Les concepts théoriques
Culture, interculturel
A controversial topic like culture prompts us to explore a concept that remains at the forefront of research for anthropologists, sociologists, and linguists alike.
The term "culture," derived from Latin, originally referred to the cultivation of land to yield produce The anthropologist Edward Burnett Tylor was the first to define the ethnological concept of culture.
In 1871, the concept of social life is described as encompassing the entirety of human existence It is defined by its collective nature, being learned rather than inherited biologically Nevertheless, much of its origin and character remains largely unconscious.
According to this anthropologist, human social life is shaped and expressed through codes, norms, and values that are disseminated and upheld by education and group dynamics These elements unconsciously influence individuals' behaviors and thoughts.
Attempts to define culture have continually increased over time In 1952, anthropologists Kluckhohn and Kroeber described culture as a structured way of thinking, feeling, and reacting within a human group, primarily acquired and transmitted through symbols, representing a specific identity Culture encompasses the tangible objects produced by the group and is centered around traditional ideas derived from and selected by history, along with the values associated with them.
Every social group within a given society possesses a culture that is acquired and transmitted through symbols This structured way of thinking, feeling, and reacting plays a crucial role in providing the group with a specific identity Such an identity enables members of any ethnic group to form a community where shared ways of thinking, feeling, and acting prevail Essentially, it comprises a collection of knowledge and shared understandings that allow individuals to distinguish themselves from others.
According to Porcher (1995), culture encompasses a set of common practices, perspectives, and behaviors that define individuals' affiliations and shared heritages, which are integral to their identity Each society is characterized by a collective culture, shaped by various smaller, specialized cultures Culture is dynamic, evolving, and subject to change, with individuals belonging to multiple cultures and subcultures Furthermore, culture is fluid, diverse, and permeable, constantly in a state of transformation Minor cultures, such as professional, religious, and sexual cultures, also play a significant role and must be considered in any intercultural exchange.
In the 1980s, UNESCO redefined culture as the collection of distinctive spiritual and material traits, as well as intellectual and emotional aspects, that characterize a society or social group This broad definition includes not only the arts and literature but also lifestyles, fundamental human rights, value systems, traditions, and beliefs.
Culture can be understood as a collective set of mental and cognitive processes shared among a group of individuals This culture encompasses a body of knowledge and skills conveyed through a system of beliefs and values, which shape the references and representations essential for individuals to navigate their identity within a specific society Initially, this understanding allows individuals to orient themselves, preparing them for recognizing others during verbal or non-verbal exchanges.
In the French language, culture is viewed as a comprehensive set of ways to see, feel, perceive, think, express, and react, encompassing lifestyles, beliefs, knowledge, achievements, customs, traditions, institutions, norms, values, morals, leisure activities, and aspirations (Current Dictionary of Education, Larousse, 1988) Today, it also refers to a collection of general knowledge that enriches the mind and sharpens taste and critical thinking (Larousse Online Dictionary, 2014), forming what is known as general culture that each individual possesses Scientific knowledge is highlighted as a key component within this framework.
In summary, culture is a complex and multidimensional abstraction with a profound historical significance It reflects the truths of daily life and evolves alongside the society in which it exists, with rituals, behaviors, and values changing over the years Culture embodies the ways of thinking, reflecting, and behaving, serving as a foundation for laws and influencing behavior Consequently, it becomes a perceptual reference framework composed of beliefs, values, and opinions that are largely unconscious and difficult to alter.
The concept of interculturalism is increasingly adapting to the political, economic, social, and communicative changes that marked the end of the 20th century High migration rates, the formation of a united Europe with several nations seeking membership, and the significance of global digital connections have all contributed to a heightened interest in intercultural dynamics This interest emphasizes the importance of understanding others while also fostering awareness of individual and national identities.
The term "cross-cultural" emerged in the 1930s within the social sciences, stemming from research conducted by anthropologist George Peter Murdock His studies aimed to perform comparative analyses of various cultures within American society.
Research in the social sciences has increasingly focused on the significant concept of cultural differences Experts like Hall, Hofstede, and Trompenaars have sought to illuminate the characteristics that exist among various cultures, aiming to examine their influences on human behavior.
Research conducted by anthropologists and sociologists highlights the significance of interactions among individuals who do not share the same codes, values, or cultural backgrounds.
Communication interculturelle
Les études interculturelles ont donné naissance à la communication interculturelle
Communication is defined as a process of interpreting verbal, paraverbal, and non-verbal signals to generate meaning during interactions It is essential to differentiate between the semantic content of a statement and the meaning it conveys, which is influenced by context and accompanying signals The linguistic code plays a crucial role in producing the meaning of a statement, which becomes meaningless if the message is taken out of context In intercultural communication, understanding involves grasping the perspectives of individuals from different cultural backgrounds.
Effective communication relies on a shared linguistic code, but hidden cultural codes can create misunderstandings when interlocutors lack common ground The presence of a foreigner highlights these differences, often causing discomfort To facilitate successful interactions, it's essential to understand the foundations of the foreign culture, viewing cultural components as dynamic entities Engaging with a foreign culture should be seen as a dialogue and a communicative process that influences participants through dialectical relationships, where meaning must be negotiated.
According to Hall, intercultural communication is a complex process based on implicit rules, and his decoding framework helps in understanding the behaviors of individuals from different cultures The various communication cultures studied by Hall, whether explicit or implicit, highlight the necessity of adapting to one's interlocutors For those who share similar life contexts and thought processes, it is often sufficient to be allusive to avoid causing offense Conversely, when engaging with someone from a different context, it is essential to strive for clarity and explanation This communicative adaptation exists within a spectrum of potential conflicts, requiring more detailed definitions for foreign interlocutors.
1.2.2 Variations culturelles dans les situations de communication
We now turn our attention to cultural variations A detailed examination of the processes employed by participants in their exchanges has revealed that all interactional behaviors can vary significantly across different cultures.
According to Kerbrat-Orecchioni, the rules and norms governing conversations and verbal interactions are not universal; they vary significantly from one society to another and even within the same society, influenced by factors such as age, gender, social background, and geography Despite these internal variations within a linguistic community, it is still possible to identify certain average trends specific to each community and to consider a contrastive theory of conversations.
According to the Palo Alto School, "One cannot not communicate," emphasizing that all human behavior carries communicative value While non-verbal language was our initial means of communication, it has largely been overshadowed by spoken language, which serves both to express and to conceal our thoughts.
Selon Kerbrat-Orecchioni (1990), les signes voco-acoustiques sont divisés en deux catégories :
- Le matériel verbal : phonologique, lexical et morpho-syntaxique ;
- Le matériel paraverbal, prosodique et vocal : intonations, pauses, intensités articulatoires, débit, prononciation, caractéristiques de la voix
- Quant au non-verbal, il existe 3 sortes d’actes :
+Les statiques, à savoir tout ce qui constitue l’apparence physique (le ô look ằ) des participants : caractères naturels (morphologie, physionomie…), acquis (rides, cicatrices, bronzages…), ou surajoutés (vêtements, maquillage, bijoux, etc.)
Slow kinetics primarily focus on attitudes and postures, while rapid kinetics, related to kinesics, involves the dynamics of eye contact, facial expressions, and gestures (Kerbrat-Orecchioni, 1990: 137-138).
When discussing communication between individuals, verbal communication, or language-based interaction, comes to mind This type of verbal interaction differs from dialogue as it focuses on accomplishing a task together through coordination.
Effective communication between two or more speakers requires more than just alternating speech; it necessitates active engagement and regulation of the exchange The speaker's role involves using phatic communication techniques to ensure the listener's attention, such as orienting their body, directing their gaze, and employing forms of address They must also maintain engagement through various cues and address any listening failures or comprehension issues by adjusting vocal intensity, repeating, or rephrasing Conversely, the listener must provide non-verbal and verbal feedback signals that are crucial for the interaction's success Ultimately, face-to-face discourse is a fully co-produced process.
Verbal signs reflect cultural rules learned from childhood, often before formal education begins Linguistic signs convey normative practices that shape interactions, which vary across cultures and may differ even within the same language While language and culture are interconnected, they are not synonymous; culture encompasses a rich tapestry of practices and representations Each culture is inherently heterogeneous, influenced by factors such as social and regional backgrounds, challenging the notion of a homogeneous culture, which is akin to the idea of a uniform language.
- Règles qui permettent la gestion de l’alternance des tours de parole
Pour qu’il y ait dialogue, il faut que deux interlocuteurs au moins parlent ô à tour de rụle ằ
L’activité conversationnelle a donc pour fondement le principe d’alternance: + Dans une conversation, la fonction locutrice doit être occupée successivement et de manière équilibrée par différents acteurs
+Une seule personne parle à la fois
+Il y a toujours une personne qui parle
Quand il y a silence prolongé entre deux tours ; interruption : chevauchement de parole ; intrusion, le système des tours est mis en cause
- Règles qui régissent l’organisation structurale de l’interaction
Une conversation se déroule comme une succession de tours de parole soumise à certains principes de cohộrence Elle doit obộir à des rốgles d’enchaợnement syntaxique, sémantique et pragmatique
This organization can be viewed on both a global and local level The global level involves reconstructing the underlying scenario of the interaction, while the local level focuses on the step-by-step progression of the dialogue's various components This progression can occur either explicitly or implicitly H.P Grice articulates the distinction between explicit and implicit communication: to speak explicitly means to tell something, whereas to speak implicitly means to get someone to think something (cited in Kerbrat-Orecchioni, 1986: 21).
Implicit content is more complex than explicit content, playing a crucial role in textual coherence The overall competence of a statement encompasses its assumptions and implied meanings Research shows that when paraphrasing, memorizing, or summarizing a narrative text, subjects process explicit and implicit propositions in the same way Assumptions and implications are essential for discourse, arising from the principle of economy in both monological productions and dialogical exchanges (Kerbrat-Orecchini, 1986).
Ducrot explains that implicit expressions are crucial in communication, as certain statements can be perceived as boasting, complaining, humiliating, or provoking the listener Despite the need to address sensitive topics, it is essential to employ implicit modes of expression that convey meaning without taking full responsibility for the words spoken This approach allows individuals to navigate complex conversations while minimizing potential negative repercussions.
One of the most significant aspects of culture is its implicit nature While we may become aware of cultural differences conveyed through language, this awareness often remains superficial, focusing on apparent traits We tend to reference our own experiences, which highlights these differences Additionally, statements can carry different implicit meanings, leading to potential misunderstandings For example, the expression "ô nonằ" in France may hold different connotations than the same phrase in Vietnam.
Certain studies view paraverbal communication as a component of non-verbal communication; however, it is more effective to consider it one of the three main communication methods The speed of speech and vocal intensity vary significantly across cultures, individuals, genders, and situations The timing of conversational turns also follows different cultural rules, with noticeable differences in the intervals between speakers For instance, in France, the silence between turns is typically just a few seconds, while in other cultures, such as Japan and potentially Vietnam, pauses can extend well beyond that In business negotiations, Japanese participants may intentionally allow gaps of ten seconds or more, which can be perplexing for their Western counterparts When Vietnamese individuals engage in conversation with Westerners, they often wait ten seconds before responding, but they may be surprised to find that their Western interlocutors often speak over one another, a practice that is considered unacceptable in Vietnamese culture While French communication tends to require quicker responses, taking time to respond is viewed positively in Vietnamese culture.
Malentendus dans la communication interculturelle
When two cultures interact, individuals often instinctively generalize and form value judgments It is through the exploration of another culture that representations, prejudices, stereotypes, clichés, and preconceived notions—both positive and negative—emerge.
According to A Flye Sainte Marie, prejudices are attitudes based on generalized representations formed a priori, lacking empirical or rational foundation, leading to judgments about individuals based on their categorical affiliation, and resistant to new information These prejudices serve as a basis for social stigmatization, reflecting a form of value judgment (1997, cited in Zhang, 2012: 87) The term "prejudice" implies a premature judgment, where having prejudices means forming an inconsiderate and definitive opinion about a person or group without adequate knowledge Prejudices are preconceived notions about individuals or groups and are integral to both private and official groupings, social classes, generations, or genders, leaving a significant mark on human society They are characterized by being preconceived (Karsten, 1978, p.5 and p.120), resulting from false generalizations (Strzelwicz, 1972, p.22) or hasty generalizations (Horkheimer, 1978, p.248), and they tend to be rigid, showing extreme resistance to change (Irle, 1975, p.248) (Candelier & Hermann-Brennecke, 1993, cited in Zhang, 2012: 87).
Les personnes se font souvent une idée au préalable d’un pays, de ses habitants et de sa langue, à travers des médias qui véhiculent une forme idéalisée, standardisée, figée
Candelier and Hermann-Brennecke emphasize that the social sharing of prejudices gives them a sense of obligation, as they play a crucial role in shaping social reality These prejudices influence how objects are identified and organized based on their relevance (1993, cited in Zhang, 2012: 88) This phenomenon is closely related to ethnocentrism, which underscores the tendency to evaluate other cultures through the lens of one's own, often leading to biased perceptions and judgments.
Ethnocentrism is defined as the tendency of individuals to value their own group or country above others (Larousse, 1979) This attitude leads members of a society to evaluate foreign cultural forms and social facts based on their own norms, often deeming their culture superior or preferable As a result, they may disdain or condemn other cultures, reflecting a difficulty or even inability to detach from their cultural reference group (Abdallah-Pretceille).
In intercultural communication, there is a common risk of misunderstanding or dismissing the target culture, often perceiving it as inferior to one's own This instinctive attitude can hinder motivation and may lead to psychological resistance, disinterest, or even a refusal to engage with and explore the new culture.
Stereotypes distort the target culture, as they are often defined as clichés, preconceived and fixed images that individuals develop under the influence of their social environment, including family, peers, education, profession, and mass media These stereotypes significantly shape our ways of thinking, feeling, and acting (Morfaux, 1980, cited in Zhang, 2012: 90) They represent simplified descriptive categories based on beliefs and reductive images that lead us to judge other individuals or social groups, resulting in prejudice (Fischer, 1996, cited in Zhang, 2012: 90).
Stereotypes are opinions that individuals or social groups hold about one another, leading to a generalized view of all members of a group, disregarding individual uniqueness These opinions are characterized by simplistic, repetitive traits that often resemble caricatures Stereotypes represent an object that is somewhat detached from its objective reality, and they are shared among members of a social group with a certain degree of stability and decontextualized imagery.
Stereotypes are both universal and specific; they exist universally in their usage while being unique representations of a worldview shaped by one culture's perspective on another Stereotypes serve as essential tools for categorizing and classifying foreign societies.
Stereotypes are generally understood to reflect identity perceptions, known as auto-stereotypes, and group cohesion through comparisons with traits attributed to other groups, referred to as hetero-stereotypes This perspective suggests that identifying stereotypes can highlight tensions between different communities by revealing phenomena at group boundaries Importantly, it is not the accuracy of stereotypes that matters, as this depends on the psychosocial context of the reference group and varying circumstances that can alter their content Instead, the focus should be on their social effects, particularly how they influence intergroup relations and, consequently, aspects such as language learning among these groups.
According to Besse, the root of misunderstanding lies in the misinterpretation of verbal, paraverbal, and non-verbal signs, as well as cultural implications inherent in a foreign language It may seem that our senses deceive us; however, it is actually the semiotic interpretation of the signals that misleads us, as this interpretation is filtered through different lenses than those of our communication partners.
On considère que l’interlocuteur étranger est prisonnier des filtres de sa propre culture qui sont autant d’obstacles à une compréhension correcte de l’autre culture
Interpreting another culture involves navigating its value systems and cultural representations while judging it through one's own norms, leading to a distorted perception of the foreign reality This often results in cultural interference, causing misunderstandings and misinterpretations For the foreigner, their native cultural framework acts as a filter between them and the new society, which can be termed a "cultural sieve" acquired unconsciously from childhood Consequently, interpretations of signals from foreign interlocutors become skewed due to this cultural sieve To truly engage with a foreign culture, it is essential to educate this sieve by identifying primary representations.
The term "cultural shock" was first introduced by anthropologist Kalvero Oberg in 1954, referring to the anxiety experienced when immersed in a foreign and unfamiliar context Oberg explains that cultural shock is triggered by the loss of familiar references and symbols in social interactions, which include various ways we navigate daily contacts—such as when to shake hands, how to give tips, and how to accept or decline invitations These references, which can be words, gestures, customs, or norms, are acquired throughout our upbringing and are integral to our culture, akin to our language and beliefs Our peace of mind and effectiveness rely on these countless references, most of which we are unaware of.
Experts suggest that anyone living abroad, regardless of the duration of their stay, experiences varying degrees of cultural shock This phenomenon is particularly significant for students participating in exchange programs, as they immerse themselves in a new culture for an extended period Therefore, it is crucial to consider the impact of cultural shock on these students during their experience.
Cultural shock symptoms can be overwhelming and differ in intensity, duration, and severity among newly immigrated individuals Not everyone experiences these challenges, and among those who do, some may face them more intensely while others manage to overcome them with greater ease.
Cultural shock models, as identified by various scholars such as Oberg (1954), Adler (1972), and Bennett (1993), generally outline a four-phase process The initial phase, known as the "honeymoon" phase, represents the excitement and euphoria experienced when encountering a new culture This foundational concept has been echoed with slight variations in subsequent models, highlighting its significance in understanding the cultural adjustment experience.
La première étape se caractérise par l’euphorie (Foster, 1962 ; Oberg, 1960,
Collectivisme
Human societies vary significantly in the relationships individuals maintain with other community members The experiences during childhood shape the connections one forms in various institutions, such as schools, religious groups, and professional or political organizations By emphasizing behavioral types, a distinction can be made between community-oriented societies and individualistic societies (Bollinger and Hofstede, 1987, cited by Zhang, 2012:149).
According to G Hofstede (1987), the concepts of individualism and collectivism pertain to the degree of independence and freedom claimed by members of a society Human societies vary in the nature of relationships individuals maintain with others within the group Generally, community-oriented societies prioritize time spent for the group, while individualistic societies emphasize personal time for individual pursuits The distinction between individualism and collectivism can be understood through the relationship dynamics between the individual and the group.
- L’individualisme caractérise les sociétés dans lesquelles les liens entre les personnes sont lâches : chacun doit uniquement se prendre en charge ainsi que sa famille la plus proche
Collectivism, in a communal sense, defines societies where individuals are integrated from birth into strong, cohesive groups that provide lifelong protection in exchange for unwavering loyalty.
The relationship with one's group significantly influences the strategies chosen to gain or protect face, whether for oneself or others A Vietnamese individual aiming to assert their own face, as well as that of others, will align with their group in a consensus-driven manner In contrast, Westerners strive for independence in both thought and action, yet share the same ultimate goal of enhancing their face.
The perception of social organization differs significantly between Vietnamese and Western cultures In Vietnamese culture, an individual is primarily defined by their status as a member of a collective, emphasizing interconnectedness with others Conversely, Western society views the individual as an independent biological entity, focusing on self-reliance and isolation from others.
Vietnamese culture emphasizes modesty, with self-deprecating expressions playing a crucial role in public discourse to avoid appearing arrogant During discussions, it is common for a Vietnamese person to start with phrases like, "I don't know this issue very well, but I would like to add something." This approach highlights the speaker's humility and respect for others in the conversation.
In the prefaces of a work, one often encounters phrases expressing modesty, such as, "Due to a lack of experience and time, as well as insufficient knowledge, our work will undoubtedly have flaws, and we appreciate your corrections." This humble approach raises questions among foreigners, who wonder why individuals engage in discussions if they do not fully grasp the issues at hand.
In Vietnamese culture, job candidates often adopt a modest demeanor during interviews, downplaying their skills and previous experiences In contrast, Western candidates typically emphasize their specific talents to showcase their strengths.
2.1.2 Famille, pilier de la société vietnamienne
In Vietnam, family bonds are incredibly strong, with filial piety serving as the cornerstone of domestic morality It is common for Vietnamese families to live together across multiple generations, creating a unique sense of intimacy that differs from Western family dynamics Vietnamese culture tends to be less reserved, as possessions are often shared among family members, leading to a lack of strict personal boundaries.
Vietnamese perceptions of social, political, and commercial organizations are largely influenced by familial models, where family obligations take precedence over scheduled appointments and activities In contrast, the Greek heritage shapes Western individuals' perspectives, emphasizing different values and priorities in their social interactions.
Égalité ou l’inégalité
In Vietnam, young adults often remain dependent on their parents well into their twenties, as they continue to live at home, receive financial support, and have their needs met This reliance typically lasts until marriage, highlighting a cultural norm where children are not expected to become fully independent until they establish their own families.
A significant aspect of Vietnamese ideology is the pronounced inequality, contrasting with Western ideals that emphasize equality This disparity is particularly evident in interpersonal relationships, where the nuances of inequality and equality play a crucial role.
2.2.1 Distance hiérarchique ô La distance hiộrarchique se mesure à la perception que le subordonnộ a du pouvoir de son chef, car sa représentation mentale de l’autorité dont bénéficie son supérieur va déterminer son comportement La distance hiérarchique est donc prộcisộment la perception du degrộ d’inộgalitộ de pouvoir ôentre celui qui dộtient le pouvoir hiérarchique et celui qui y est soumis Cette perception étant variable selon les pays, ce concept de distance hiộrarchique apparaợt comme un critốre extrờmement riche pour les distinguer les uns des autres ằ (Bollinger et Hofstede, cité par Zhang, 2012 :147)
This dimension reflects the level of inequality that individuals are willing to accept regarding power and authority Vietnamese society is marked by a significant degree of power and wealth inequality, which is largely accepted by its members.
The Confucian system of politeness, rooted in Chinese philosophy, has significantly influenced Vietnamese society for over a thousand years and continues to play a vital role today To restore social order and harmony, Confucius emphasized five fundamental relationships: between ruler and minister, father and son, husband and wife, elder and younger, and among colleagues and friends These relationships establish a hierarchical structure, with four of them reflecting superiority—ruler, father, husband, and elder—over their respective counterparts This principle remains deeply ingrained in the Vietnamese mindset, where politeness underscores the inherent inequalities in human interactions Individuals in superior positions enjoy higher social status and authority, which is respected across various organizations, including families and businesses In the workplace, for instance, it is the director who issues commands and occasionally displays frustration, while subordinates remain attentive, compliant, and ready to follow their superior's directives.
In Western democratic countries, equality is a fundamental societal norm and a guiding principle for human behavior and politeness Compared to the Vietnamese, Westerners generally exhibit less deference to authority and show significantly less respect for social status They pay little attention to social hierarchy, believing that all individuals are equal within society This perspective often surprises Vietnamese people, particularly when they observe the frequent caricaturing of President Nicolas Sarkozy in the French media, an act that would be unthinkable in Vietnamese society.
In Vietnam, despite the growth of socialist ideology, traditional social rituals and a strong sense of hierarchy remain prevalent There is a clear differentiation of roles based on an individual's position within the social hierarchy People are aware of their societal roles, with a particular emphasis on respecting the elderly, as social status is crucial for demonstrating power Failing to respond appropriately to someone’s social status can lead to perceptions of rudeness, which is generally frowned upon.
Les Vietnamiens accordent une grande importance au passé Ils considèrent comme valeurs-clés l’ancienneté, la tradition, l’âge, ainsi que tous les liens qui les attachent à hier
Past experiences often serve as a model for present and future actions, with age and reliability being closely linked In developed countries, youth often takes precedence over seniority In Vietnam, it is common to inquire about someone's age, as aging is respected and signifies experience and wisdom Vietnamese culture emphasizes the importance of respecting the elderly, encapsulated in the saying, "By respecting the elderly, we prolong life." Conversely, in many Western countries, age is viewed as a private matter, with youth being more highly valued, and terms like "old" can carry a derogatory connotation In Vietnam, even a slight age difference can lead to different rights and responsibilities, where younger individuals must show respect to their elders, even among twins This cultural distinction is evident in naming conventions; for instance, in France, it is common to address older relatives by their first names, which is seen as disrespectful in Vietnam Overall, Western cultures tend to prioritize intimacy and equality over age and seniority.
2.2.3 Égalité entre les hommes et les femmes ô La rộpartition sexuelle des rụles n’est pas la mờme chez tous les peuples Plus les rôles sont différenciés, plus la société montrera des traits qu’on peut nommer masculins Plus les rôles sont interchangeables, plus la société montrera des traits fộminins.ằ (Bollinger et Hofstede, citộ par Zhang, 2012 :155)
This criterion pertains to the distribution of roles between men and women and the existing disparities in gender equality It reflects a value difference based on whether a society is predominantly masculine or feminine In masculine societies, men are expected to assert their strength, while women focus on quality of life Conversely, in feminine societies, roles are less distinct, with both men and women sharing responsibilities for quality of life.
Vietnam is a predominantly masculine society, characterized by significant discrimination against girls Men predominantly hold positions of power and responsibility, while women's roles remain limited, particularly in rural areas Although women's status is gradually improving in urban settings, the country still struggles to achieve gender parity, in stark contrast to Europe's commitment to gender equality.
The Western model of gender equality does not seamlessly apply to a society deeply rooted in Confucianism, where traditional values have historically oppressed Vietnamese women For centuries, women have occupied an inferior position to men, strictly adhering to societal norms Their behavior was governed by the "three obediences" to their father, husband, and eldest son in widowhood, alongside the "four virtues" of chastity, modesty in speech, propriety in demeanor, and diligence in work Politically marginalized, women were excluded from public life and decision-making, while economically dependent, they lacked rights to inherit family property and had no independent sources of income.
Throughout her life, a woman was expected to obey her father in her youth, her husband after marriage, and her son following her husband's death She was denied the right to education and participation in social activities In terms of marriage, she had to comply with her parents' decisions regarding her spouse and rely on a matchmaker to arrange her marriage; if her husband died, she was not permitted to remarry.
The differences in the status of women between Vietnamese and Western cultures often lead to misunderstandings during intercultural encounters Foreigners may be taken aback by certain behaviors in Vietnam, such as a Vietnamese man not greeting a woman first, not allowing her to enter an elevator before him, or only opening the car door for his boss rather than for a woman While these actions may be perceived as impolite by Westerners, in Vietnam, social hierarchy, age, and gender play significant roles in determining behavior.
Today, older generations often highlight the significant role women have played in national history, emphasizing their crucial contributions during wartime, their presence in high-level government and private enterprises, and their vital roles in family businesses Socialist ideology advocates for Vietnamese women to enjoy equal rights, status, personality, and dignity as men However, younger generations, especially in urban areas, struggle to balance their professional ambitions with family responsibilities, grappling with traditional views on women's roles alongside modern trends.
Politesse
Politeness encompasses the social rules that facilitate human interaction However, the elements of politeness differ across cultures and value systems, leading to variations in the norms and criteria of politeness from one culture to another.
The psychological aspect of the Vietnamese identity is captivating and warrants in-depth exploration This concept of "face" can be gained, lost, sought after, or offered, and is deeply rooted in cultural constraints, representing a complex and enigmatic element of Vietnamese society Although abstract and elusive, it fundamentally shapes interpersonal relationships among Vietnamese people The notion of "face" transcends simple definitions or translations, embodying a sense of prestige that cannot be purchased but bestows true dignity upon individuals It is a coveted quality, often leading to intense competition and even tragic outcomes, yet remains an invisible force that is prominently displayed in social interactions Ultimately, this pursuit of "face" reflects a unique aspect of Vietnamese life.
In Vietnamese culture, the concept of "face" is deeply rooted in interpersonal relationships Vietnamese people regard the face of their conversation partner as equally significant as their own By granting or preserving face for others, individuals foster a reciprocal dynamic that encourages the enhancement of their partner's face in return.
In Vietnamese, two distinct terms refer to the concept of the face: "ô mặt" for the physical aspect and "ô thể diện" for the figurative sense, which relates to an individual's qualities necessary for societal integration and personal identity "Thể diện" encompasses moral integrity and social conduct, reflecting the respect a person earns through their propriety and sense of honor It also signifies the social prestige acknowledged by society, manifesting as social success linked to effort, education, wealth, and social standing This term is crucial in social relationships and hierarchies, as losing "ô thể diện" can diminish trust from your social network, resulting in a loss of authority and status.
The concept of "face" in Vietnamese culture can be understood as self-respect and respect for others, significantly impacting daily life Maintaining a positive perception among peers is crucial, leading individuals to exercise self-control in social interactions This notion of face acts as both a social regulator and a psychological sanction, shaping individuals as social and cultural beings Consequently, Vietnamese people strive to avoid impulsive actions that may lead to regret, reflecting the deep-rooted importance of face in their behavior and mindset.
Societies address uncertainty in different ways, with some conditioning their members to accept it rather than obsess over it In these low uncertainty avoidance cultures, individuals tend to take risks, work less intensely, and show tolerance towards differing opinions, as they do not feel threatened by them Conversely, high uncertainty avoidance societies cultivate a mindset focused on overcoming the unpredictability of the future, resulting in heightened anxiety, nervousness, and emotional intensity among their members These societies prioritize creating security and minimizing risks through their institutions.
The approach to risk and time varies significantly between Western and Asian cultures According to Hofstede, Westerners view time as a measure of efficiency and a goal in itself, while in Asia, time is seen as a resource that supports objectives and effectiveness In cultures with a higher degree of uncertainty avoidance, like in the West, there is a preference for planning, control, and risk elimination, which leads to a strong emphasis on punctuality, initiative, and responsibility In contrast, Vietnam exhibits a high tolerance for uncertainty, reflecting a society that does not seek to control the future and is unafraid of unexpected situations Vietnamese individuals do not feel the need for strict rules to manage uncertainty or ambiguity and are generally accepting of diverse opinions and approaches.
Overall, people tend to be quite reliable and will show up for appointments, albeit sometimes later than expected However, meeting deadlines is a different story, as tasks often take longer than initially anticipated A popular concept that may help us navigate tight deadlines is the idea of "elastic time."
Vietnamese people tend to prioritize relationships over career advancement, which may benefit them in public relations but can hinder strategic planning Their reactive mindset, likely stemming from a history of war, poverty, and natural disasters, reflects a day-to-day existence characterized by uncertainty and precariousness However, this perspective is rapidly evolving, indicating a shift towards a more proactive approach.
Vietnamese people exhibit a high level of tolerance towards various aspects of daily life, including poor behavior, noise, and interruptions They are accustomed to the invasion or absence of personal space and endure uncomfortable living conditions, such as crowded bus rides lasting several hours Additionally, there is a strong culture of sharing among them, encompassing food, clothing, books, computers, exam answers, combs, beds, and even germs.
Vietnamese society tends to be intolerant of insubordination, emphasizing the importance of respecting familial, professional, and official authority, at least on the surface Unmarried women, childless individuals, those leading unconventional lifestyles, or expressing uncommon opinions often face challenges From a Western perspective, life in Vietnam, including private matters, is governed by a set of fairly rigid social norms.
Motorcycles rush to cross tracks even as barriers close and trains approach with loud whistles In stark contrast, people often display remarkable patience in dealing with bureaucracy, engaging in various negotiations, and waiting until the following summer or even the next year to marry or begin building a home.
While Westerners are typically very polite and courteous, they may perceive Vietnamese people as lacking social etiquette by their standards In reality, individuals in Vietnam are generally more sociable and willing to share their personal space compared to those in developed countries, where lives tend to be more comfortable and compartmentalized.
In Vietnam, it is common to visit friends and family without prior notice or invitation Such friendly visits often evoke joy from the host, who may exclaim, "What brings you here?" and quickly prepare tea to serve their guest The element of surprise adds to the pleasure of the visit, making spontaneous gatherings a cherished aspect of Vietnamese culture.
For Vietnamese people, arranging a prior appointment before visiting a friend's home is not customary and may impose an obligation on the host to prepare specifically for that day In reality, hosts can pause their work to welcome guests at any time, reflecting the polychronous culture where time is not a top priority, but rather family, friends, and spontaneity take precedence Conversely, for Westerners, the home is a private space that is distinctly separate from the workplace Consequently, foreigners in Vietnam may be surprised when friends visit without an appointment.
Contexte de la communication au Vietnam et en Occident
2.4.1 Contextes haut et bas ô Tous les individus, selon la culture à laquelle ils appartiennent, communiquent à un certain niveau de l’échelle des contextes, et une des principales stratégies de la communication, que l’on s’adresse à une personne ou à un groupe entier, consiste à définir la teneur adéquate en contexte de ce que l’on communique Transmettre à des individus des informations dont ils n’ont pas en fait besoin revient à les sous- estimer, et on les trompe en ne leur en transmettant pas suffisamment ằ (Hall : 1990 : 77-78)
Context encompasses the information surrounding an event, closely tied to its meaning, and varies in significance across cultures High-context communication involves minimal explicit information in the message, while low-context communication conveys a substantial amount of information explicitly.
Cultures with rich contexts, such as those of Vietnamese, Japanese, Arabs, and Mediterranean peoples, often rely on implicit information These groups maintain strong networks of communication among family, friends, colleagues, and clients, which fosters personal relationships As a result, in everyday transactions, they typically do not require explicit background information, as they are already well-informed about the significant people in their lives.
Low-context cultures communicate information explicitly, making it easier to understand and adapt to changes Countries like the United States, Germany, Switzerland, and the Scandinavian nations exemplify low-context communication, where personal relationships, work, and various life aspects are compartmentalized While individual differences exist within each culture regarding the need for context in communication, understanding the contextual scale of each country can provide insights into how it influences individuals.
High-context individuals often feel frustrated when low-context individuals insist on obtaining unnecessary information Conversely, low-context individuals find themselves confused when high-context individuals fail to provide sufficient information.
One of the major challenges in communication is finding the appropriate context for each situation Americans, despite their straightforward demeanor, often seek detailed information across various sectors before making decisions Their segmented approach to life necessitates a clear understanding of a topic prior to commitment In comparison to French, Spanish, Italian, and Japanese networks, American networks are more limited Culturally, French communication, which is part of Western culture, aligns more closely with American communication styles, both of which are characterized by low-context communication Conversely, Vietnamese culture, akin to Japanese culture, is rooted in a rich contextual communication tradition.
Communication between individuals from different cultures can be challenging due to differing assumptions and reasoning patterns inherent in each language E.T Hall emphasizes that each culture has its unique way of combining elements to formulate messages, distinguishing between high-context communication, where much information is implicit, and low-context communication, which requires explicit information devoid of context Generally, Vietnamese culture aligns with high-context communication, relying heavily on contextual cues, social relationships, and non-verbal signals, placing the responsibility for understanding on the receiver In contrast, French culture exemplifies low-context communication, prioritizing directness, clarity, and the sender's responsibility to convey information effectively.
When Western communication styles intersect with Vietnamese communication, Westerners often perceive Vietnamese individuals as beating around the bush and being unclear about their true thoughts Conversely, Vietnamese people view the directness of Westerners as overly blunt and harsh This highlights the cultural connotations that shape these differing communication approaches.
According to Robert Galisson, all words carry cultural significance, with some possessing a heavier and more evident cultural weight than others (Galisson, 1991: 120) G Mounin posits that connotations belong to pragmatics rather than semantics; while semantics focuses on the relationship between signs and objects, pragmatics examines the relationship between signs and their users (Mounin, 1963, cited by Zhang, 2012: 159) In communication, two terms from different languages may seem semantically equivalent but can have vastly different cultural connotations Within an intracultural context, the connotations of a term can vary significantly from one individual to another and from one moment to the next (Sapir, cited by Zhang, 2012: 159), as no two situations are ever identical (Bloomfield, cited by Zhang, 2012: 159) Examples in verbal interactions illustrate these concepts.
- Les remerciements ô Dans les sociộtộs occidentales en tout cas, le remerciement est frộquent, les
The French are known for their habit of expressing gratitude frequently, regardless of the context or significance of the situation, as highlighted by Kerbrat-Orrechioni (1994: 57).
Vietnamese people are often surprised to see the French frequently saying "thank you" to strangers In Vietnam, "thank you" is reserved for significant favors or major services, and it's not customary to express gratitude in public services Customers believe that employees are simply doing their jobs, while employees see themselves as providing a service to customers This cultural difference leads to confusion among Vietnamese individuals, particularly when public service employees, like train conductors, express thanks after checking tickets.
Vietnamese people find it surprising that the French use the term "merci" between spouses and between parents and children In Vietnamese culture, "Cảm ơn!" (Thank you!) conveys respect and distance, and is typically reserved for addressing individuals outside the family Using it among family members can create a feeling of rejection Consequently, Vietnamese individuals are astonished to hear that French family members express gratitude to each other with "merci."
Expressions of gratitude differ significantly across cultures In Vietnam, when receiving a gift from a friend, one might say "Ô anh bày vẽ làm gỡ!" which translates to "You’ve made too much fuss!" In contrast, the French express their thanks with phrases like "Il ne fallait pas," "C’est gentil," or "Il est magnifique!" highlighting the cultural nuances in how appreciation is conveyed.
Expressions of gratitude and apology vary significantly between cultures In Western societies, apologies are more commonly used in everyday situations, such as asking for directions or when accidentally bumping into someone, often accompanied by phrases like "Sorry" or "Excuse me." In contrast, Vietnamese culture reserves apologies for instances of genuine harm or offense, such as when someone is physically bumped Additionally, in Vietnam, it is uncommon to apologize in public services, within families, or among friends, highlighting a distinct cultural approach to expressions of regret.
Every society has its own value system, leading to varying social rules and criteria across cultures There is no right or wrong in cultural differences; there is only diversity.