A COGNITIVE STUDY OF NEGATIVE TRANSFER OF ENGLISH PREPOSITIONS MADE BY VIETNAMESE LEARNERS.A COGNITIVE STUDY OF NEGATIVE TRANSFER OF ENGLISH PREPOSITIONS MADE BY VIETNAMESE LEARNERS.A COGNITIVE STUDY OF NEGATIVE TRANSFER OF ENGLISH PREPOSITIONS MADE BY VIETNAMESE LEARNERS.A COGNITIVE STUDY OF NEGATIVE TRANSFER OF ENGLISH PREPOSITIONS MADE BY VIETNAMESE LEARNERS.A COGNITIVE STUDY OF NEGATIVE TRANSFER OF ENGLISH PREPOSITIONS MADE BY VIETNAMESE LEARNERS.A COGNITIVE STUDY OF NEGATIVE TRANSFER OF ENGLISH PREPOSITIONS MADE BY VIETNAMESE LEARNERS.A COGNITIVE STUDY OF NEGATIVE TRANSFER OF ENGLISH PREPOSITIONS MADE BY VIETNAMESE LEARNERS.
Research background
In Vietnam, English is taught at various educational levels, including preschool, primary, junior high, high school, and higher education, as it is seen as essential for global trade integration Consequently, the Ministry of Education and Training (MOET) has made English a compulsory subject for graduation examinations across all educational stages However, despite these efforts, high school students' English proficiency has been disappointing, with average scores of only 3.91, 4.36, and 4.57 out of 10 from 2018 to 2020, making it one of the lowest-performing subjects in graduation exams This lack of improvement persists even though English education has been a focal point of the National Foreign Language 2020 Project.
The low level of English proficiency in Vietnam may stem from the current learning and teaching methods Despite the Ministry of Education and Training (MOET) making English a mandatory subject from an early age, high school students often struggle during the National High School Graduation Examination after a decade of English study This challenge may be attributed to an overemphasis on nouns, verbs, and adjectives, as learners tend to believe these parts of speech are the most important As a result, students dedicate most of their time to mastering these elements, potentially neglecting other essential parts of speech.
Negative transfer of L1 significantly impacts English prepositional usage among EFL learners, drawing global attention due to the essential role of prepositions in sentence structure (Jarvis, 2000; Yates, 1999; ệzbay & Bozkurt, 2017) While English has 154 prepositions (Lindstromberg, 2010), Vietnamese lacks a comparable system, leading grammarians to define prepositions as tools for conveying grammatical relationships Vietnamese prepositions are categorized based on functions like place, time, reason, and purpose (Trần Trọng Kim et al., 1940), but there is no unified definition among linguists Cao Xuân Hạo (1991) describes them as functional words that serve as sentence elements or modifiers, while Nguyễn Thiện Giáp (2008) identifies them as parts of speech that connect with nouns to form prepositional phrases Examples illustrate these definitions clearly.
5.178 (1.1) Tham chi tấm áo của người, (1.2) Tiếc công anh đắp đập be bờ Để ai quảy đó, mang lờ đến đơm.
5.179 (1.3) Một ngày đằng đẵng xem bằng ba thu.
Vũ Đức Nghiệu et al (2008) classify Vietnamese parts of speech into ten categories, notably excluding prepositions Their classification encompasses nouns, verbs, adjectives, numbers, pronouns, adjuncts, linking words, particles, emotional words, and exclamatory words.
Vietnamese prepositions are grouped with conjunctions as a larger unit namely, conjunction-preposition words This term originated from traditional grammar because both prepositions
Conjunctions and prepositions serve as crucial tools for linking words to create sentences, with their primary distinction being their dependency on clauses (Cao Xuân Hạo et al., 2005) Conjunctions are responsible for connecting coordinated clauses, whereas prepositions link independent and dependent phrases Despite varying definitions among Vietnamese scholars, the relationship between independent and dependent clauses is essential for identifying words as prepositions, as illustrated in examples (1.4) to (1.7).
5.183 (1.4) Áo của ai (Trần Trọng
Ông Bùi Đức Tịnh đã cất ngôi nhà để bán, trong khi Nguyễn Kim Thản nhấn mạnh tầm quan trọng của việc viết bằng bút chì Cao Xuân Hạo và các tác giả khác cho rằng nếu thật sự muốn tìm kiếm chân lý, dù có những bất đồng, cuối cùng mọi người vẫn có thể đồng quy.
The relationship between independent and dependent elements can occur in various forms, such as between a noun and its post-modifier, a predicate and its modifier, or a sentence and its adverbial clause Determining the exact number of Vietnamese prepositions has proven challenging due to differing definitions, leading many scholars to overlook the topic However, this changed in the early 2000s when researchers Trần Quang Hải and Trần Cảnh Hoa systematically identified and listed 40 Vietnamese prepositions, including terms like "bằng," "bên," "bởi," and "cho."
Vietnamese linguistics scholars have conducted contrastive analyses of Vietnamese and English prepositions, highlighting their similarities and differences Recent cognitive linguistics studies have emerged, primarily focusing on prepositions of motion or direction Additionally, learners often underestimate the significance of prepositions, leading them to select less appropriate words.
Many learners tend to use prepositions or particles that have similar meanings in their native language instead of the correct ones in English This first language (L1) transfer can hinder the development of fluent, native-like proficiency in English for an extended period Furthermore, there has been a lack of contrastive linguistic studies focusing on negative transfer related to the use of prepositions.
Statement of the problem
Learning a first language (L1) differs significantly from acquiring a second language (L2) because L2 learners already possess an established linguistic framework This existing grammar allows them to transfer knowledge from their L1 to their L2, enabling them to adapt and revise their understanding as they gain more information about the new language Consequently, L1 to L2 transfer occurs initially, leading learners to follow similar paths in language acquisition while also exhibiting unique error patterns based on their native language For instance, the pronunciation of the English word "HAVE" can illustrate this, as French speakers may pronounce it differently due to the absence of certain sounds in their mother tongue.
French learners of English often struggle with the initial 'h' sound, leading them to pronounce words like "have" as [ổv] (Qingya & Xiaojia, 2020) In contrast, German speakers are familiar with the 'h' sound but typically omit the 'v' sound at the end of words, resulting in pronunciations like [hổf] instead of the correct [hổv] (Němcovỏ, 2019) These examples highlight the influence of a learner's native language (L1) on their English pronunciation, as documented in various studies (Daftarifard & Shirkhani, 2011; Jiang, 2011; Seddighi, 2010; Weda & Sakti, 2017).
5.191 The concerning questions to language teachers are how much learners transfer from their native language to their L2 language production and
Teachers are increasingly aware of the sources of their first language (L1) transfer, as numerous studies indicate that language transfer can occur in various forms, including individual sounds, consonant clusters, entire words, syntactic structures, and semantic features Research by Bolonyai (1998), Cardenas-Hagan et al (2007), Daftarifard & Shirkhani (2011), Jiang (2011), Seddighi (2010), Talebi (2013), Weda & Sakti (2017), and Yu (2011) supports this notion, highlighting the complexity of language transfer in learning processes.
5.194 ―Barney frequently wear suits.‖ because English grammar rule governing adverb
In English, the adverb "frequently" typically precedes the verb "wear," as in "Barney frequently wears suits." However, in French, the adverb follows the verb, resulting in the phrase "Barney porte fréquemment des costumes." This difference highlights a common grammatical variation between English and French.
5.196 Vietnamese learners of English face the same challenges when they learn or use English prepositions These challenges can be described as follows:
(i) There are not exactly the same number of prepositions in Vietnamese as there are in English.
An English preposition combined with other words can convey multiple meanings, often diverging significantly from its original sense For example, the phrasal verb "make up" has eight distinct meanings that vary depending on the context in which it is used.
(iii) There is a significant difference in the way Vietnamese and English speakers understand prepositions.
5.197 These problems are strongly interlinked with the following examples from (1.8a) to (1.13a):
5.198 (1.8a) Mẹ đang ở ngoài sân (1.9a) Mẹ đang ở trong sân (1.10a) Mẹ đang ở trên sân (1.11a) Mẹ đang ở dưới sân (1.12a) Mẹ đang ở trước sân (1.13a) Mẹ đang ở
In the analysis of Vietnamese sentences (1.8a) to (1.13a), it is evident that at least six Vietnamese words serve as prepositions to indicate the relationship between two entities: "mom" and "garden." In contrast, this relationship is succinctly conveyed in English with a single preposition in the sentence "Mom is in the garden." This reference frame can be visually represented in Figure 1.1.
5.208 Figure 1.1 The correct Trajector and Landmark for "Mom is in the garden." 5.209
5.210 In fact, Vietnamese learners of English often use inappropriate sentences to express this concept in their daily conversations or writing, except for example (2.9b):
5.211 (1.8b) Mom is outside of/ out of the garden (1.9b) Mom is in the garden.
5.212 (1.10b) Mom is on the garden (1.11b) Mom is under the garden (1.12b) Mom is in front of the garden (1.13b) Mom is behind the garden.
5.213 In the examples (1.8b, 1.10b-1.13b), they failed to identify the exact
LM and TR in the English frame of reference, so they made mistakes by using terms like
5.214 „OUTSIDE‟, „ON‟, „IN‟, „FRONT OF‟, or „BEHIND‟ for the relation between LM and TR illustrated in Figure 1.1 Negative L1 transfer may account for such errors.
Vietnamese learners of English often struggle with the correct usage of English spatial prepositions due to the negative transfer of their native language's spatial prepositions This interference can lead to difficulties in accurately conveying spatial relationships in English.
TR to English Also, there
5.217 is typically an ‗implicit landmark‟ in which both speakers and listeners are involved For instance, a talk between a dad and a son in the living room:
5.218 Dad: Mẹ con đang ở đâu? Son: Mẹ đang ở sau vườn.
5.219 The son responded, ―Mom is behind the garden‖ because there were two typical landmarks related to a house: ‗a garden - at the back‘ (LM 1 ) and
In the son's perception, the yard is located in front of the house, leading him to mistakenly believe that his mother is behind the garden instead of in it This misunderstanding stems from his long-standing linguistic cognition, where the term 'sau' (meaning 'behind') has been ingrained in his mind, not accurately reflecting the actual spatial relationship between his mother and the garden This cognitive framework contrasts with English spatial references, highlighting the challenges Vietnamese learners face with English prepositions, particularly the confusing distinctions between 'OVER' and 'ABOVE,' as well as 'UNDER' and other locative terms.
'BELOW' due to their similar meanings Vietnamese speakers only have one preposition 'trên' that indicates all the spatial concepts of its English counterparts
When Vietnamese learners aim to translate the sentence "Quả bóng ở trên đầu anh ấy" into English, they often struggle to choose the appropriate preposition to describe the relationship between the ball and the man's head The prepositions 'ABOVE,' 'OVER,' and 'ON' can all convey different meanings in this context, reflecting at least three possible spatial relationships Additionally, understanding the nuances of related prepositions such as 'UNDER,' 'BELOW,' and 'UNDERNEATH' is essential for accurate expression in English.
5.222 Figure 1.2 Possible trajectories for “Quả bóng ở trên đầu anh ấy.”
Vietnamese learners of English often struggle with selecting the appropriate preposition for various contexts, particularly with the English preposition "over," which has a complex semantic network This difficulty arises because "over" encompasses multiple meanings, all of which are represented by a single word, "trên," in Vietnamese The intricate semantic relationships of "over" are illustrated in Figure 1.3.
5.231 Figure 1.3 “Possible trajectories for “The cat jumped over the wall.” (Lindstromberg,
Cross-linguistic influence (CLI) occurs when a person's knowledge of one language negatively impacts their use of another, particularly with prepositions This phenomenon has intrigued scholars since the dawn of international interactions and language evolution Historical references, such as those found in Homer's Odyssey, illustrate early instances of bilingualism and cross-linguistic challenges The widespread multilingualism of ancient societies contributed to various cross-linguistic issues, evident in personal letters, legal documents, epitaphs, and literary works, highlighting the enduring effects of negative transfer between languages.
Attitudes towards Code-Switching and Language Interference (CLI) have been shaped by historical disparagement of Greek dialect speakers by early philosophers and writers Researchers suggest that CLI arises from modified linguistic inputs, indicating that contact with other languages significantly influences the learning process Additionally, existing literature highlights that CLI is also affected by various aspects of a learner's identity (Jarvis & Pavlenko, 2008).
Prepositions are fundamental words that convey concepts of space, time, and manner, yet they present challenges for learners due to their arbitrary and unpredictable nature Recent studies in cognitive linguistics have focused on the semantic characteristics of English prepositions, highlighting difficulties stemming from negative transfer from a learner's first language Research has systematically explored how individuals acquire prepositions, particularly those related to motion, location, and action, utilizing frameworks that assess the effectiveness of cognitive linguistic methods in teaching these essential components of language.
Aims and Objectives
The study explores the impact of the Contrastive Linguistics (CL) approach on understanding negative L1 transfer, specifically focusing on the use of English prepositions by Vietnamese learners Given the significant differences in cognition and structure between English and Vietnamese prepositions, it is likely that Vietnamese speakers may inadvertently transfer their linguistic and cultural experiences into their English usage The research investigates various linguistic and non-linguistic factors to identify those that adversely affect the participants' performance in using English prepositions.
5.239 English prepositions The following issues were examined to set precise and concise objectives for the study.
The study aimed to identify factors leading to negative L1 transfer in the use of English prepositions among Vietnamese learners Eight hypotheses were established to explore the semantic features of these prepositions, focusing on cross-linguistic similarities, which have been overlooked in existing cognitive grammar research Additionally, factors such as cognitive embodiment, recency, learning environment, L1 acquisition, and language proficiency were analyzed The study accounted for Type I error to validate treatment effects, with an alpha level set at 0.05 for statistical significance Employing survey, empirical, and corpus research techniques, the study sought to bridge the gap between linguistics and language teaching, thereby contributing to the field of applied linguistics.
The study aimed to identify the English preposition choices made by Vietnamese learners, focusing on negative transfer A questionnaire was employed to analyze the accuracy rates of preposition usage while considering non-linguistic factors such as religion, favorite colors, and location to understand the influence of L1 culture and background To compare the results of simple and complex prepositions, statistical methods including the T-test and Chi-square test of independence were utilized The findings revealed that L1 background and cultural interference significantly impacted the participants' preferences, with most Vietnamese learners favoring simple prepositions over compound or complex ones, highlighting a p-value of 0.05 or less for relevant variables.
5.243 than 0.05 were considered statistically significant in proving or disproving individual hypotheses.
The study aimed to assess whether gender contributed to negative transfer in language learning, utilizing both qualitative and quantitative methods An ANOVA test was conducted to analyze the differences in negative L1 transfer among three groups: males, females, and gender-secretives The findings revealed that gender significantly influenced the incorrect use of specific English prepositions.
This study examined the complexities and inconsistencies in the meanings of prepositions, which often pose challenges for learners It highlighted how prepositional errors are influenced by the communicative context, impacting the way individual learners transfer concepts.
Research questions
This study addresses the limitations of previous research on first language (L1) transfer by employing cognitive linguistics (CL) to examine factors that adversely affect the use of English prepositions within motivated polysemy networks To further investigate this area, the author formulated three essential research questions that remain unanswered in the existing literature.
1 What factors negatively impact how Vietnamese learners use English prepositions from a cognitive linguistic perspective?
2 How aware are Vietnamese learners of English of the distinction between simple and complex English prepositions?
4 Is there any relationship between gender and the usage of English prepositions among Vietnamese learners of English?
5.This thesis will explore English prepositional use by Vietnamese learners from a
CL perspective by utilizing English assignments based on the three research questions To achieve this, eight significant hypotheses as follows were setup upon:
6 Within the domain of RQ 1, the following five hypotheses were set:
7.Hypothesis 1: Vietnamese intra-lingual interference does not affect prepositional meaning expressed by Vietnamese learners of English.
8.Hypothesis 2: Cognitive Embodiment does not play any significant role in terms of negative language transfer affecting a specific preposition's usage.
9.Hypothesis 3: Learners with more than one foreign language do not use English prepositions better than those who only study English as a foreign language.
10 Hypothesis 4: A suitable learning environment has no negative transfer effect on learning English prepositions.
11 Hypothesis 5: There are no significant differences among low, intermediate, and advanced level Vietnamese learners of English in terms of negative transfer affecting specific preposition usage.
12 For the investigation of RQ 2, the author chose the following two hypotheses: Hypothesis 6: The way in which English is learned does not affect the choice of English prepositions.
13 Hypothesis 7: Vietnamese English learners tend not to use simple English prepositions.
14 For RQ 3, the author formulated the following hypothesis:
15 Hypothesis 8: There are no significant differences between genders in terms of negative transfer when acquiring English prepositions amongVietnamese learners of English.
Definition of terms
18 To avoid the misconceptions about the objectives of this study, the following terminologies are considered key to the interpretation and are defined as they are used in this study.
Communicative competence encompasses pragmatic competence, highlighting the importance of understanding linguistic norms such as grammar and social norms (Hymes, 1971; Sage, 2003) It involves the appropriate use of the target language within various social and cultural contexts (Tanck, 2002) and emphasizes the ability to effectively utilize the English language in diverse situations.
Conceptual transfer refers to the cross-linguistic differences and influences in how meaning is mentally constructed and verbally expressed (Jarvis, 2010) There are significant misconceptions surrounding conceptual transfer, which is based on assumptions such as linguistic relativity (Lucy, 1992) and the thinking-for-speaking hypothesis (Slobin, 1996), along with other frameworks (Levelt, 1989; von Studnitz & Green, 2002) In this study, the term "conceptual transfer" is typically understood through three key perspectives.
21 different levels: an observation, approach, and hypothesis.
Crosslinguistic influence (CLI) refers to how a person's understanding of one language affects their knowledge and usage of another language, a topic that has intrigued both the general public and scholars throughout history According to Jarvis and Pavlenko (2008), this phenomenon has been observed since the evolution of language Weinreich (1953) categorized CLI into two levels: the individual level, often referred to as the "speech level," and the societal level, highlighting the multifaceted nature of language interaction.
In this study, the author explores code-switching and language transfer, analyzing code-switching as a psycholinguistic phenomenon at the individual level and examining language transfer as a societal phenomenon influenced by language contact within communities.
• Domain is a term used in Cognitive Grammar which denotes a conceptual
A domain is a coherent knowledge structure that can vary in complexity and organization, serving as a stable context for understanding various conceptual units For example, the conceptual domain of JOURNEY encompasses representations such as the traveller, mode of transport, and route, illustrating how domains help in organizing and interpreting knowledge (Evans, 2007).
27 destination, obstacles encountered on the route and so forth.
Embodied cognition posits that human thought and conceptual organization are shaped by our species-specific physical interactions with the environment This means that the formation and structure of concepts are influenced by our embodied experiences Consequently, since language mirrors conceptual frameworks, it can be inferred that language also reflects these embodied experiences.
Embodied experience suggests that our perception of reality is shaped by our physical bodies, leading to a species-specific understanding of the world This concept emphasizes that the way we interpret and interact with our environment is influenced by our unique bodily characteristics.
29 large measure by the nature of our bodies (Evans, 2007).
• Errors are flaws in speech or writing that have been learned They are the parts of a conversation or a piece of writing that deviated from a natural
30 language performance in some way (Evans, 2007).
A foreign language refers to any language learned alongside one's native language, particularly in environments where the target language is not the official language or used for everyday communication.
• Gestalt is an organized whole or unit The central notion in the movement
32 known as Gestalt psychology (Evans, 2007).
Ground encompasses any spoken communication, incorporating the participants involved, the timing of the utterance, and the surrounding physical context The concepts of subjective and objective construal are interpreted in relation to the idea of ground.
Image Schema is an abstract conceptual framework that emerges from our daily interactions and observations of the world, rooted in sensory and perceptual experiences These schemas are shaped by our embodied experiences, such as the effects of gravity, which causes unsupported objects to fall This phenomenon influences our physical actions, requiring us to bend down to retrieve fallen items and direct our gaze both downward to locate them and upward to understand their position in relation to us.
Landmark (LM) refers to the secondary participant in a profiled relationship, as defined by Langacker (1987) In the example, "Tom is in his house," the preposition "IN" serves to establish a literal connection between the physical subject, "Tom," and his location, demonstrating how landmarks function within spatial relationships.
37 to a physical Landmark (‗the house‟).
• Language transfer is ―the influence resulting from similarities and differences between the target language and any other language that has
38 been previously (and perhaps imperfectly) acquired.‖ (Odlin, 1989, p 27)
Linguistic transfer, often referred to as cross-linguistic influence (CLI), significantly impacts various aspects of linguistic and communicative competence This includes key areas such as phonology, orthography, lexis, semantics, morphology, syntax, discourse, pragmatics, and sociolinguistics, as highlighted by Jarvis and Pavlenko (2008) Understanding these effects is crucial for comprehending how language learners interact with and acquire new languages.
Mistakes in language learning often stem from memory lapses, physical states like fatigue, and psychological factors such as intense emotions When learners frequently make errors, it indicates underlying issues that need to be addressed for effective language acquisition.
40 still learning the rules of the target language.
• Native language is the learner‘s first language or mother tongue, in this
42.43 study the author refers to the Vietnamese language.
• Negative transfer is defined based on four types of errors that second / foreign language learners often produce in their L2 production such as underproduction, overproduction, production errors and misinterpretation
• Recency is the potential effects the languages that a person has used
45 recently tend to bear a high level of activation in the person‘s mind when she or he learn multiple languages (Poulisse, 1999).
• Second language is any language that a person uses other than a first or
• Target language is the new language the learners are learning (in this
Trajector, often referred to as TR, Subject, or S, represents the central participant in a defined relationship For instance, in the sentence "Tom is in his house," the term 'IN' is employed to establish a physical connection between the Subject, Tom, and his location, highlighting the Trajector's prominence in the context.
48 to a physical Landmark (‗the house‘).
Significance of the study
52 The findings of the thesis may be of significant benefit to the following people and organisations:
The findings from this study will greatly benefit language schools and institutions by introducing a novel approach to language transfer studies Prepositions, which have long captured the interest of researchers across various fields—particularly in relation to time, place, direction, and manner—will continue to be a focal point of inquiry This ongoing interest can be attributed to two main factors: first, prepositions are polysemous, offering rich opportunities for exploration and understanding; second, their meanings are context-dependent, extending beyond a single dictionary definition to encompass a range of interpretations based on user intent.
This thesis investigates the negative transfer of L1 on English preposition usage among EFL learners in Vietnam, addressing a gap in previous research regarding the root causes of these issues By highlighting specific challenges faced by learners, the study provides valuable insights that can aid language schools and institutions in understanding language transfer dynamics Additionally, it opens avenues for further research within the framework of cognitive linguistics.
56 Language teachers and researchers: The findings will offer
English linguistic researchers and language teachers provide guidelines to address challenging prepositions by taking into account students' cognitive processes and personal experiences The research findings reveal varying levels of difficulty associated with different prepositional concepts, influenced by their contextual usage Additionally, the study emphasizes a conceptual framework for analyzing Cross-Linguistic Influence (CLI) related to specific words.
57 Language learners, or users: The findings will aid individual
This study aims to assist English users in identifying challenging prepositions that require extra focus and practice By addressing the root causes of preposition errors, it seeks to mitigate the negative effects of mother tongue transfer, where the dominant language influences the target language Additionally, EFL learners will develop foundational semantic networks to facilitate the selection of suitable prepositions for various contexts.
Scope of the study
This study aims to identify the factors that hinder Vietnamese learners from effectively using English prepositions It focuses on the common misunderstandings and errors these learners encounter in their prepositional usage.
The survey included 61 English learners aged 11 and older, all with some prior knowledge of the language Participants' responses were categorized into subgroups to better understand the variations based on cognitive backgrounds While the study did not specify the linguistic errors made by participants, it highlighted the importance of cognitive, experiential, and social contexts—such as gender, age, location, hobbies, and preferences—that influence language transfer These factors differ from established knowledge on language transfer and warrant further investigation in future research.
Outline of the thesis
The thesis is structured into seven chapters, starting with Chapter One, which introduces the challenges faced by EFL learners in mastering English, particularly the use of prepositions This chapter outlines the specific research objectives and questions, highlights the significance of the study, defines its scope, and details the overall organization of the research.
Chapter Two outlines the key constructs of the CLI study, tracing the evolution of language transfer research from its inception to contemporary findings, particularly through the lens of cognitive linguistics It systematically examines various approaches to language transfer, including behaviorism, syntactic, semantic, and cognitive theories Following a comprehensive review of relevant literature, a conceptual framework was chosen to establish a theoretical foundation for investigating the negative transfer of the first language on English preposition usage among Vietnamese learners of English.
65 Chapter Three introduces an overview of the design and research methodology for the current research The chapter describes how mixed methods
The investigation into the factors influencing negative L1 transfer, which impacts the quality of English preposition use, involved testing eight specific hypotheses through both analytical and empirical studies Additionally, this chapter outlines the data collection process, including data coding audits, normality assessments, validity assessments, and the criteria for filtering data.
68 Chapter Four reports the results and discussion of research question
This article explores the factors influencing negative L1 transfer in the use of English prepositions by Vietnamese learners It offers insights into five related hypotheses that collectively enhance our understanding of negative language transfer and its significance for both language educators and learners The findings shed light on various aspects of negative L1 transfer, particularly focusing on nonverbal factors that are intricately linked to the learners' first language.
69 Chapter Five presents the results and discussion on research question
This article explores the selection of English prepositions by Vietnamese learners, highlighting their preference for simple prepositions over more complex options It examines the reasons behind this tendency, particularly from the perspective of negative transfer, and delves into the cognitive processes that influence how these learners acquire and utilize basic prepositions in English.
70 Chapter Six portrays the results and discussion of research question
This chapter explores the relationship between gender and language transfer, highlighting why females may exhibit certain negative transfers despite achieving higher overall performance on assessments It addresses how gender influences negative transfer from a contrastive linguistics perspective, revealing that cultural conditioning plays a significant role in shaping the expected linguistic expressions associated with each gender, ultimately impacting foreign language acquisition and usage.
Chapter Seven concludes the thesis by summarizing key findings and implications, highlighting essential insights for language teaching and research It also addresses the study's limitations, which arose from time and scope constraints.
This chapter explores the limited research on the impact of negative language transfer on prepositional usage through the lens of Cognitive Linguistics It defines language transfer, addresses related issues, and examines the development of English prepositions alongside cognitive linguistic studies on second language learning and negative transfer Additionally, the chapter outlines the theoretical framework for language transfer and summarizes key contributions to Cognitive Linguistics concerning English prepositional usage and first language transfer A thorough analysis of the reviewed literature clarifies the research questions and hypotheses presented.
Introducing Language transfer
80 In addition to the terms "prior language knowledge" and
In the context of second language (L2) acquisition, the term "transfer" is commonly used to describe how prior linguistic knowledge, particularly from a learner's first language (L1), influences their performance in learning a new language According to Odlin (1989), transfer plays a crucial role in understanding the dynamics of L2 learning, as it highlights the connection between a learner's existing language skills and their ability to acquire a second language.
81 “Transfer is the influence resulting from similarities and differences between the target language and any other language that has been previously (and perhaps imperfectly) acquired.”
Odlin defines transfer as the outcome of linguistic similarities and differences between a speaker's languages, a concept supported by researchers like Anderson (1983) and Kellerman (1995) This perspective has significantly influenced the understanding of transfer, resulting in the development of various methodological frameworks for its identification.
Transfer cases, as discussed by Jarvis (2000, 2010), reveal a significant gap in our understanding of the nature of transfer (Jarvis & Pavlenko, 2008; Smith & Truscott, 2006, 2014; Yu & Odlin, 2016) This lack of comprehension poses challenges for the research field, as we can identify instances of transfer but lack clarity on the underlying causes and contributing factors.
Transfer in language learning is commonly understood as the process of copying or cloning an existing first language (L1) body of knowledge to create a new second language (L2) body of knowledge This notion is akin to the everyday concept of transferring, such as moving water from one container to another, but it requires adjustments since transfer in L2 learning does not imply that L1 knowledge is simply relocated Instead, it is viewed as preserving the L1 system while hypothesizing that L2 knowledge, essentially a replica of L1, is modified through L2 input.
Language transfer significantly impacts second language (L2) acquisition due to the non-equivalents found in two distinct languages This phenomenon is described through various terms, including language mixing, language transfer, and cross-linguistic interference, highlighting the influence of the mother tongue (L1) on learning an L2 Understanding these concepts is crucial for grasping how L1 can affect the process of acquiring a second language.
L2 usage positively or negatively (Odlin, 1989) Throughout this thesis, two terms
Language transfer and cross-linguistic interference are terms used interchangeably to describe the phenomenon of language transfer, each reflecting different aspects of the concept The term "language transfer" was first introduced by Lado in 1957, referring to the influence of a speaker's first language (L1) on their use of a second language (L2) in terms of forms, meanings, and cultural context This concept was later refined by Odlin and gained widespread acceptance in linguistic studies Meanwhile, "cross-linguistic influence," a term coined by Kellerman and Smith, further explores the interactions between languages.
The term "Crosslinguistic Influence," first introduced in 1986, has gained widespread acceptance in linguistic studies, notably by scholars such as Odlin (1989) and Jarvis and Pavlenko (2008) Recently, it has come to signify a new phase in the evolution of language transfer, closely linked to cognitive linguistic research.
Negative transfer occurs when L2 knowledge is not fully updated or appropriately formed, leading to issues in language learning This raises questions about the causes of transfer, such as whether a certain level of exposure or processing difficulty contributes to it Additionally, the copy-and-restructure model of transfer suggests that L1 and L2 knowledge may be distinct from one another, prompting further exploration into the nature of language transfer.
In this research, L1 and L2 refer to Vietnamese and English, respectively Vietnamese is part of the Viet-Muong branch of the Mon-Khmer language group within the Austro-Asiatic family, while English belongs to the Indo-European family, which includes languages like French, Italian, and German Due to their distinct linguistic backgrounds, the two languages exhibit differences in parts of speech, particularly in the usage of prepositions Vietnamese speakers often overlook the significance of prepositions, viewing them as non-notional words, which can lead to frequent negative transfer of English prepositions in their communication.
Language transfer problems
Problems of definition
95 Before making any observations about what transfer is (or appears to be), it is necessary to make some observations about what transfer is not adequately defined Odlin (1989) clearly defined the term transfer through careful and systematic observations in his well-known book entitled ―Language
Transfer: A Crosslinguistic influence in language learning‖ He also criticized some observations that transfer is not appropriate:
(i) Transfer is not considered because of habit formation of the learners.
(ii) Transfer is not simply interference.
(iii) Transfer is not simply a falling back on the native language.
(iv) and Transfer is not always native language influence*.
96 However, the fourth observation seems no longer accepted up till now with the development of conceptual transfer Many studies have shown that L2+ has an effect on L2 performance (Jarvis, 2007; Jarvis & Pavlenko, 2008) Therefore, the fourth observation will be excluded from this study Below are three problems related to the definitions of transfer itself.
97 Transfer is not considered because of habit formation of the learners.
Carroll (1968) highlights a significant distinction between the behaviorist concept of transfer and the influence of a native language, particularly in the context of contrastive analysis and behaviorism He argues that while behaviorism suggests the need to eliminate previous habits for effective language transfer, acquiring a second language does not necessarily require replacing the learner's original language This perspective challenges the relevance of behaviorism in understanding language transfer, as noted by Hakuta (1986), revealing a misconception in the traditional views on language learning.
98 Transfer is not simply interference The concept of interference seems to be relevant to several elements of second language performance, such as phonetic mistakes during their learning Much of the influence of L1 may be highly helpful, especially when the differences between the two languages are few or minor As a result, native speakers of Vietnamese have a significant advantage over native
Speakers of Thai or Chinese often experience challenges when learning the English consonant sound 'f' due to language interference, which is also known as negative transfer This concept highlights the difficulties learners face, contrasting with positive transfer, where similarities between their first language (L1) and the second language (L2) can aid in the learning process.
Transfer in language learning is more complex than merely reverting to one's native language, as it overlooks the advantages native speakers may have when acquiring a new language For example, Vietnamese learners of English face fewer challenges due to similarities in writing systems compared to Thai or Chinese learners Krashen (1977) suggests that the influence of the first language manifests through clear L1 rules and views transfer primarily as a "production technique," while acknowledging its potential benefits in listening and reading comprehension However, his theory fails to address the long-term effects of language engagement in specific contexts.
Problems with comparison
Thomason and Kaufman (1991) argue that language transfer studies primarily rely on contrastive analyses (CA) for systematic comparisons between languages While the CA criteria for identifying language transfer are straightforward, proving these criteria is notably challenging, leading to significant variability in the quality of cross-linguistic comparisons A comprehensive understanding of language transfer necessitates more than mere structural comparisons, as the influence of the first language (L1) interacts with various non-structural factors (Odlin, 1989) Additionally, it is essential to examine the outcomes of learners from different native language backgrounds to gain deeper insights into language transfer (Odlin, 1989, p 28).
104 of view, the notion that ‗linguistic difference‘ equates to ‗linguistic difficulty‘ is not all for negative transfer.
Problems of prediction
Wardhaugh (1970) highlights that prediction challenges arise from analyzing learner performance data through cross-linguistic comparisons, emphasizing the significance of understanding both similarities and differences in language transfer.
106 ‗positive transfer‘ and (ii) ‗negative transfer‘, which can be further broken into four types: underproduction, overproduction, production errors and misinterpretation; and (iii) differing lengths of acquisition (p 123).
Positive transfer in language learning is evident when comparing the success of learners from different native language backgrounds Cross-linguistic studies reveal that learners whose native languages share similarities with the target language often benefit from positive transfer, which can expedite language acquisition For instance, similarities in vowel systems enable learners to easily recognize vowel sounds, while comparable writing systems enhance reading and writing skills Additionally, syntactic similarities facilitate grammar acquisition, as learners with a native language that shares syntax with the target language encounter fewer challenges with articles, word order, and relative clauses.
Negative transfer is easily identifiable as it results in deviations from the norms of the target language While it is commonly associated with errors in language production, there are four other ways that a second language learner's performance can differ from that of native speakers.
109 Underproduction Learners produce very few examples of a target language structure which is more infrequent than it is in the native language Good evidence
Language distance, often referred to as 'avoidance', contributes to underproduction in language learning Learners frequently steer clear of using structures in the target language that differ significantly from those in their native language For example, research shows that Chinese and Japanese students learning English tend to use fewer relative clauses compared to students whose native languages have structures more similar to English.
Overproduction occurs as a result of underproduction, where learners, in an effort to avoid certain structures, may excessively use alternative structures For instance, Chinese and Japanese students often steer clear of relative clauses in their communication, leading to an overreliance on simple sentences in their speaking and writing skills (Bertkua, 1974).
Production errors in cross-linguistic comparisons often manifest as substitutions, caiques, and structural alterations Substitutions occur when native language structures are improperly reused in the target language, such as a Swedish speaker using "bort" in English sentences Caiques reflect direct translations of native language structures that result in incorrect word order, exemplified by a Finnish ESL student incorrectly stating, "This weekend got Thomas any fish" instead of "This weekend Thomas caught no fish." Additionally, language transfer can lead to structural alterations, as seen in hypercorrections, where Arabic speakers might confuse the letters b and p, resulting in spelling errors like "blaying" or incorrectly using "hapit" to avoid such substitutions.
Misinterpretation occurs when L1 language structures affect the interpretation of messages in a target language, often leading to negative language transfer Native language influences can cause learners to draw inferences that differ from those of native speakers of the target language Additionally, misperceptions of target language sounds, influenced by native phonology, can result in varied interpretations Differences in word-order patterns and cultural norms between the native and target languages can further contribute to these misinterpretations.
The distinction between positive and negative transfer is crucial in language learning; however, research often emphasizes specific details rather than the overall impact of cross-linguistic similarities and differences The cumulative effects of second language acquisition significantly influence these similarities and differences, particularly in relation to the time learners dedicate to mastering a language Studies, such as Ringbom (2006), have shown that variations in course lengths correlate with transfer outcomes Therefore, it is essential to consider the relationship between course length and second language acquisition in the study of language transfer.
Problems of generalization
The establishment of valid generalizations about language transfer relies significantly on understanding the nature of language through the lens of language universals While some research focuses on characteristics shared by most languages, a considerable amount also examines the unique patterns that distinguish specific languages from one another These structural differences are essential for grasping the concept of language transfer.
Noam Chomsky (1957) and Joseph Greenberg (1966) represent two influential methodologies in the study of linguistic universals Chomsky's approach focuses on a detailed analysis of individual languages to reveal the underlying principles of Universal Grammar In contrast, Greenberg's method prioritizes cross-linguistic comparisons to identify common features across different languages.
The Chomskyan approach primarily examines the syntax of standard written English, while Greenbergian analyses emphasize cross-linguistic variations, particularly in structures like word order.
Over the past thirty years, research into language universals has intensified, focusing on the commonalities among human languages Despite this growing interest, few truly universal linguistic structures have been identified, aside from the observation that all languages contain vowels A significant theory posits that Universal Grammar is an innate biological trait that activates during early language acquisition According to Chomsky, much like a biological program that helps infants learn to walk, there exists a similar framework that facilitates their ability to speak This inherent language program enables children to learn to communicate naturally and effectively, paralleling their developmental milestones in walking.
The study of language typologies explores language transfer through three key dimensions: language distance, systematic influences, and developmental sequences Greenberg (1966) highlights that these tendencies are evident in various linguistic patterns and relationships.
127 their second language acquisition process, sometimes as developmental factors, sometimes as language transfer, and sometimes as a combination of the two.
Typological analyses and contrastive analysis (CA) often incorporate universalist assumptions, despite the universal grammar approach not targeting specific languages Two key universalist assumptions underlie this framework: firstly, that there exist categories suitable for analyzing the structures of all languages.
Greenberg's classification posits that the subject is a universal element across all human languages, a notion widely accepted among researchers However, defining what constitutes a 'subject' remains contentious, particularly in relation to the object The differentiation between subjects and objects is closely linked to an understanding of semantic, syntactic, and discourse properties, as highlighted by Bates and MacWhinney (1981), Comrie (1981), Keenan (1975), and Lakoff.
The second assumption posits that equivalent meanings exist at both the discourse and semantic levels across all human languages Without the concept of translation equivalences, cross-linguistic comparisons, such as negation structures, would be impossible This idea is supported by the notion of semantic universals found in various languages (Berlin & Kay, 1969; Mervis & Roth, 1981; Rosch, 1973) However, the Greenbergian approach has limitations, as it only examines a select number of known languages, making its findings inapplicable to unknown languages Consequently, studies grounded in universal grammar should exercise caution when evaluating linguistic transfer.
Language transfer development
Behaviorist view on language transfer
138 During the 1940s to 1950, one of the linguistic researchers, Skinner
In 1957, a theory of language development emerged, emphasizing the role of environmental influence in language acquisition This theory is grounded in two key principles: first, that active and repeated responses to stimuli in the target language enhance language learning; and second, that incorrect responses must be corrected to achieve proficiency akin to that of native speakers, while reinforcing the correct forms throughout the learning journey.
Skinner proposed that children acquire language through behaviorist reinforcement, linking words to their meanings When children produce correct speech, they receive positive reinforcement, which helps them understand the communicative significance of words and phrases.
The challenges in second language acquisition (SLA) are influenced by the similarity or difference between a learner's native language and the target language When languages share similarities, such as French and English, positive transfer can facilitate the learning process Conversely, significant differences, like those between Vietnamese and English, may lead to negative transfer, hindering SLA.
142 Later, Lado (1957) applied contrastive analysis theory to SLA under the term Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH) in the book entitled
―Linguistics across Cultures Applied Linguistics for Language Teachers‖.Contrastive analysis is the
The study of language pairs aims to identify structural similarities and differences, a hypothesis prevalent in the 1960s and 1970s to explain varying acquisition difficulties in language learning Language transfer can yield positive outcomes when features of the two languages align, but it may hinder second language (L2) usage when there are no equivalents or when the languages belong to distinct linguistic systems.
Mentalist view on language transfer
According to renowned American linguist Noam Chomsky, language acquisition cannot be solely attributed to stimulus-response mechanisms, as each sentence produced by an individual represents a unique combination of words Chomsky is a pioneering figure in the theory of Mentalism, which emphasizes the cognitive processes involved in language development.
Mentalism, as proposed by Chomsky, suggests that a child's language ability is innate, exemplified by a five-year-old's ability to produce and interpret unfamiliar sentences (Chomsky & McGilvray, 2012) He argued that children can master complex language operations despite limited exposure, due to inherent knowledge derived from their community This perspective is supported by the concept of "universal grammar" (UG), which posits that the human brain contains structural principles shared across the over 6,000 existing languages Although these languages exhibit diverse grammatical styles, they adhere to common syntactic rules, reflecting the innate linguistic knowledge shaped by individual cultural contexts.
147 One of the empirical research projects involving UG is Dulay andBurt‘s study in 1974 Their research was conducted to test the hypothesis that children do
Burt and Dulay's research introduced the creative construction hypothesis, suggesting that all languages share fundamental elements and that learners should not rely on language transfer from their native tongue Instead, they proposed that second language acquisition should be viewed as an independent system, drawing on Universal Grammar (UG) rather than native language influences.
Mentalist perspectives have struggled to establish a robust approach due to hasty conclusions drawn by linguists, leading to significant criticism regarding the lack of empirical evidence (Ellis, 1991) Acknowledging these limitations, mentalists initiated various research projects in the 1980s to explore the interplay between native language transfer and Universal Grammar (UG) Notably, Zobl's study on the "formal and developmental selectivity of L1 influence on L2 acquisition" (Zobl, 1980) proposed that the properties of the target language and UG govern transferability While their findings are no longer subject to mentalist criticism, they continue to face scrutiny for insufficient empirical support.
Cognitive view of language transfer
The limitations of the mentalist perspective led to the development of the cognitive view in language learning, which recognizes it as a complex cognitive skill involving processes such as perception, memorization, problem-solving, and information processing (Kamimoto et al., 1992) Essential language skills, including the use of grammatical rules, selection of appropriate vocabulary, and adherence to pragmatic conventions, are integral to this learning process (Mclaughlin, 1990) As learners acquire a new language, they actively organize and restructure their knowledge, linking prior understanding with new information to achieve fluency.
The journey to mastering a second language is characterized by gradual progress, as highlighted by McLaughlin (1990), who describes language performance as a curve rather than a linear path This curve reflects fluctuations in skill levels, where learners experience both increases and decreases in proficiency before achieving mastery.
154 “Performance may follow a U-shaped curve, declining as more complex internal representations replace less complex ones, and increasing again as skill becomes expertise.”
157 Therefore, cognitive linguistics viewed language transfer not solely as the result of topological similarity or difference but also as interacting with other (linguistic/ nonlinguistic) factors (Faerch & Kasper, 1987).
According to Jarvis and Pavlenko (2008), transfer research in language and cognition involves a four-phase investigation into the history of languages The first phase focuses on identifying potential factors that influence second language acquisition (SLA), where researchers dedicate significant effort to recognizing instances of language transfer and measuring its effects The second phase treats the transfer phenomenon as an independent variable, aiming to verify transfer effects, identify their causes, and explore their constraints and directionality The third phase involves developing a theoretical framework to explain the phenomenon, incorporating social, situational, and cognitive factors while also conducting empirical studies Finally, the fourth phase overlaps with the previous two, continuing to refine the research as it progresses.
160 investigates the neurophysiology of how language is produced and stored in our brains.
English prepositions
English prepositions from the Morphological perspective
English prepositions are classified as uninflected words, distinct from nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs While they do not take inflections, certain historical forms, such as the suffixes -ward and -s, have contributed to the creation of new prepositions, like onward and towards, particularly during the Middle English period Today, these suffixes primarily generate adverbs, including southward(s), backward, and homeward(s) Understanding the morphological aspects of prepositions enhances the identification of their unique linguistic features, making it valuable for research in linguistics.
English prepositions from the Syntactic perspective
From a syntactic perspective, English prepositions are examined at both the phrase and clause levels A prepositional phrase (PP) is formed by a head preposition followed by an object or complement, usually a noun phrase (NP) (Delahunty & Garvey, 2010) Examples of typical prepositional phrases illustrate this structure.
183. a.on the waterfront 184. b of human bondage 185. c.beyond the blue horizon 186. d from the halls of Montezuma 187. e.with malice toward none 188.
189 (Delahunty & Garvey, 2010) The structure of PPs can be summarized as follows:
192 Alternatively, its basic elements can also be represented by the following diagram:
In prepositional phrases (PPs), the preposition (P) serves as the head, governing both the entire phrase and its complement or object Typically, the preposition precedes the nouns, which can be enhanced by an adjective to create a noun phrase (NP).
201 (2.3c) In examples (2.3d) and (2.3e), one PP can be found inside the other. This type of PP can be represented in the following diagram of example (2.3e).
212 with malice toward none (Lougheed, 1981)
213.It is important to distinguish between a preposition and a particle in examples (2.4-2.8):
214 (2.4) He fell off the cliff (2.5) He fell off.
215 (2.6) He fell off of the cliff (2.7) She came in the house (2.8) She came in.
218 The word ‗ OFF‟ in example (2.4) functions as a preposition, while
In the provided examples, the word "OFF" functions as an adverb in examples (2.5) and (2.6), while "OF" serves as a preposition in example (2.6) Similarly, the word "IN" acts as a preposition in example (2.7) but is used as an adverb in example (2.8) These verbs are categorized as particles.
220 Furthermore, English prepositions can also act as subordinate adverbial conjunctions This usage of the preposition „AFTER‟ can be seen in sentences (2.9).
221 (2.9) We started the exam after 9 o‘clock.
223 (2.10) We started the exam after hearing the bell.
225 (2.11) We started the exam after the teacher told us to begin.
229 In examples (2.9) and (2.10), the word „AFTER‟ functions as a preposition because it comes before the noun phrase „9 o‟clock‟ and gerund
‗hearing the bell,‟ but the word „AFTER‟ in example (2.11) functions as a subordinate conjunction because it is followed by a clause ‗the teacher told us to begin.‘
English prepositions can function as prepositions, particles, or subordinate conjunctions, depending on their role in phrases or sentences The syntax of English prepositions primarily involves phrase and clause levels Understanding these functions is crucial for mastering the complexities of English prepositional usage, which can be particularly challenging for learners from different linguistic backgrounds.
English prepositions from the Cognitive Linguistics Perspective
2.4.3.1 The trajector/ subject and landmark of prepositions
Recent interest in the semantic perspective of prepositions has highlighted their complex network of meanings, making them a focus for modern linguists The mapping of prepositions' meanings and their relationships with other parts of speech is both vast and unpredictable Spatial prepositions specifically illustrate spatial relationships through the concepts of trajector (TR) and landmark (LM), emphasizing the intricate connections between these elements.
234 defined (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980, 1983, 2008; Langacker, 2008). Lindstromberg proposed an alternative term ‗Subject‘ to represent ‗the trajector,‘ but he did not replace the term ‗Landmark‘ (Lindstromberg, 2010) According to Lindstromberg,
235 ‗The most typical preposition is a word which says where one physical thing is located in relation to another.‘ (Lindstromberg, 2010, p 6).
236 (2.12) There is a candle on the table.
238 (2.13) This [photo] is of her with her best friend.
240 „A candle‟ in example (2.12) is the TR, while ‗the table‟ is the
The preposition "ON" illustrates the spatial relationship between a candle and a table, indicating that "ON" serves as a preposition of place In this context, the candle is the Thing Referenced (TR) that the speaker or writer aims to highlight, while the table functions as the Landmark (LM) of the preposition Additionally, the preposition effectively defines both the TR and LM, with the LM typically being larger than the TR.
TR, so it is not common to say: ―There is a table under the candle.‖
Lindstromberg (2010) identifies the roles of theme referents (TR) and landmark referents (LM) in prepositional phrases, exemplified by the sentence, "This [photo] is of her with her best friend," where "her" serves as the TR and "her friend" as the LM Additionally, TR and LM can appear in plural forms, as illustrated in the phrase, "There were some candles on the tables."
243 The term domain is a cognitive linguistic term coined by Langacker
In a study from 2015, the cognitive domain is examined within the context of the 1980s, focusing on mental experiences as defined by Langacker (2008) He describes mental experiences as encompassing all processes occurring within a sentient being's mind, while representational spaces are shaped by conceived spatial relationships, which in turn enable the potential for these relationships Additionally, a concept or conceptual complex typically serves as a foundational element in this cognitive framework.
Radden and Dirven (2007) categorize prepositional meanings into three main domains: spatial, temporal, and abstract Each preposition often operates across multiple domains in real-life contexts For instance, the preposition "IN" can signify spatial relationships, such as "IN the class," as well as temporal contexts, like "IN 2015." Additionally, "IN" may embody metaphorical mappings, necessitating a distinction between source and target domains, which are grounded in embodied experiences While the concept of domains is expansive and not fully covered in this thesis, Langacker's work on the Theory of Domains provides valuable insights This article will further explore the three English prepositions (in, on, at) within these spatial, temporal, and abstract domains.
246 Table 2.1 The domains for three English prepositions: AT, ON, and IN 247.
252 AT 253.At the theater 254 A t noon 255 At war
N 257.On the street 258 O n Monday 259 24 hours on call
260 IN 261.In the class 262 I n 2015 263 In love
The concept of "image schema" in cognitive linguistics (CL) leads to various interpretations and categorizations of English prepositions, resulting in a range of terms and classifications The most prevalent image schema is a partial schema, which extends concrete structures to represent abstract prepositional meanings Lakoff and Johnson (1980, 1983, 2008) initially defined image schema by highlighting the significance of bodily experiences.
Image schemas are fundamental structures that frequently emerge from our daily bodily experiences, including concepts like CONTAINERS, PATHS, LINKS, FORCES, and BALANCE, as well as various orientations such as UP-DOWN, FRONT-BACK, and PART-WHOLE These image-schematic structures, along with "basic level" concepts, hold intrinsic meaning due to their direct and repeated occurrence in our interactions with the environment, shaped by the nature and functioning of our bodies.
272 Johnson (1987) also proposed some of the schemas by linking them with physical experiences such as PART-WHOLE, CENTER-PERIPHERY, LINK, CONTACT, ADJACENCY, SUPPORT, BALANCE, and CONTAINER It is
273 clearly explained through three common prepositions: CONTAINMENT for „IN,‟
274 CONTACT for „ON,‟ and ADJACENCY for „AT.‟
Research on metaphor has garnered significant attention, revealing its cognitive nature and impact on everyday thinking and reasoning For instance, the phrases "He is happy" and "He is feeling up" convey the same sentiment despite their differing expressions This highlights the synonymous relationship between abstract concepts like 'happy' and 'up.' The cognitive perspective effectively addresses the polysemic nature of prepositions, aligning with the conceptual metaphor theory, which underscores that 70% of our everyday language is rooted in experiential metaphors Thus, metaphors are deeply embedded in our daily interactions and experiences, shaping our thoughts and communication.
Metaphor serves as a fundamental tool for thought, bridging abstract concepts with more concrete ideas through cross-domain mappings This process allows metaphors to shape the structure of the source domain, influencing how we understand the target domain.
According to Tyler and Evans (2001), language concepts largely stem from human perception of spatial experiences, highlighting the role of embodied cognition in understanding spatial scenes This research posits that cognition is influenced not only by the brain but also by the physical body (Gibbs, 2005; Shapiro, 2007) Additionally, Lakoff (2012) further explores the idea of embodiment in cognition, emphasizing the interconnectedness of physical experiences and cognitive processes.
The CL framework encompasses various grounding theories in gesture communication, as explored by Adams and Aizawa (2010) and Arbib (2012) Additionally, Anderson's concept of 'neural reuses' (2015), Goldman's 'bodily formats of thought' (2012), and Gallagher and Zahavi's 'front-loaded phenomenology of mind' (2008) contribute to the discourse Furthermore, O'Regan and Noë's 'sensorimotor accounts of vision and visual consciousness' (2001) offer critical insights into the interplay between perception and cognition.
Embodiment encompasses various definitions, primarily focusing on the relationship between the mind and body (Dancygier, 2017, p 11) Cognitive embodiment is a key concept that illustrates how language mirrors our experiences and cognitive skills in relation to the physical environment we inhabit and understand.
281 In other words, our world, as mediated by our perceptual apparatus (our physiology and neural architecture, in short, our bodies), gives rise to conceptual
283 structure, that is, to thought and concepts Hence, our claim, one supported by an impressive and growing body of research, is that meaning itself is embodied.
In a study by Tyler and Evans (2001), cognitive embodiment was employed to analyze the meanings and applications of spatial prepositions This research highlights how the influence of a person's first language can negatively affect their understanding and usage of English prepositions.
285 usages by Vietnamese learners was explored.