Rationale
Discourse serves as a vital form of social interaction and communication, shaped by the speaker, listener, and context Mastering the art of effective discourse is a powerful tool for influencing others, particularly in politics, where language conveys visions, ideologies, and power dynamics A well-crafted discourse can inspire individuals to passionately advocate for causes or comply with directives.
Political speeches, particularly those by Presidents, are meticulously organized discourses that can be analyzed through the lens of Critical Discourse Analysis, especially in light of the recent American presidential election Although the status of women has significantly improved over the decades, with various laws ensuring their well-being, many women still face perceptions of inferiority compared to men This ongoing issue has sparked the interest of researchers dedicated to examining the role of women in both traditional and modern societies and the impact of gender inequalities on their public image.
My research will focus on Hillary Clinton, an active presidential candidate in the United States My personal interest in her story began on my 18th birthday during my first visit to Hanoi, where I discovered her memoir, "Living History," while browsing old books This captivating book, which I bought as a birthday present, offers an intimate glimpse into her life, detailing her upbringing, strong Christian values, and dedication to advocating for women's and children's rights, health care, and improved working conditions "Living History" is not only a reflection of her experiences in the White House but also an inspiring narrative of how she has defined herself as a prominent figure in American politics.
Therefore, through critical discourse analysis, the aim of this paper is firstly to conduct an analysis on appraising Hillary Clinton‘s Campaign Launch Speech from
2015 in order to analyze how she characterizes herself as a woman, to discover hidden factors such as gender, ideology, persuasive techniques, pronouns, family models and coordinating conjunctions.
Significance of the study
This research aims to explore the integration of ideology within political discourse through language, specifically analyzing Hillary Clinton's Campaign Launch Speech from 2015 In the political arena, politicians employ strategic language elements to effectively persuade and engage their target audience.
This study offers theoretical backing for Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) theories, albeit on a limited scale By adopting an objective perspective, linguists engaging in CDA can uncover the underlying identities and ideologies embedded within language.
Practically, this study may provide me another approach to language teaching and learning: looking at language teaching and learning from CDA viewpoint
The analysis of Hillary Clinton's speech aims to assist English language learners, who often struggle to grasp complex discourses due to difficulties in interpreting the authors' underlying assumptions By enhancing awareness of the ideological meanings within such discourse, learners can achieve a deeper understanding, particularly of political communications.
Scope of the study
This analysis of Hillary's speech focuses primarily on its verbal elements and the social context of its delivery, acknowledging the constraints of time and the author's intellectual capacity, which limit the exploration of all available features The study emphasizes key points relevant to the thesis while intentionally excluding paralinguistic factors, such as intonation and loudness, as well as extralinguistic elements like body language and facial expressions The author recognizes that these excluded factors significantly impact the conveyance of the speaker's ideology and identity.
This study focuses solely on linguistic analysis for academic purposes, without expressing personal political opinions It remains neutral and does not advocate for or against any political parties or attempt to influence individual political perspectives.
Aims and objectives of the study
This study explores the relationship between discourse and power while promoting Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) as a valuable tool in social studies Additionally, it aims to enhance English language education by providing learners with practical suggestions for effectively studying CDA.
In order to achieve these above aims, the objectives are specified to:
- Provide a theoretical background of CDA – its concepts, its analysis procedures as well as its role in social scientific research in general and linguistics in particular
- Figure out how ideologies are expressed via linguistics elements of the speech given by Hillary Clinton
To meet the goals of the investigation, the researcher seeks to answer two key questions: What functions of ideology are expressed by Hillary Clinton in her speech, and how are these functions linguistically realized?
CDA as an approach will be applied in the speech analysis to uncover hidden power/struggle and ideology The three stages of CDA given by Norman Fairclough
(2001) will be used To put it more specifically, following are three stages involving in the analysis
Description: A general textual description of the speech is made in terms of lexis and syntax in order to uncover ideologies in Hillary‘s discourse
Interpretation focuses on the dynamic relationship between a text and its interaction, viewing the text as both a product of a production process and a valuable resource for interpretation.
Explanation: The speech is placed in social context to see how it is determined by social structures and what productive effects it has on those structures vice versa.
Design of the study
The thesis consists of these following parts:
Part A: Introduction: This part presents the rationale, significance, scope, aims and objectives, methodology and design of the study
Part B: Development: This is the main partand it consists of three chapters:
Chapter 1 provides a comprehensive overview of Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA), including its definition and key approaches It also reviews relevant previous studies, establishing a solid theoretical foundation for understanding CDA.
Chapter 2: ―Data analysis and Discussions‖: This chapter presents the analysis of the address in three stages: description, interpretation and explanation
Part C: Conclusion: This part summarizes the main findings of the study, gives important conclusions and implications It also presents some limitations and offers some suggestions for further research.
THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
Hillary Clinton‘s background
Hillary Clinton, born on October 26, 1947, in Chicago, Illinois, earned her law degree from Yale University and married Bill Clinton, a fellow law school graduate, in 1975 She later served as the First Lady of the United States.
From 1993 to 2001, Hillary Clinton was actively involved in political life as the First Lady of the United States after her husband was elected president in 1992 In 2000, she made history by becoming the first First Lady to seek elective office when she was elected as the senator of New York, serving from 2001 to 2009 In early 2007, Clinton announced her candidacy for the presidency, but conceded the 2008 Democratic nomination to Barack Obama, who later appointed her as Secretary of State, a position she held from January 2009 until 2013 In the spring of 2015, she declared her intention to run for president again and, in 2016, became the first woman to be nominated for president by a major political party However, after a contentious campaign against Donald Trump, she was defeated in the general election that November.
An overview of CDA
CDA was first known as Critical Linguistics (CL), which as developed by a group of linguists and literary theorists at the University of East Anglia in the 1970s
Fowler et al (1979) developed their approach to Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) by integrating Halliday's Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) with a social theory that examines the role of language in political and ideological contexts The British variant of CDA, represented by scholars such as Gunther Kress, Robert Hodge, Roger Fowler, Norman Fairclough, and Theo van Leeuwen, is influenced by Foucault's discourse theory and is closely linked to the systemic linguistic theories established by William Firth and M.A.K Halliday.
The cognitive-oriented approach in Dutch Critical Discourse Analysis, particularly through Teun van Dijk's work, utilizes a triadic model to illustrate the interplay between personal and social cognition, effectively bridging social structures and discourse structures.
German Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA), as exemplified by scholars like Utz Maas, Siegfried Jager, and Jurgen Link, is significantly shaped by Foucault's notion of discourse, more so than its British counterpart This approach emphasizes authentic everyday communication found in media and political contexts, rather than focusing solely on constructed linguistic texts CDA views both spoken and written discourse as social practices, recognizing the intricate relationship between discursive acts and their situational, institutional, and social contexts These contexts not only shape discourse but are also influenced by it, highlighting the reciprocal nature of discourse and social reality.
1.2.2 What is Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA)?
In the 1990s, Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) emerged as a unique linguistic theory, fundamentally altering the study of language (Kress, 1990, as cited in Wodak & Meyer, 2001, p.5) Today, the terms Critical Linguistics (CL) and CDA are often used interchangeably by linguists.
According to Leeuween (1993), Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) focuses on discourse as a tool for power and control, while also examining its role in shaping social reality.
Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) focuses on examining written and spoken texts to uncover the underlying discursive sources of power, dominance, inequality, and bias, as highlighted by Van Dijk (1998a) It investigates how these sources are sustained and reproduced within distinct social, political, and historical contexts According to Fairclough (2001), CDA seeks to reveal the subtle ways language influences social relations of power and domination.
Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) is a research approach focused on examining how social power, dominance, and inequality are manifested, perpetuated, and challenged through language in social and political contexts.
Key concepts in CDA
Ideology is an important feature of CDA The notion of ―ideology‖ was first invented by a French philosopher Destutt de Tracy at the end of the 18th century:
―Ideology was nothing less than a general "science of ideas" (the study of "how we think, speak and argue…"), something what today would be called psychology or even 'cognitive science‘
Ideology encompasses the social structures and processes that facilitate the circulation of symbolic forms within society, playing a crucial role in the establishment and perpetuation of unequal power dynamics (Thompson, 1990).
Thompson's exploration of ideology focuses on how meaning is constructed and communicated through various symbolic forms Additionally, this study examines the social contexts that influence the usage and non-usage of these symbolic forms.
A dominant ideology often thrives not through force or overt enforcement, but by persuading individuals that it is merely a natural state of affairs, rather than an ideology This process is known as the normalization of beliefs.
‗naturalization‘ This use of the term ‗naturalization‘ does not necessarily refer to biological naturalness, but to people‘s sense of what needs no explanation‖ (Eckert
Our values, beliefs, and feelings shape our behavior, influencing our thoughts, emotions, and actions While these guiding principles may evolve over time, we often recognize the shifts in our own lives Losing one ideology typically leads to the adoption of another, a natural process that is neither inherently good nor bad Although we might perceive certain ideologies as superior, they merely reflect the state of our existence.
Power is a crucial aspect of Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA), setting it apart from other linguistic studies CDA aims to reveal and analyze the power dynamics within society by examining language, which is deeply interconnected with social power Understanding these power relationships is essential, as power serves as a fundamental condition of social life (Wodak, 2007c).
Fairclough (2001) asserts that ideologies are intrinsically connected to power, as the ideological assumptions inherent in specific conventions are influenced by the underlying power dynamics Additionally, language plays a crucial role in shaping ideologies, since it serves as the primary means of social interaction, relying heavily on widely accepted 'common sense' beliefs.
Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) emphasizes that language derives its power from its strategic use rather than being inherently powerful Wodak highlights that CDA frequently adopts the viewpoint of marginalized individuals, critically examining the language employed by those in authority This approach aims to scrutinize the discourse of those responsible for perpetuating inequalities, as well as those who possess the resources and opportunities to effect positive change.
Three principal approaches to CDA
Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) encompasses various approaches that share core concepts of ideology, critique, and power, yet they differ in their theoretical foundations and analytical tools Furthermore, CDA highlights its interdisciplinary nature, illustrating the interconnectedness of language, culture, society, and politics.
1.4.1 The socio – cognitive approach by Teun van Dijk
Teun Van Dijk is a prominent pioneer in Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA), focusing extensively on themes of prejudice and racism in discourse Since the 1980s, he has applied his discourse analysis theory to various texts, emphasizing not only structural elements like grammar and semantics but also higher-level properties such as coherence, overarching themes, and the rhetorical dimensions of news stories Additionally, Van Dijk explores the production processes, examining how journalistic, institutional, economic, and social practices shape media discourse, as well as the reception processes involved in audience comprehension.
―memorization and reproduction‖ of news information)
Van Dijk's innovative approach emphasizes the significance of sociocognition, which encompasses the mental representations and processes of group members, alongside personal cognition that is shaped by ideologies during discourse comprehension Based on this framework, Van Dijk (1998b, pp.61-63) outlines a five-step procedure for conducting Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA).
1 Examining the context of the discourse: historical, political or social background of a conflict and its main participants
2 Analyzing groups, power relations and conflicts involved
3 Identifying positive and negative opinions about Us versus Them
4 Making explicit the presupposed and the implied
5 Examining all formal structure: lexical choice and syntactic structure, in a way that helps to (de)emphasize polarized group opinions
1.4.2 The discourse – historical approach by Ruth Wodak
Ruth Wodak and her team at Vienna University utilize a sociological model for their Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) studies, drawing on Bernstein's tradition in sociolinguistics and the Frankfurt School, particularly the work of Jurgen Habermas This approach is characterized by its comprehensive analysis, incorporating background information to examine various layers of both spoken and written texts.
Wodak (2001b: PP 69-70) outlines key features of the historical approach to Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA), emphasizing its interdisciplinary nature, which acknowledges the complex relationship between language and society This approach integrates argumentation theory and rhetoric with Halliday’s Functional Linguistics, demonstrating its theoretical and practical diversity Rather than focusing on specific language issues, it adopts a problem-oriented perspective, employing an eclectic methodology that allows for flexibility in theory and data analysis Analysts continuously navigate between theoretical frameworks and empirical data, ensuring that the historical context is thoroughly examined and incorporated into the discourse and text analysis.
1.4.3 The dialectical - relational approach by Norman Fairclough
Fairclough is widely recognized for his substantial contributions to Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA), as he established a foundational theoretical framework that has become central to the discipline His pioneering model not only shaped the core of CDA but also laid the groundwork for future research in the field.
Norman Fairclough asserts that language not only shapes our social identities, interactions, knowledge systems, and beliefs but is also influenced by them In his book "Language and Power" (2001), he presents a clear methodology grounded in Halliday's systemic-functional grammar, emphasizing its utility in textual analysis Fairclough highlights that systemic-functional theory is advantageous for studying the functional aspects of grammar and the relationship between text and social context He also notes that this approach allows for the analysis of both the content and the omissions within texts Consequently, Fairclough proposes a two-step analysis process: first, a structural analysis of context, followed by an interactional analysis focusing on linguistic features such as agents, time, tense, modality, and syntax He outlines three stages of Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) to further guide this examination.
Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) encompasses three key stages: description, interpretation, and explanation The description stage focuses on the formal properties of the text, while interpretation examines the relationship between the text and its interaction, viewing the text as both a product of production processes and a resource for interpretation Finally, the explanation stage explores the connection between interaction and social context, emphasizing how social factors influence the processes of production and interpretation, as well as their broader social effects (Fairclough, 2001).
In the initial phase of text analysis, Fairclough's ten primary questions, along with various sub-questions, serve as valuable tools for examining formal features This list is not exhaustive but offers suggested directions for exploration The questions are categorized into three main groups: vocabulary, grammar, and textual structures, each accompanied by relevant sub-questions for deeper investigation (see Appendix I).
Textual features gain significance when engaged in social interaction, as texts are created and understood based on shared common-sense assumptions, which are part of members' resources (MR) This necessitates a second stage of interpretation to address the discourse processes and their reliance on these background assumptions A summary of the interpretative procedures is illustrated in Figure 1.
The third stage in Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) is Explanation, which aims to illustrate how discourse functions within a social process According to Fairclough, this stage examines the influence of social structures on discourse and the potential impact of discourse on those structures, either reinforcing or transforming them This interplay is mediated by social practices (MR), where social structures shape MR, which subsequently influences discourse In turn, discourse can either sustain or alter MR, leading to changes in social structures This dynamic relationship is visually represented in Figure 2.
Review of previous studies
Numerous perspectives and studies on Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) focus on political speeches and the societal role of women These subjects have increasingly garnered attention in research, highlighting their significance in contemporary discourse analysis.
In her 2010 study, Chinese researcher Junling Wang employed M.A.K Halliday's Systemic Functional Grammar to conduct a critical discourse analysis of Barack Obama's speeches By examining the ideational, interpersonal, and textual meta-functions, Wang aimed to uncover the intricate relationship between language, ideology, and power The research highlights how Obama strategically utilized language features to effectively persuade the public during his presidential campaign.
Cooray (2012) analyzed the impact of women's suffrage and democracy on gender equality in education across 80 countries in regions such as Asia, Africa, the Middle East, South America, and Eastern Europe The study found that nations with a longer history of suffrage tend to achieve higher levels of gender equality in education Overall, the research highlights the persistent discrimination against women, indicating that effective solutions are necessary to address ongoing gender inequality.
The study "American Political Discourse as Manifested in Hillary Clinton's Interviews: A Critical Approach" by Doha Mahmoud Abdel-Moety (2014) analyzes TV interviews with former Secretary of State Hillary Clinton through a critical discourse analysis lens It integrates insights from genre theory, systemic functional grammar, and critical discourse analysis to explore the characteristics of the American interview genre, depict the features of Clinton's political discourse, unravel the use of power in language, and uncover the hidden strategies used to convey ideological messages.
This research distinguishes itself from previous studies by focusing on the ideologies present in Hillary Clinton's speech and their linguistic expressions While Junling Wang's research also explores ideology, it employs Halliday's theory, whereas this study utilizes Norman Fairclough's framework for analysis.
Five common features among the approaches
CDA encompasses several approaches that share five key features, enabling their classification within the same movement According to Fairclough and Woodak (1997: 271ff.), one significant aspect is that social and cultural processes and structures are partially linguistic and discursive in nature.
Discursive practices, encompassing the creation and interpretation of texts, play a crucial role in shaping social identities and relationships within society These practices are integral to everyday life, facilitating both the reproduction and transformation of social and cultural norms Furthermore, discourse is simultaneously constitutive, shaping social realities, and constituted, influenced by existing social structures and dynamics.
Critical discourse analysts view discourse as a social practice that shapes and is shaped by various social dimensions This dialectical relationship highlights that discourse not only influences social structures but also mirrors them Therefore, language use must be empirically analyzed within its social context to fully understand its implications.
Critical discourse analysis engages in concrete, linguistic textual analysis of language use in social interaction iv Discourse Functions Ideologically
Critical discourse analysis posits that discursive practices play a significant role in establishing and perpetuating unequal power dynamics among various social groups, such as between different social classes, genders, and ethnic minorities versus the majority These impacts are recognized as ideological effects, highlighting the influence of language and discourse in shaping societal inequalities.
Critical discourse analysis is not politically neutral like traditional objectivist social science; rather, it is a committed approach aimed at fostering social change By advocating for emancipation, critical discourse analysis aligns itself with marginalized social groups, emphasizing the importance of addressing power imbalances and promoting social justice.
Systemic Functional Grammar (SFG) in CDA
This study utilizes Fairclough's model as its foundational framework, providing a comprehensive overview of his analytical methods Additionally, it incorporates Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL), offering a concise examination of SFL and its significance in Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA).
Systemic functional grammar (SFG), also known as systemic functional linguistics (SFL), is a grammatical framework established by Michael Halliday in the 1960s This model is integral to systemic linguistics, a comprehensive social semiotic approach that examines the relationship between language and its social functions.
The term "systemic" describes language as a network of interconnected systems that provide various options for meaning-making In contrast, the "functional" approach emphasizes meaning over formal grammar, which primarily analyzes word classes like nouns and verbs in isolation, without considering their broader context.
Both Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) and Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) utilize a functional approach to textual analysis by examining grammar and language form, focusing on the connection between text structure and social contexts This synergy highlights the importance of SFL in enhancing CDA Halliday (1985) posits that language conveys three interconnected meanings: ideational or experiential, interpersonal, and textual, which underscores the interplay among these metafunctions.
The essential components of meaning in language are its functional aspects, which revolve around two primary types of meaning: "ideational" (reflective) and "interpersonal" (active) These components, referred to as "manifestations" in this theory, represent the underlying purposes of language use: to comprehend the environment (ideational) and to influence others within it (interpersonal) Additionally, there is a third metafunctional component that complements these two.
―textual‖, which breathes relevance into the other two‖ (Halliday, 1985)
In SFL, lexicogrammar is seen as functional grounded, shaped by the social functions it serves, and in particular built around the intersection of the
The grammatical system comprises three primary networks corresponding to its macrofunctions: transitivity, mood and modality, and information structure, which includes theme, rheme, and given-new At the lexico-grammatical level, the clause serves as the fundamental unit for meaning analysis.
The Experiential meaning is conveyed through the Transitivity system, which represents reality within the linguistic framework and addresses the question, "What's going on?" Language serves to express this experiential aspect by utilizing various process types, participants, and circumstances In English, there are six recognized process types: material process, behavior process, mental process, verbal process, relational process, and existential process.
Actor, Goal, Recipient The mayor dissolved the committee
I heard a noise outside The boy loved the girl You can imagine his reaction
I explained to her what it meant
This bread is stale Pat is her brother
Existential: ‗existing‘ Existent Maybe there’s some other darker pattern
Table 1: Overview of process type (Halliday, 1994:143)
Interpersonal meaning is conveyed through Mood Structure, which allows us to understand how language facilitates exchanges In addition to Mood Structure, Thompson (1996) identifies several areas for exploring interpersonal meaning in text, which are valuable for conducting textual analysis.
Figure 3: Aspects of interpersonal management (Thompson, 1996:69)
Thematic structure is crucial for understanding textual meaning, as it establishes relevance between different parts of a text and its context It explores how the content is organized, focusing on the system of theme and information focus This system comprises two key elements: the Theme, which serves as the starting point of the message, and the Rheme, which contains the remainder of the information By analyzing the thematic structure of clauses within a text, we can uncover the text's development mode, revealing how speakers effectively construct their messages to align with the ongoing language event.
A theme can be categorized as single when it is represented by a single element, such as a nominal group, adverbial group, prepositional phrase, or a clause in the case of a predicated theme Conversely, a theme is considered multiple when it possesses additional internal structure This article summarizes the components that define a multiple theme.
Metafunction Components of theme Example
Topical elements (participant, circumstances, process)
Actor / Agent, Goal / Medium, Circumstance in the clause Textual theme
Continuative elements Structural elements (conjunction or WH- relative)
Table 2: Components of a multiple theme (adapted from Halliday, 1994:54)
Example: please doctor don’t give me any more of that nasty medicine modal vocative finite topical
Themes in language can be categorized as marked or unmarked, where unmarked themes are typical and marked themes are unusual The choice of an unmarked theme often aligns with the communicative purpose, particularly in declarative clauses where it typically coincides with the subject In contrast, marked themes appear as elements of the Residue, such as Complements, Adjuncts, or Predicators Additionally, in non-declarative clauses, marked themes can occur in WH-questions when the WH-word does not occupy the first position, and are more frequently observed in imperative clauses that involve the pronoun 'you'.
The functions of language are essential in discourse analyses, with a particular focus on the macrostructure of text, which reflects the relationships between blocks of sentences and the overall organization According to Halliday, the macrostructure is crucial for understanding global organizational patterns, while the microstructure pertains to the relationships within the text itself The writer's or speaker's communicative purpose significantly influences the macrostructure, making it vital in Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) to consider how ideology is expressed through the overall framework of the text.
Chapter summary
This chapter explored different methods for analyzing political discourse and its connection to ideology It examined the principles of Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) and their role in illustrating the representation of processes and participants These principles laid the groundwork for understanding how ideology is constructed within discourse The upcoming chapter will introduce the dataset that will be analyzed.
METHODOLOGY AND ANALYTICAL PROCEDURES
Research questions restated
As presented previously, the study seeks the answer to the following research questions:
1 What functions of ideology did Hillary Clinton express in the speech?
2 How are they realized linguistically?
The data in the study tend to be discussed from the viewpoint of CDA framework given by Fairclough (2001) with three stages of analysis: Description, Interpretation and Explanation
This study utilizes Norman Fairclough's three-stage practical framework of Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA), which encompasses description, interpretation, and explanation It is important to note that not all of Fairclough's proposed questions are addressed; instead, the focus is on the key features of the speech that illuminate the underlying assertions of ideology and power.
In the first step, a general textual description of the speech is made in terms of lexis and syntax in order to uncover ideologies in Hillary‘s discourse
In the next step, questions relating to situational context will be discussed to find out the ideologies and power embedded in the text
Finally, in the last step, explanation, the text is portrayed as part of social process
All three steps of Fairclough‘s framework are followed Three stages are intertwined instead of being given separately.
Data of the study
The data of the study is the underlying power and ideologies embedded in Hillary Clinton‘s launch campaign speech in 2015
Hillary Clinton, the former Secretary of State, launched her campaign for the 2016 Democratic presidential nomination with a significant rally in Franklin, where she articulated her reasons for seeking the presidency again.
D Roosevelt Four Freedoms Park on Roosevelt Island in New York City she laid out a theme of ―four fights‖ involving the economy, families, increased opportunities, and democracy She talked about her upbringing and ideals, and topics including the divide between the rich and poor, the need to strengthen middle class families, and the foreign policy challenges the country faces She was joined onstage by her husband and daughter at the end of her speech
This study tends to focus on the critical analysis of the speech to uncover intentions and ideology embedded.
Analysis procedure of the study
The study is attached to CDA approach and is carried out following some basic stages:
The initial step in the research process involves conducting a comprehensive literature review to understand the key issues related to the research topic This includes gathering, analyzing, and interpreting a variety of reference materials, studies, and articles pertinent to Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) and the thesis theme.
In the second stage, we will gather essential information from the two speeches on women delivered by Hillary Clinton The selected data will undergo a thorough examination using suitable analytical tools to ensure a comprehensive analysis of the introduced aspects.
Last but not least, a careful analysis and a thoughtful investigation are made to unravel the underlying ideology and to cover the hidden meanings intended in the speech.
A CRITICAL DISCOURSE ANALYSIS OF HILLARY CLINTON‟S SPEECH
Functions of Hillary Clinton‘s underlying ideology in the speech
Analyzing a text's vocabulary can reveal its ideological influences, although pinpointing the specific ideology in every sentence may be challenging However, examining the context allows for the identification of discourse structures that suggest underlying ideological implications.
3.1.1 Ideology as a weapon of positive self-representation of “us” and negative other representation of “them”
Intergroup discourse serves various purposes, including self-presentation, self-defense, legitimation, and persuasion, as noted by van Dijk (1998:125) This form of discourse plays a crucial role in forming and maintaining groups and their relationships with others It often manifests as a polarized "Us versus Them" dichotomy Van Dijk (1998:267) further categorizes ideological intergroup discourse using a four-dimensional classification known as the ideological square.
A Emphasizes positive things about us;
B Emphasizes negative things about them;
C De-emphasizes negative things about us; and
D De-emphasizes positive things about them
The ideological square, a key concept in van Dijk's framework, focuses on highlighting the positive actions of the in-group while minimizing their negative actions Conversely, it downplays the positive actions of the out-group and emphasizes their negative behaviors This approach shapes perceptions and narratives within discourse.
The excerpts illustrate the ideology of positive self-representation versus negative other-representation, where the political candidate emphasizes her group’s strengths while portraying opposing groups unfavorably.
Under President Clinton's leadership, the nation experienced the longest peacetime economic expansion in history, achieved a balanced budget, and witnessed unprecedented income growth for all, with the bottom 20 percent of workers seeing their earnings rise at the same rate as the top 5 percent for the first time in decades.
President Obama's commitment to the bargain helped avert a potential Depression, revitalized the auto industry, and extended health care coverage to 16 million working individuals, all while facilitating a quicker recovery of lost jobs compared to previous financial crises.
Hillary Clinton exemplifies positive representation of her party, the Democrats, by portraying them as a unified and commendable group She emphasizes the achievements of her party with phrases such as "longest peacetime expansion" and "balanced budget," highlighting their success and positive impact This strategic use of positive language reinforces a sense of pride and belonging within the in-group, effectively promoting a favorable image of the Democrats.
The speaker highlights key themes such as the need to "increase incomes" and the efforts that "pulled back from the brink of Depression," illustrating how these initiatives "saved the auto industry" and "provided health care." Additionally, the discussion on "replacing jobs" underscores the importance of economic recovery Through these points, the speaker effectively controls comprehension and shapes the audience's opinions and attitudes.
Ideology of positive self – presentation of ―us‖ is also utilized in the tracts below: Extract 2:
―We’re still working our way back from a crisis that happened because time-tested values were replaced by false promises [line 46 – 47]
The prevailing narrative suggested that by allowing the wealthy to pay reduced taxes and manipulate regulations, their prosperity would eventually benefit all Americans This approach has shifted the focus away from an economy designed to serve every citizen, emphasizing instead a system that favors those at the top.
―As we have since our founding, Americans made a new beginning [line 57]
… So we’re standing again But, we all know we’re not yet running the way America should.‖ [line 62 – 63]
The speaker effectively employs illustrative strategies to highlight the positive aspects of her party while pointing out the shortcomings of the opposition The use of the subject pronoun "we" is crucial in fostering a sense of shared destiny between the candidate and the audience, creating a connection that emphasizes unity and collective purpose.
In this excerpt, the speaker portrays opponents in a negative light to influence the audience's perception, aiming to encourage them to reject opposing views and embrace her own perspectives.
Republicans are quick to pledge tax cuts for the wealthy and reduced regulations for large corporations, yet they fail to consider the detrimental impact this will have on income inequality.
They promise to eliminate stringent regulations on Wall Street instead of addressing the risky practices of banks, potentially leading to future financial failures This approach reflects a concerning disregard for past lessons learned.
They want to take away health insurance from more than 16 million Americans without offering any credible alternative [line 139 – 140]
They shame and blame women, rather than respect our right to make our own reproductive health decisions [line 141 – 142]
The current approach threatens hardworking immigrants who contribute to the economy through taxes, while also neglecting the rights of loving same-sex couples This stance fundamentally undermines the creation of an inclusive economy, which is built on the foundation of an inclusive society—what I refer to as a "village" that embraces everyone.
The use of lexical items with negative expressive value such as ―income inequality‖, ―risky‖, ―mass amnesia‖, ―take away health insurance‖, ―shame‖,
Clinton criticizes her opponents by highlighting their tendency to "blame women" and "reject" important issues, which she argues tarnishes their credibility She employs the metaphor "turn their backs" to underscore the Republicans' indifference to critical matters affecting Americans, particularly the risks of deportation faced by many.
Textual description and Analysis
Van Dijk (2001) suggests that the ideological semantics involved in lexical selection exhibit a strategic pattern, where 'in-groups' and their associates are portrayed positively, while 'out-groups,' including enemies and opponents, are depicted negatively.
The discourse of giving a speech involves a speaker and an audience, and in this case, the speaker is Hillary Clinton, the sole female candidate for the Democratic nomination in the 2016 presidential election Clinton officially launched her campaign on June 13, 2015, marking the beginning of the research data collection period The intended audience for her speech encompasses all American citizens, with references to collective groups such as 'America' and 'the American people.'
‗Democrats‘ and ―We‖ In Hillary Clinton‘s wording, this group is described as ‗a strong and prosperous America‘
Line Lexical items Line Lexical items
Power, smart Leadership, peace, security, prosperity Grateful
Progress Tolerant, generous compassionate, better, stronger prosperous, talent, hard work, ingenuity
Table 3: Lexical items for „in – groups‟ and positive terms
While a lot of efforts are placed into creating a positive image of the ‗us – group‘, attention is also paid to the ‗other‘, ‗they‘ or ‗Republicans‘
Line Lexical items Line Lexical items
Debt, twice cut taxes Borrow, war
Drop, end up Displaced jobs, undercut wages Same old song
Yesterday Troubles Inequality, worse Climate change, threats Tough rules, rein
Risky, failures Mass amnesia Shame, blame women Risk
Deportation Turn their backs on gay people
Table 4: Lexical items for „out – groups‟ and negative terms
In her speech, Hillary Clinton emphasized the importance of unity in America, advocating for the removal of barriers to create a better nation for all She aims to inspire the American people to support her campaign by reinforcing the idea that together, as a united nation, they can take meaningful action towards prosperity and inclusivity.
―America can’t succeed unless you succeed That’s why I am running for President of the United States.‖ [line 79]
Hillary inspires Americans to take responsibility for change, highlighting the importance of voting in achieving this goal She connects her candidacy for President to America's success and positions herself as a solution to the nation's challenges While acknowledging that politicians often use similar rhetorical strategies to gain support, Hillary's approach aligns her with her male counterparts, promoting equality in political discourse.
Hillary aims to define her identity by highlighting her extensive political experience, showcasing her contributions to U.S history from her early career with the Children's Defense Fund to her leadership at the Legal Services Corporation and her tenure as a Senator Through this narrative, she reinforces her image as a seasoned candidate while challenging gender stereotypes in politics.
My first job out of law school was for the Children’s Defense Fund… [line 181]
As a leader of the Legal Services Corporation… [line 185]
In Arkansas, I supervised law students [line 188]
She effectively highlights her identity as a woman and underscores her potential to become "the first woman president in the history of the United States."
Well, I may not be the youngest candidate in this race But I will be the youngest woman President in the history of the United States! [line 420, 421]
In her speech, she highlights her role as a source of inspiration for girls, illustrating how fathers use her as an example to encourage their daughters to believe that they can achieve anything they desire.
An America where a father can tell his daughter: yes, you can be anything you want to be Even President of the United States [line 466, 467]
Hillary Clinton aims to enhance her public image as a strong candidate by utilizing diverse sources and vivid descriptions in her speeches She positions herself as an equal to other prominent male politicians while highlighting her extensive political experience Clinton addresses a wide range of topics, including family, childcare, welfare, military, economic, and environmental issues, showcasing her comprehensive understanding of critical matters.
3.2.2.1 The use of personal pronouns
In the discussion of relational values of grammatical features, Fairclough (2001) mentions the use of pronouns ―we‖ and ―I‖ as one of the keys to uncover ideology and power
First, a quantitative analysis was carried out in order to figure out the difference in use rate of ―I‖ and ―we‖ employed by Hillary Clinton in the speech (See table below)
Table 5: Frequency of personal pronouns
According to Walsh (2001), the pronoun "we" has two distinct uses: inclusive and exclusive The exclusive "we" tends to create an impersonal or authoritative tone, while the inclusive "we" fosters a sense of community and shared experience.
―we‖ presupposes common ground between text producers and assumed readers/listener
In her speech, Hillary Clinton frequently employs the pronoun "we" to foster a sense of unity among Americans, highlighting the collective responsibility to build a better future for all She calls on her audience to actively engage in addressing pressing issues such as ISIS and the economic crisis, encouraging a collaborative effort to tackle these urgent challenges.
The pronouns "we" and "I" are used almost equally in Hillary's speech, with "I" predominantly reflecting her personal perspectives, beliefs, and political experiences.
It is said that the use of voice also contributes to the expression of the speaker‘s ideology when delivering the speech
The speaker predominantly employs the active voice in her speech, with 280 out of 299 sentences (93.6%) being active, compared to only 19 passive sentences (6.4%) This strong emphasis on active voice enhances audience engagement and effectively conveys her ideology By prioritizing clarity, the speaker minimizes misunderstanding and ambiguity, allowing her message to resonate more clearly For instance, she utilizes the active voice to directly hold Republicans accountable for their significant errors.
They pledge to wipe out tough rules on Wall Street… [line 136]
They want to take away health insurance from more than 16 million Americans without offering any credible alternative [line 139]
They shame and blame women, rather than respect our right … [line 141]
They want to put immigrants, who work hard and pay taxes, … [line 143]
And they turn their backs on gay people who love each other [line 145]
Hillary emphasizes that it is our collective responsibility to strengthen and enhance the prosperity of the United States across all sectors, utilizing active voice and inclusive language to engage the audience effectively.
We can win these four fights [line 400]
We can build an economy where hard work is reward [line 401]
We can strengthen our families [line 402]
We can defend our country and increase our opportunities all over the world
And we can renew the promise of our democracy [line 405]
Fairclough (2001) identifies three modes of expression—declarative, interrogative, and imperative—each contributing uniquely to ideological representation In the analyzed text, out of 266 sentences, 251 are declarative, 7 are imperative, and 8 are interrogative, highlighting the predominance of declarative statements in conveying ideology.
Table 6: Summary of modes of the sentences
Hillary Clinton's speech primarily employs declarative sentences, positioning her as the informant and the audience as the recipients of information Her goal is to inform the American public about her presidential campaign, sharing insights into her life's history, the challenges facing the nation, her significant achievements, and the proposed solutions Through this approach, she aims to persuade voters to support her in the upcoming presidential election.
Interpretation of the relationship between the productive and interpretative processes53
Chouliaraki and Fairclough (1999) emphasize that while ideology is embedded within a text, it cannot be directly extracted, as interpretation varies based on the reader's perspective This section aims to assist readers in revealing the speaker's underlying ideology during a speech.
In term of situational context, the following questions are taken into consideration:
―What‘s going on?‖, ―Who‘s involved?‖, ―What relationships are at issue?‖ and
―What‘s the role of language in what‘s going on?‖
In a televised address to the American public, Hillary Clinton emphasizes the importance of national unity to achieve greatness for all citizens Through her speeches, she expresses her aspirations for the country and seeks to inspire belief in her presidential campaign, encouraging Americans to come together for a brighter future.
In June 2015, Hillary Rodham Clinton, the Democratic presidential candidate and former Secretary of State, addressed over 5,500 supporters and American citizens on Roosevelt Island, New York City, marking her official campaign launch.
Hillary Clinton delivers a speech aimed at a diverse American audience, making it challenging to gauge whether her message resonates uniformly with all listeners Nevertheless, the core objective of Clinton's address is to instill hope, emphasizing that a brighter future awaits and that the nation will continue to improve under her leadership as the 45th President of the United States.
What‟s the role of language?
Language serves multiple instrumental purposes, including the delivery of information, direction of actions, expression of emotions, persuasion, and encouragement of collaboration When viewed as a speech act, it encompasses various characteristics such as being informative, directive, expressive, and commissive.
Explanation of the relationship between discourse and social processes
Fairclough (2001) emphasizes that the purpose of the explanation stage is to depict discourse as a component of social processes and practices This involves analyzing how social structures influence discourse and examining the cumulative effects that discourses can have on these structures, either reinforcing or transforming them.
At the institutional level, discourse plays a crucial role in shaping social relationships by influencing the image and voice of candidates, particularly highlighting Hillary Clinton's significant status in the presidential campaign against her opponents Additionally, the audience's ideology is profoundly impacted by the speech, potentially transforming their biases and negative sentiments into full support for the candidate Consequently, this discourse is seen as a vital contributor to institutional struggles.
At the societal level, the interplay between discourses and social structures reveals that while discourses are influenced by these structures, they also shape and drive social change In the context of political discourse, Hillary Clinton exemplifies this dynamic in her relationship with the American public, where she assumes a controlling and authoritative role Her positive identity is cultivated through her commitment to national honor and addressing critical issues, particularly those affecting women and children By portraying herself as a strong, righteous, and compassionate leader dedicated to protecting her country, she effectively persuades voters to support her campaign.
Chapter summary
This section analyzes Hillary Clinton's speeches during her presidential campaign, focusing on her representation of power and its impact on societal organization The upcoming chapter will summarize the findings and address the study's limitations, concluding with recommendations for future research.
This chapter presents a summary of the results This is followed by a discussion of the contributions and limitations of this study and conclude with suggestions for future research.
Summary of findings
This study utilizes Fairclough's (2001) Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) framework, which encompasses three key stages: Description, Interpretation, and Explanation The analysis focuses on Hillary Clinton's 2015 Campaign Launch Speech, which serves as a rich context for exploring her expressions of power and ideologies By applying this theoretical framework, the research uncovers the intricate connections between language, power, and ideology within the discourse of the speech.
The research demonstrates that language campaigns can shape perceptions and ideologies, ultimately altering reality This study goes beyond linguistic and discourse analysis, delving into the discursive strategies that link language to power dynamics It reveals how power and dominance are established through imperatives and pronominal choices, allowing speakers to assert their perspectives The research highlights various ideological strategies as tools for persuasion, negotiation, positive self-representation, negative portrayal of others, and effective personality profiling.
The speaker's discourse demonstrates a clear understanding of their country's achievements, contributions, and challenges, highlighting their commitment to safeguarding national prosperity and the rights of all Americans The careful lexical selection reflects Clinton's strong advocacy for equal rights, development plans, and opportunities, while also expressing disapproval of her opponents' policies.
The speaker‘s power and ideologies are also encoded by the use if grammatical features, including the use of pronouns ―I‖ and ―we‖ as well as the use of voice
Clinton effectively uses the pronoun "I" to convey her understanding of the challenges facing the United States and its citizens, showcasing her competence and self-confidence as a political leader Her awareness and enthusiasm for addressing national issues are evident, while the use of "we" fosters a sense of solidarity among Americans and promotes gender equality, particularly for women.
The high percentage of material process in transitivity and topical theme serve the speaker‘s aim of describing actions and events and creating reliability
Macro-structures significantly influence the demonstration of power and ideologies within discourse The organization of the discourse is structured around argumentation, supported by evidence drawn from Clinton's personal experiences since childhood.
In summary, the analysis demonstrates that language serves as a powerful tool for asserting ideology and influence, significantly shaping individuals' thoughts and actions This study utilizes the theoretical framework established by Norman Fairclough, whose insights into Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) are particularly beneficial for newcomers in this area of research.
Implications
Critical social science aims to enhance awareness of societal structures and their evolution, empowering individuals to shape their lives This foundational motivation also drives Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA), highlighting the importance of understanding discourse in effecting social change.
Understanding political discourse necessitates a critical awareness of the socio-political and historical context, enabling readers to grasp the intended messages of writers and speakers Additionally, a comprehensive understanding of critical language analysis and the underlying power dynamics in language can significantly enhance awareness of social realities, ultimately fostering a more equitable society.
The primary aim of this study is to develop practical applications of Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) in language education, especially in English teaching Rather than focusing solely on language instruction, language education should emphasize enhancing learners' awareness of how language influences power dynamics and ideology, which in turn impacts social contexts.
Fairclough (2001) emphasizes the close connection between enhancing individuals' critical awareness of language and their language skills and practices To effectively improve language abilities, it is essential to engage in critical analysis, which includes critical thinking, reading, and writing.
Limitations of the study and Recommendations for further study
This study represents the researcher’s first foray into Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) of political speeches, which inevitably comes with certain limitations Due to constraints in time and expertise, the analysis is confined to specific textual features of the speech, leaving many potential aspects unexplored.
For a better understanding of the relationship between language and power, it is suggested that more studies on the field be carried out
This study explores the concealed ideologies and identities present in various forms of discourse, including political speeches, advertisements, and journal articles It also examines the interplay between textual elements and non-verbal features, such as voice, tone, facial expressions, and gestures, to provide a comprehensive analysis of communication.
Researchers can analyze a sequence of discourses chronologically to identify shifts in the speaker's ideology and identity, which may indicate broader social changes This approach allows them to illustrate how current decisions are influenced by historical discourse practices.
Researchers can analyze two speeches addressing the same issue, delivered by different speakers, to identify the similarities and differences in how power and ideology are expressed.
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APPENDIX I: LIST OF QUESTIONSAND SUB – QUESTIONS SUGGESTED BY NORMAN FAIRCLOUGH IN DOING CDA
1 What experiential values do words have?
What classification schemes are drawn upon?
Are there words which are ideologically contested?
Is there rewording or overwording?
What ideologically significant meaning relations (synonymy, hyponymy, antonymy) are there between words?
2 What relational values do words have?
Are there markedly formal or informal words?
3 What expressive values do words have?
5 What experiential values do grammatical features have?
What types of process and participants predominate?
Are processes what they seem?
Are sentences active or passive?
Are sentences positive or negative?
6 What relational values do grammatical features have?
What modes (declarative, grammatical question, imperative) are used?
Are there important features of relational modality?
Are the pronouns we and you used and if so, how?
7 What expressive values do grammatical features have?
Are there important features of expressive modality?
8 How are (simple) sentences linked together?
What logical connectors are used?
Are complex sentences characterized by coordination or/ subordination?
What means are used for referring inside and outside the text?
9 What interactional conventions are used?
Are there ways in which one participant controls the turns of others?
10 What larger scale structures does the text have?
Line APPENDIX II: HILLARY CAMPAIGN LAUNCH SPEECH
Thank you! Oh, thank you all! Thank you so very, very much
It is wonderful to be here with all of you
Being in New York with my family and friends, including many New Yorkers whom I had the privilege of serving in the Senate for eight years, is truly an honor.
To be right across the water from the headquarters of the United Nations, where I represented our country many times
To be here in this beautiful park dedicated to Franklin Roosevelt‘s enduring vision of America, the nation we want to be
And in a place… with absolutely no ceilings
President Roosevelt's Four Freedoms symbolize our nation's highest ideals and highlight the ongoing efforts needed both domestically and internationally His legacy not only elevated the nation but also inspired future leaders, including President Barack Obama, whom I had the honor to serve as Secretary of State, and my husband, Bill Clinton.
Two Democrats, motivated by the core American principle that true and enduring prosperity should be created collectively and enjoyed by everyone, are dedicated to fostering inclusive growth.
President Roosevelt urged all Americans to contribute to the nation's strength and prosperity, emphasizing the importance of equal opportunity, job creation for those willing to work, security for those in need, the elimination of special privileges for a select few, the protection of civil liberties for everyone, and the pursuit of a higher standard of living for all.
That still sounds good to me
America's fundamental promise is that if individuals contribute their efforts, they should have the opportunity to succeed When everyone fulfills their responsibilities, the nation thrives collectively This principle has motivated countless families, including mine, for generations.
It‘s what kept my grandfather going to work in the same Scranton lace mill every day for 50 years
It‘s what kept my grandfather going to work in the same Scranton lace mill every day for 50 years
My father's determination to save and manage his finances was driven by his belief that his small drapery fabric printing business in Chicago could secure a middle-class lifestyle for our family, and ultimately, it succeeded in doing so.
Under President Clinton's leadership, the United States experienced the longest peacetime economic expansion in history, achieving a balanced budget and a unique period of shared growth, where the incomes of the bottom 20 percent of workers rose at the same rate as those of the top 5 percent.
President Obama's commitment to the bargain helped us avoid a Depression, revive the auto industry, extend health care to 16 million working individuals, and recover lost jobs more swiftly than following previous financial crises.
But, it‘s not 1941, or 1993, or even 2009 We face new challenges in our economy and our democracy
We‘re still working our way back from a crisis that happened because time-tested values were replaced by false promises
The narrative that an economy should be constructed by and for all Americans has been overshadowed by the belief that allowing the wealthy to pay reduced taxes and manipulate regulations would result in their prosperity benefiting everyone else.
Instead of achieving a balanced budget with surpluses to reduce our national debt, Republicans implemented tax cuts for the wealthiest, financed two wars through borrowing from foreign nations, and resulted in a decline in family incomes, leading us to our current economic situation.
Except it wasn‘t the end
As we have since our founding, Americans made a new beginning
After navigating through challenges by working extra shifts and taking on second jobs, individuals are now starting to focus on their futures once more This renewed outlook includes aspirations such as pursuing higher education, launching new businesses, purchasing homes, and saving for retirement.
So we‘re standing again But, we all know we‘re not yet running the way America should
You see corporations making record profits, with CEOs making record pay, but your paychecks have barely budged