives of the study
Investigate American ideologies embedded in some American online news on the conflicts in the South China Sea from 2014-2015
Raise a critical awareness for the language learners and newspaper readers: to develop the ability of critical thinking when they read a text.
The following objective is set to accomplish the aim:
Explore the American reporters‟ underlying ideologies through analyzing the linguistic features of the news reports, which also present the close link between ideologies and media language.
Research question
In accordance with the objectives of the study, the research is conducted to find out answers to the following research question:
What are American ideologies on the issue of the South China Sea conflicts hidden in the linguistic expressions?
Scope of the study
This study examines online news coverage of the South China Sea conflicts from 2014 to 2015, emphasizing that a broader information scope enhances the reliability of research findings Due to time constraints and the limitations of a minor thesis, only ten news reports from reputable sources such as CNN, Los Angeles Times, NBC News, New York Times, and the Center for Strategic and International Studies were analyzed Importantly, this thesis does not aim to influence readers' political views but is dedicated solely to academic purposes.
Method of the study
The methodological approach is grounded in discourse analysis, employing qualitative content analysis as its primary research method This investigation utilizes Fairclough's three-dimensional model to enhance understanding of the data.
(2001) will be combined with Halliday‟s Systemic functional grammar to analyze the news.
Structure of the study
The organization of this thesis is presented as follows
This part presents an overview of the research in which the rationale, the aims, the research questions, the scope as well as the organization are shortly expressed
Chapter 1: Literature Review (This section provides basic concepts, theoretical framework and related research of the study)
Chapter 2: Research Methodology (This part presents a detailed description of methodological choices for the study: data collection procedures and data analysis procedures.)
Chapter 3: Findings and Discussion (This sector gives the findings and discussions of the study)
The last part summaries the study, gives some conclusion points to the study, and discusses the limitations of the study as well as suggestions for further research.
Discourse analysis
Van Dijk, T.A (1998) states discourse analysis (DA), or discourse studies, is a general term for a number of approaches to analyze written, vocal, or sign language use, or any significant semiotic event
Discourse analysis encompasses various forms of communication, including discourse, writing, conversation, and communicative events, defined by coherent sequences of sentences and speech Unlike traditional linguistics, discourse analysts focus on language use beyond sentence boundaries and prioritize the examination of naturally occurring language rather than invented examples While closely related, text linguistics differs from discourse analysis in its emphasis on text structure, with discourse analysis aiming to uncover the socio-psychological characteristics of individuals involved in communication.
Discourse analysis is a multidisciplinary field that spans various areas within the humanities and social sciences, such as linguistics, education, sociology, anthropology, and communication studies Each discipline brings its unique assumptions, analytical dimensions, and methodologies to the study of discourse Key topics within discourse analysis encompass a wide range of subjects, highlighting its relevance across different academic domains.
The various levels or dimensions of discourse, such as sounds (intonation, etc.), gestures, syntax, the lexicon, style, rhetoric, meanings, speech acts, moves, strategies, turns, and other aspects of interaction
Genres of discourse (various types of discourse in politics, the media, education, science, business, etc.)
The relations between discourse and the emergence of syntactic structure
The relations between text (discourse) and context
The relations between discourse and power
The relations between discourse and interaction
The relations between discourse and cognition and memory
Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA)
1.2.1 The origin of Critical Discourse Analysis
Critical Linguistics (CL) emerged in the mid-1970s to explore the connections between language, ideology, and social structure, influenced by the Critical Theory of the Frankfurt School and Marxist philosophy Pioneers Roger Fowler, Tony Trew, and Gunther Kress argued that language users' worldviews are shaped by their relationships with societal institutions and socio-economic structures, suggesting that ideology is linguistically mediated They emphasized the necessity for a critical linguistic analysis that goes beyond formal or neutral approaches, advocating for a linguistics that is aware of its foundational assumptions and reflects on the underlying causes of the phenomena it studies, as well as the nature of the society from which the language arises.
The systemic functionalist linguistics was where CL relied for an analytical framework M A K Halliday‟s books Language as Social Semiotic
The works "Language as Social Semiotic" (1978) and "Introduction to Functional Grammar" (1985) were pivotal in the field of Critical Linguistic Analyses, emphasizing the connection between grammar and real-world contexts According to Halliday (2004: 24), understanding grammar requires consideration of external factors, including social processes and the conditions of the world we inhabit.
Halliday's Systemic Functional Linguistics lays the foundation for three key assumptions in Communicative Linguistics (CL): First, language fulfills various specific functions, with all linguistic forms and processes reflecting these functions Second, the choices speakers make from the available linguistic forms are systematic and principled Lastly, the relationship between form and content is meaningful, as form inherently signifies content rather than being arbitrary or conventional.
Halliday's Functionalist Grammar serves as a foundational analytical method for Critical Linguistics (CL) and remains significant for its descendants, particularly Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) Understanding Hallidayan systemic functional grammar is crucial, as it underpins many studies in CDA, highlighting the necessity of grasping Halliday's linguistic analysis principles for a comprehensive understanding of discourse analysis (Wodak and Meyer, 2002).
1.2.2 The definition of Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA)
Van Dijk identifies three key domains of discourse: language use, the communication of beliefs, and social interaction This interplay among these domains highlights the importance of a multidisciplinary approach to discourse analysis.
In the early 1990s, a new school of thought emerged that sought to analyze discourse through a multidisciplinary lens, leading to the establishment of Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) as a significant paradigm in the field.
Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) is a research approach that examines how social power, dominance, and inequality are expressed and challenged through language in social and political contexts (O'Halloran, 2003, p.11) Traditionally focused on news texts to uncover language manipulation, CDA has expanded to analyze the speeches of modern politicians and influential figures, who often use language strategically for personal gain This analysis aims to reveal the underlying meanings and potential misleading elements in political discourse, helping to clarify the intentions behind the rhetoric (O'Halloran, 2003, p.3).
CDA encompasses several key elements, including its focus on addressing social issues, the discursive nature of power dynamics, and the interplay between discourse, society, and culture It highlights the historical context of discourse and its role in performing ideological functions, viewing discourse as a form of social action that permeates our daily lives (O'Halloran, 2003, p.16).
O‟Halloran (2003) suggests that mystification is embedded within CDA and suggests a few concepts in mystification analysis These include
Transitivity addresses the grammatical significance of words within a clause, while ideal passivisation fosters a sense of detachment between the writer and the reader Additionally, ideal normalisation involves transforming a verb into a noun, enhancing clarity and coherence in writing.
Wodak et al (2001) highlight that Critical Linguistics and Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) are often used interchangeably by various linguists, emphasizing that CDA aims to "critically investigate social inequality as it is expressed, signalled, constituted and legitimised." A review of the literature supports this notion, indicating that CDA is not confined to a single theory but draws on diverse theoretical concepts from multiple researchers Additionally, Van Leeuwen (2008) incorporates modern tools in CDA, which primarily consist of a blend of theories and frameworks derived from earlier discourse analysis work.
Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) has faced ongoing criticism for its theoretical foundations, lack of scientific rigor, and questionable analytical methods Edward Haig notably remarks on the significant number of CDA critics, suggesting that their growing scrutiny may lead to the emergence of a new academic subfield dedicated to this critique (2014: 5).
Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) faces criticism for providing a singular interpretation and asserting that more detailed analyses yield more convincing conclusions Henry Widdowson (1998) contends that CDA's analytical principles lack clarity and are biased, as they overlook the perspectives of both writers and readers He highlights that the intentions of text producers are inferred rather than established through empirical consultation, leading analysts to selectively use linguistic features to reinforce their biases Additionally, the debate surrounding the adequacy of CDA interpretations remains contentious, with critics arguing that CDA can only achieve interpretative adequacy, while proponents believe it offers deeper insights.
Fairclough and Wodak (1997) argue that Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) allows for a systematic deconstruction of texts, revealing the ideologies and power relations within Unlike uncritical readings, CDA aims for explanatory adequacy, emphasizing the importance of scientific procedures and self-reflection among researchers This approach contrasts with pure hermeneutics, as CDA is explanatory rather than merely interpretative Furthermore, interpretations in CDA are dynamic and continually evolving, remaining open to new contexts and information.
A significant critique of Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) is the concern that analysts may hold partial or political biases that influence their interpretations While this criticism suggests that CDA researchers lack objectivity, they acknowledge this stance Importantly, the presence of a particular viewpoint does not diminish the scientific validity of CDA.
Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) is unique among scholarship as it openly acknowledges and defends its sociopolitical stance, embracing its inherent bias (Wodak, Meyer 2001: 96) This self-awareness addresses critiques directed at CDA, highlighting its commitment to understanding political discourse The aim of this study is to discern trustworthy insights from CDA, focusing on the linguistic features of political communication, which are more than mere stylistic choices Wodak and Meyer (2001) underscore the importance of these features in analyzing how politicians convey their messages.
“discourse analysis with an attitude”, and they are in “solidarity with the oppressed ones” (96)
1.2.4 The relations of CDA to Power and Ideology
Michael Halliday‟s systemic functional grammar
Systemic functional grammar (SFG), developed by Michael Halliday in the 1960s in the U.K., is a key component of systemic functional linguistics, a broader social semiotic approach to language The term "systemic" refers to a network of interrelated systems that provide options for meaning-making, while "functional" emphasizes the approach's focus on meaning over traditional formal grammar.
Systemic Functional Grammar (SFG), as explained by Halliday (1994), is a lexico-grammatical theory centered on the concept of choice, interpreting language as “networks of interlocking options.” It emphasizes the choices available to speakers and writers, linking their intentions to the specific forms of language used SFG analyzes language across three strata: semantics, phonology, and lexico-grammar, integrating both structure and vocabulary Halliday identifies three metafunctions within SFG: the ideational metafunction, which reflects experiences; the interpersonal metafunction, which conveys attitudes and feelings; and the textual metafunction, which organizes and presents information Each metafunction contributes to the overall meaning of communication, often represented in different parts of a message (Thompson, 2004).
Transitivity is an essential analytical element for exploring the ideational metafunction of language It encompasses six process types: Material, Mental, Relational, Behavioral, Verbal, and Existential Below is a summary table that outlines these process types.
Summary of process types (adapted from Halliday, 1994: 143)
Process type Definition Category meaning
Processes of doing things; express the notion that some entity does something, which may be done “to” some other entity
Action 'doing' The boy hit the dog
Event 'happening' The mayor resigned
(typically human) physiological and psychological behavior like breathing, coughing,
3 Mental A kind of activity in people‟s mind, requires a conscious participant
Affection 'feeling' The boy loved the girl
Cognition 'thinking' She didn‟t believe her husband
4 Verbal Processes of saying 'saying' Sayer,
John told me the truth
„existing‟ Existent There was a storm
The interpersonal metafunction encompasses linguistic elements designed for interaction, such as requesting and sharing information, as well as conveying attitudes This involves understanding the mood structure of English, which determines whether a clause is declarative or interrogative.
The metafunction of tenor in a text relates to interactivity and encompasses three key components: the speaker or writer's persona, social distance, and relative social status While social distance and relative social status primarily apply to spoken texts, the speaker/writer persona reflects the individual's stance and level of personalization This includes assessing the neutrality of the speaker's attitude through their choice of positive or negative language Social distance indicates the closeness between speakers, illustrated by the use of nicknames that signify intimacy In contrast, relative social status examines the power dynamics and knowledge equality between speakers, such as the inherent imbalance in a mother-child relationship Key considerations include speech acts, topic selection, turn management, and each speaker's ability to evaluate the subject matter.
The textual metafunction focuses on how messages are organized within texts, as described by Halliday and Matthiessen (2004: 30) This organization is achieved through various features, including cohesion—such as ellipsis, substitution, and lexical cohesion—and the thematic structure of the text.
CDA and SFL share a mutual interest in the relationship between language and society, with CDA employing SFL as a critical tool for analyzing texts and discourses SFL's emphasis on language use and its informative and social functions makes it particularly appealing to CDA While other linguistic models can also aid CDA, they often focus more on syntactic structure and less on the functional aspects of language, which diminishes their appeal to CDA analysts Currently, SFG is utilized globally, especially in language education and discourse analysis.
Norman Fairclough and CDA
In the field of Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA), Fairclough's approach, developed in the 1980s, remains a dominant method for examining discourse His framework posits that language production and interpretation are fundamentally influenced by power dynamics Fairclough articulates that individual experiences shape language use, but these experiences are themselves influenced by social organization, which is ultimately governed by power structures For instance, commercialism and corporate interests shape news narratives, affecting readers' experiences and the language used in discussions Thus, analyzing texts requires an exploration of the interplay between texts, social processes, and their contextual conditions, encapsulated in Fairclough's three-dimensional model of discourse.
Discourse comprises three interconnected elements: social practice, discoursal practice (including text production, distribution, and consumption), and the text itself Analyzing a specific discourse requires examining these three dimensions and their relationships The hypothesis posits that there are meaningful connections between text features, the methods of text construction and interpretation, and the characteristics of the social practice involved.
Fairclough's model of Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) categorizes discourse into three interconnected aspects: the physical text (either spoken or written), discourse practice, and social practice He emphasizes the significance of examining the interplay between these three levels within any discourse This model offers a comprehensive framework for exploring the multifaceted nature of discourse and language usage.
The first level of analysis consists of the text itself This level concerns, for example, the grammatical (e.g modality and transitivity; Fairclough 1995:
In the descriptive stage of text analysis, as outlined by Fairclough (1989), the focus is on the formal properties of the text, including its linguistic features This involves an exploration of vocabulary choices, grammatical structures, and overall textual organization Fairclough proposes ten key questions, along with additional sub-questions, to facilitate a deeper understanding of these elements The vocabulary section examines the selection of words, while the grammar section relates closely to Halliday's systemic-functional grammar, and the textual structures section addresses the comprehensive organization of the discourse.
Fairclough (1989) emphasizes that interpretation involves understanding the relationship between text and interaction, viewing the text as both a product of production and a resource for interpretation During this stage, it is essential to analyze the connection between discourse, its production, and its consumption Discourse should be seen not only as text but also as a discursive practice, which entails examining linguistic features and text structure while also considering factors such as speech acts and intertextuality that link the text to its broader context.
The dimension of text as discursive practice encompasses two key processes: the institutional process, which refers to editorial procedures, and the discourse process, which involves the transformations a text undergoes during production and consumption A crucial concept in understanding the discourse process is "intertextuality," which highlights the relationships between discourse, texts, and their contexts Discourse should not merely be viewed as a linguistic expression but as a form of discursive practice It is essential to consider the factors influencing how news discourse is produced and interpreted, emphasizing the importance of news sources and reporting methods in the interpretive analysis of news reports (Fairclough, 1995).
According to Fairclough (1989), explanation involves examining the relationship between interaction and social context, as well as the social influences on production and interpretation processes and their effects In this regard, news discourse is viewed as a social practice heavily influenced by sociality and institutions Therefore, discourse analysis, particularly in news reporting, seeks to uncover the underlying power dynamics, ideologies, and language through the lenses of institutional and societal contexts (Fairclough, 1995) This explanation stage aligns with the broader dimensions of discourse analysis.
Discourse functions as a social practice, specifically as a sociocultural practice, where elements such as ideology and power are considered This approach allows for a comprehensive understanding of how the sociocultural context influences the creation and interpretation of texts.
The three interconnected steps are essential for uncovering the underlying linguistic, inter-textual, and social factors in news discourse analysis This comprehensive exploration aims to reveal the strategies employed by Trump in his political speeches.
In short, Fairclough subsequently gives three stages of CDA, which are in accord with the three mentioned above levels of discourse:
● Description is the stage which is concerned with the formal properties of the text
● Interpretation is concerned with the relationship between text and interaction with seeing the text as a product of a process of production, and as a resource in the process of interpretation…
● Explanation is concerned with the relationship between interaction and social context with the social determination of the processes of production and interpretation, and their social effects
Fairclough's three-dimensional framework for analysis of discourse
A framework for Critical Discourse Analysis of a communicative event
(Extracted from Fairclough 1995: 59) text production
Fairclough adopts a multifunctional perspective on text, emphasizing that the analysis of a written sentence should focus on the expression of three primary functions: ideational, interpersonal, and textual This approach highlights the significance of text consumption, discourse practices, and sociocultural contexts in understanding meaning and communication.
particular representations and recontextualizations of social practice (this is the ideational function of the sentence and may carry particular ideologies)
particular constructions of writer and reader identities (for instance, in terms of what is highlighted)
a particular construction of the relationship between writer and reader (for example, formal or informal; close or distant)
The analysis of any text relies on three essential categories, particularly in media discourse analysis involving press and television To understand how meanings are constructed, it is crucial to examine not only language but also other semiotic elements, including photographic images, layout, visual organization, film, and sound effects.
In the text analysis level, several questions are listed to guide:
1 How are words used to show ideology?
2 What patterns of transitivity - grammatical processes and participants - are found? Considering material processes, are Actors (agents) inanimate or animate, and if the later, what kinds of individuals? Similarly for Affected and beneficiary And again the same questions with reference to Relational processes, Mental Processes and Verbal processes This reveals a lot about agency, who does what to whom (Affected) or is the action not directed toward an Affected party? What kinds of entity are shown as having existence or being in a certain state or entering into a relationship?
3 Passives - is this used to delete agency and is there an ideological function?
4 Nominalization - what processes are converted into nouns, and what is the effect (absence of both participants)
5 Choices of mood - how does the sentence form - declarative, interrogative, and imperative - position the subjects?
6 Choices of modality - how do they reflect relational and expressive values? Modal verbs like may, might, must, should, can, and their negatives all express values relating to the authority of one participant, or degrees of certainty, or the evaluation of truth or capability Claims to knowledge have an important ideological function
7 Thematic structure - the choice of entity to fill theme position in the clause (initial position) is important in signaling what a text is considered to be about Such an entity is automatically fore grounded
8 Speech acts - who is represented as asking questions, making requests, giving undertakings of various kinds, giving orders, etc Also, what strategies of directness are employed in the performance of these and other speech acts This can tell much about social relationships
9 Presuppositions - there are many types of this but the basic idea that it is an assumption made by a speaker or writer which is not explicitly stated.
A review of related studies
Teun Van Dijk is a pivotal figure in press news discourse analysis, particularly noted for his 1983 work that enhanced the application of discourse analysis to news structures He systematically describes news discourse in daily press using text linguistics and discourse analysis principles In the 1980s, Van Dijk developed a 'social-cognitive' model that serves as an analytical framework for examining news, focusing on the structures of news, production processes, and comprehension processes His analysis reveals the interconnections between news texts, their production, and comprehension, all within the context of broader social practices, drawing on the foundational models of Herman and Chomsky (1988) and Harley (1982).
Dijk (1988) in CDA, Craig and Lee (1992) compared the US coverage of South
The examination of labor strikes in South Korea and Poland highlights the ideological framework of US international political reporting, revealing that these disputes are often portrayed within an 'us vs them' anti-communist narrative Despite both countries facing similar social structural issues, the US news coverage emphasizes a divisive perspective, framing labor disputes in a way that aligns with broader political agendas.
Korean and Polish workers protested for democratization and the right to establish independent unions, yet the responses to these strikes varied significantly between the two nations In South Korea, the government faced intense pressure to acknowledge the workers' demands, while in Poland, the movement gained substantial support and led to significant political changes.
US mainstream newspapers have largely overlooked the Korean labor dispute, with most coverage relegated to inside pages, while Polish labor strikes received prominent front-page attention, often framed as a crisis of the entire Polish system This disparity highlights that news accounts of similar events are influenced by the country in question, resulting in varying news frameworks and propositions Ultimately, the way US media covers labor disputes reflects an underlying ideological and political opportunism.
Teo (2000) examined two Sydney newspapers (The Sydney Morning
The analysis of news reporting in Australia, particularly by the Herald and The Daily Telegraph, reveals a pattern of ideological dominance over recent Asian migrants, specifically focusing on a gang of young Vietnamese drug-dealers in Sydney Teo's study highlights the newspapers' lexical choices and syntactic structures, illustrating a portrayal of police as powerful while consistently associating the minority with crime This results in a clear positive representation of the dominant group and a negative depiction of the minority Furthermore, Teo's examination of quotation patterns shows a significant imbalance favoring white voices over ethnic minorities By employing Halliday's Systemic Functional Grammar, Teo uncovers the stark contrast in representations of the police and the minority, while also exploring the socio-political forces influencing media narratives in contemporary Australia In a different context, Pan (2002) takes a multi-perspective approach to analyze both international and domestic coverage of the right of abode issue in post-colonial Hong Kong, revealing that the divergent portrayals in four elite newspapers stem from their political beliefs and cultural assumptions, reflecting their inherent ideological stances.
In conclusion, news discourse analysis has long been a significant area of research, with scholars like Van Dijk (1983, 1985, 1988) providing foundational theories and examining various discourse strategies across newspapers reporting on diverse social issues in multiple languages Despite the variety of analytical methods employed, existing studies predominantly focus on newspapers from major countries, leaving a gap in the exploration of American ideologies within political online news This research aims to fill that gap by analyzing American online news from prominent websites to uncover the ideologies of the American public, particularly in relation to the conflicts in the South China Sea.
Research question
The present study attempts to address the following research question: What are American ideologies on the issue of the South China Sea conflicts hidden in the linguistic expressions?
Research approach
Research approaches are essential plans and procedures that outline the steps for collecting, analyzing, and interpreting data (Creswell, 2014) The choice of research approach is influenced by the nature of the research problem and the intended audience In this study, a qualitative research design is deemed appropriate for its capacity to provide an in-depth analysis of processes and meanings that cannot be quantified Qualitative research is distinct from quantitative research based on the philosophical assumptions, strategies, and specific methods employed in the research process (National Science Foundation).
This study employs a qualitative research design, which is essential for exploring and interpreting complex social, political, and human phenomena By focusing on the research problem's nature, qualitative methods offer a deeper understanding and more realistic perspectives on events, actions, or policies that cannot be quantified through numerical or statistical data.
This study analyzes written texts from politicians and reporters, emphasizing the relatability of qualitative data over numerical information By employing qualitative research methods, researchers can better understand the motivations behind actions through exploratory interpretation and sensory engagement This approach enables the investigation of various cases using techniques such as observation, interviews, case studies, and discourse analysis (Berg & Lune 2012, pp 11-14).
Research method
The researcher conducted a study utilizing news websites to analyze written texts that feature American ideological phrases related to the conflicts in the South China Sea.
To uncover the underlying ideologies of reporters, this study employs Fairclough's three-dimensional approach to Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) Utilizing a qualitative method, the research follows the three stages outlined by Fairclough to effectively analyze the news content.
In 2001, it was highlighted that description, interpretation, and explanation are interconnected within a thesis, rather than presented separately, illustrating the direct relationship between each step Specifically, the formal properties of news in textual analysis are closely linked to the reporters' ideologies Fairclough noted that his approach to Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) should serve as a guide rather than a strict framework, allowing for flexibility based on research objectives Consequently, by employing Fairclough's ten questions to examine the formal properties of texts, researchers focus on specific linguistic features to uncover how journalists' ideologies are embedded in their language choices This includes a detailed grammatical analysis of transitivity and negative constructions, as well as an examination of metaphors in lexical selection.
Framework of data analysis
The theoretical framework used for this study is based on Norman
Fairclough's Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) framework, initially developed to explore the relationship between language and power dynamics, has evolved to serve as a specialized tool for analyzing media texts.
The analytical framework is presented as below:
In the descriptive stage, the use of transitivity, metaphors and negative sentences are analyzed to see how ideologies of the journalists are embedded in the news
In the interpretation stage, understanding the context is crucial Fairclough's (2001) guiding questions aid in this process by prompting us to consider what is happening, who is involved, the relationships at play, and the role of language in the situation.
In the final stage of the analysis, the connection between interaction and social context is explored to understand how social structures influence discourse production and interpretation, as well as the impact of discourse on these structures.
Transitivity analysis
Mental processes are internalized functions that encode the meanings of thoughts and feelings, distinct from external actions like speaking and doing According to Halliday and Matthiessen (2004), these processes always involve at least one human participant, referred to as the Sensor, who experiences the process within their mind They engage the human senses—perception, affection, and cognition—and encompass the activities of sensing, thinking, feeling, and perceiving The Phenomenon represents the object of these processes, which is what the Sensor feels, thinks about, or perceives.
The analysis of online news reveals that the mental processes employed by readers significantly enhance their understanding of American perspectives on the South China Sea conflicts This insight highlights the influence of language and verb usage in shaping public ideology regarding this geopolitical issue.
“fears”, “concerned” are used mainly to express the real thoughts of the American government when seeing China‟s actions in expanding their power in the South China Sea
(1) Obama fears China is bullying South China Sea neighbors
Former President Obama has expressed concern over the South China Sea dispute, highlighting his worries about countries being bullied by China The term "bully" effectively captures the tense dynamics in the region, underscoring the serious implications for affected nations.
President Barack Obama expressed concerns that China is leveraging its significant size and power to intimidate smaller nations in the South China Sea This statement reflects the American government's apprehension regarding China's assertive behavior in the region.
(3)… the United States was concerned about the large-scale nature of China‟s land reclamation (nytimes.com)
Here the senser is the government of the United States, who expresses their worried feeling about the reclamation of land of Chinese government in the South China Sea
The mental processes surrounding the South China Sea situation are effectively conveyed, allowing readers to grasp the true circumstances and understand the perspectives of the American public regarding China's expanding actions in the region.
Verbal verbs and clauses, as defined by Halliday (2004), represent "saying" processes that facilitate symbolic exchanges of meaning These elements are crucial in both dialogic sections of narrative texts and in academic writing, where quoting and reporting from various scholars is essential In this context, the doer is referred to as the Sayer, while the affected participants are identified as the Receiver, Verbiage (words), or Target.
In the collected online news about the problem of the South China Sea conflicts, the sentences with the verbal process are used numerously as stated below
(4) In recent weeks, Vietnam has also complained about several unannounced, state-sponsored Chinese flights through Vietnamese-administered airspace in the South China Sea (nytimes.com)
(5) Vietnam asked China to investigate the ramming of a Vietnamese fishing vessel this month by a boat that the captain said was marked with Chinese characters (nytimes.com)
(6) Vietnam formally accused China of violating its sovereignty, as well as a recent confidence-building pact, after Beijing landed a plane on an artificial island built by China (nytimes.com)
Vietnam has consistently advocated for negotiations regarding the recent conflict under the framework of the Convention on the Law of the Sea, distinguishing its approach from that of China.
(8) Taiwan declared that it doesn't recognize the proclaimed access rules as valid, and Vietnam called the Beijing power play "illegal and groundless."
Vietnam is portrayed as a vocal opponent of China's aggressive actions in the South China Sea, firmly standing against these abuses Simultaneously, it is depicted as a patient victim, expressing concerns and making accusations without resorting to illegal activities, in stark contrast to China's behavior.
Hillary Rodham Clinton, the Secretary of State, emphasized the importance of freedom of navigation in the South China Sea and advocated for resolving the ongoing territorial disputes through mediation.
(10) President Obama called on China on Wednesday to halt its construction on reclaimed islands in the South China Sea (nytimes.com)
(11) Mr Obama urged the Chinese to stop military activities…
(12) The Secretary of State John Kerry urged his Chinese counterpart on Wednesday to halt “problematic actions” in the area to provide an opportunity for diplomacy… (nytimes.com)
(13) Mr Kerry expressed hope that the diplomats might make headway in defusing the South China Sea disputes in the coming days (nytimes.com)
Ernest Bower, a Southeast Asia expert at the Center for Strategic and International Studies, characterized it as a "mobile manifestation of Chinese sovereignty," highlighting Beijing's strategy to assert its claims over the abundant resources in the South China Sea.
(15) On Saturday, top U.S officials including Defense Secretary Ash Carter warned China of the risk of isolating itself internationally
U.S Secretary of State John Kerry has called on Beijing to refrain from creating an air defense identification zone in the South China Sea, similar to the one it established in the East China Sea in 2013.
Prominent figures from the American government, including President Obama, Secretary of State Hillary Rodham Clinton, and Secretary of State John Kerry, along with a Southeast Asia expert from the Center for Strategic and International Studies, have emphasized the importance of freedom of navigation They have urged China to cease its construction activities in disputed waters, highlighting ongoing concerns over maritime security and international law.
The American public has voiced strong disapproval of China's military activities and constructions in the South China Sea, urging the Chinese government to halt these problematic actions Concerns have been raised about the potential isolation China may face on the international stage if it continues its current trajectory Additionally, there are calls for Beijing to refrain from establishing an air defense identification zone over the contested waters, reflecting a clear stance against China's assertive maneuvers in the region.
Relational processes encompass the concepts of being and becoming, featuring two modes: attributive and identifying Attributive processes involve a Carrier and an Attribute, describing the characteristics of an entity In contrast, identifying processes consist of a Token and a Value, linking one entity to another through verbs like "be," "have," and "become." These processes classify and connect experiences, similar to the use of the verb "to be" in English They are further categorized into processes of being (intensive and circumstantial) and having (possessive), as outlined by Halliday and Matthiessen (1999).
With the sentences stated below, the readers could know more about the ideology of anti-hegemonic of the American people
(17) …according to the UN Convention on the Law of the Seas (UNCLOS), Vietnam has exclusive rights to all mineral and hydrocarbon resources
The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea underscores Vietnam's sovereignty over the South China Sea, as emphasized by an American journalist's reference to "exclusive rights." This terminology highlights Vietnam's status as the rightful possessor of resources within this maritime area, affirming its entitlement to exploit and manage these valuable assets.
(18) But that area is clearly in dispute
Metaphors
Metaphor is a figure of speech that creates an implicit comparison between unrelated things that share common traits It highlights the resemblance between different objects based on specific characteristics, allowing us to describe a person, place, thing, or action as if it were something else, even though it isn't literally that "something else."
The analysis of online written texts reveals that journalists employ rarely used metaphors to convey the alarming nature of China's expansion in the South China Sea, effectively capturing the reader's attention.
President Barack Obama expressed concerns that China is leveraging its significant size and power to intimidate smaller nations in the South China Sea.
The term "muscle" effectively illustrates the strength of the Chinese government, highlighting its role as a violator of international law and a disruptor of regional peace This choice of language by the reporter successfully conveys the intended message about China's influence and actions on the global stage.
Beginning May 1, naval and coast guard vessels from Vietnam and China have clashed in the South China Sea, utilizing water cannons and allegedly ramming each other This confrontation occurs near a mobile oil-drilling rig that China has deployed, situated less than 150 miles from Vietnam's coastline.
The idiom "game of chicken" refers to a contest between two players who are unwilling to back down, even when doing so poses significant risks In this context, Vietnam is portrayed as participating in a high-stakes standoff with China, characterized by an unwavering resolve.
In the last sentence, the phrase “raising eyebrows” is used to express the opinion of the reporter in an effective way
(23) China‟s island-building is raising eyebrows
China's military activities in the South China Sea have raised eyebrows, evoking feelings of surprise and disapproval among Americans.
Negative sentences
A negative sentence (or statement) states that something is not true or incorrect Negative statements are the opposite of positive statements and are necessary to express an opposing idea
Below are sentences which strongly express the disapproval of the American people on the Chinese actions in the area of the South China Sea
(24) “China has not offered any explanation or basis under international law for these extensive maritime claims,” State Department spokeswoman Jen Psaki told reporters in Washington on Thursday (latimes.com)
(25) “You really can't have a stable Asia if China doesn't feel comfortable with its energy security” (nbcnews.com)
The statement highlights a significant discontent among Americans regarding China's actions and assertions in the South China Sea, emphasizing that China has failed to provide justification under international law Additionally, the reporter's assertion that a stable Asia is unattainable under these circumstances conveys a deep concern about the potential threat China poses to regional stability.
This section offers a comprehensive overview of the study, highlighting key summaries and significant findings related to the research question It also addresses the study's limitations and proposes recommendations for future research endeavors.
A summary of findings
This thesis conducts a critical discourse analysis of online political news from America, focusing specifically on articles by American reporters related to the conflicts in the South China Sea.
Objectivity and authenticity are essential for effective news reporting; however, various interests and ideologies often lead some news outlets to selectively highlight certain "facts" while subtly promoting biased perspectives This trend aims to sway readers' opinions or mislead them without their awareness Recently, the South China Sea dispute, particularly between China and Southeast Asian nations like Vietnam, has intensified, emerging as a critical global issue that captivates significant international attention As the importance of accurate news reporting grows, the South China Sea situation has become a focal point for numerous Western media outlets, igniting widespread public interest and debate.
The theory of Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) is crucial for understanding the linguistic structures within the political context of the South China Sea conflicts Political discourse is inherently tied to the societal and political frameworks that shape it, as highlighted by Schọffner (1996), who emphasizes that linguistic analysis must consider these broader contexts CDA posits that discourse is socially constructive, influencing not only political communication but also everyday language among the public, particularly in regions like the Balkans Wodak and Meyer (2009) reinforce this idea by stating that discourse serves as an institutionalized means of communication that regulates actions and exerts power The research indicates that a writer's words are never neutral; they embody ideologies that reflect and promote the writer's interests Additionally, while discourse can assert power, it also holds the potential to critique and challenge existing power dynamics.
This study analyzes ten American online news articles to uncover the underlying American ideology in the linguistic expressions related to the South China Sea conflicts, employing Fairclough’s three-dimensional framework and Halliday’s Systemic Functional Grammar It examines transitivity, focusing on mental, verbal, and relational processes, alongside the use of metaphors and negative constructions The findings reveal a clear articulation of the United States' ideology regarding the South China Sea disputes as presented in the selected news sources.
The American public has come to understand that China's actions pose a significant threat to regional stability, prompting a need for proactive measures to counter the hegemony of the People's Republic of China This situation has brought forth a renewed focus on the anti-hegemonic principles of American ideology.
Secondly, the American government advocates to resolve the disputes through multilateral negotiations and do not accept Chinese sovereignty claimed
In conclusion, language serves as a powerful tool for asserting authority and shaping ideologies, significantly influencing readers' thoughts and actions This manipulative power is particularly potent when employed in newspapers Consequently, it is crucial for readers to recognize how specific language choices are utilized in news reporting to reveal underlying ideological messages.
Limitations and recommendation for further studies
This thesis applies Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) to the political discourse surrounding the South China Sea conflicts from 2014 to 2015 The discourse analytic framework effectively uncovers the underlying ideologies of the American public as expressed in various online news articles.
The study's limitation lies in its small-scale database, as it only analyzed ten online news sources Consequently, the findings cannot be generalized to represent the broader characteristics of American news coverage on the dispute.
Due to the researcher's time constraints and limited expertise, this study has focused on specific aspects of language at the textual level Consequently, further research is recommended to explore additional features.
This study yielded significant findings that are suitable for a master's thesis; however, it is recommended that a more extensive and inclusive research effort be undertaken in the near future.
Conducting research that compares sample texts from online news sources in different countries could reveal diverse ideologies This type of analysis would not only enhance understanding of various issues but also expand the scope of Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) applications.
Further research can explore various aspects of news discourse, including euphemistic expressions, nominalization, and different sentence structures such as grammatical questions and imperatives Additionally, it can examine the use of logical connectors, coordination, and subordination in complex sentences, as well as the methods employed for referencing both within and outside the text.
Newspapers wield significant power and influence due to their large readership, prompting governments to censor their content to shape public perception Readers should remain vigilant about the language used in news articles, as it can subtly position them within specific value frameworks By recognizing these ideological representations, readers can uncover the often implicit ways language is employed to convey meaning, which may appear natural and commonsensical to everyday users.
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Fairclough, N (2001) Language and Power (2nd ed.) London: Longman Fairclough, N., & Wodak, R (1997) Critical discourse analysis In T van Dijk (Ed.), Discourse Studies: A Multidisciplinary Introduction p.258-84
Fowler, R (1991) Language in the News: Discourse and Ideology in the News London: Routledge
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Halliday, M A K., & Matthiessen, M I M (2004) Halliday’s Introduction to
Jackson, H & Amvela, E (2004) Words, meaning and vocabulary: an introduction to modern English lexicology UK: Cromwell Press
Ruth Wodak and Michael Meyer, eds Methods of Critical Discourse Analysis
Silverman, D (2010) Doing Qualitative Research: A Practical Handbook
Teun A van Dijk's works, including "Ideology: An Interdisciplinary Approach" (1998) and "Discourse and Power" (2002), focus on the relationship between discourse and ideological structures His 1995 publication, "Discourse Analysis as Ideology Analysis," highlights the critical role of discourse in shaping and reflecting ideologies Additionally, Weiss and Wodak's 2003 introduction to "Critical Discourse Analysis" emphasizes the importance of interdisciplinary approaches in understanding the complexities of discourse and its socio-political implications Together, these works contribute significantly to the field of discourse analysis by exploring the interplay between language, power, and ideology.
Wodak, R & Meyer, M (2001) “Critical Discourse Analysis: History, Agenda, Theory and Methodology.” Ruth Wodak and Michael Meyer, eds Methods of Critical Discourse Analysis London: Sage p.1- 33.