INTRODUCTION
Rationale
Listening and speaking are crucial skills in learning a foreign language, encompassing vocabulary, grammatical rules, and pronunciation Each element plays a vital role in facilitating successful communication While learners can form sentences with the right words and grammar, understanding discussions or presentations relies heavily on proper pronunciation As noted by Fangzhi (1998), effective communication hinges on clear pronunciation; without it, individuals risk being excluded from conversations due to poor listening comprehension.
Pronunciation is a crucial foundation for developing listening and speaking skills in English Native speakers often communicate rapidly and fluidly, utilizing connected speech, which poses challenges for Vietnamese students in understanding spoken English As a result, they frequently struggle to accurately perceive English words, leading to communication difficulties Thus, incorporating the teaching and learning of connected speech is essential for enhancing students' speaking and listening proficiency.
According to Gilbert (2001) and Pennington et al (1986), the suprasegmental features of spoken language play a critical part in the second language classroom
For freshmen at the School of Foreign Languages (SFL), mastering connected speech is essential, as most students lack a logical foundation in phonology from primary through high school The focus of pronunciation training has primarily been on segmental phenomena, with connected speech introduced only in the 12th grade This gap in instruction highlights the need for a more comprehensive approach to teaching connected speech earlier in the curriculum.
English subject, English phonology along with grammar and writing are designed in
The "language focus" section typically lasts forty-five to fifty minutes, allowing only about ten minutes for teaching pronunciation This limited time is insufficient for effectively covering complex aspects of phonology, such as connected speech.
Many English tests primarily focus on grammatical structures, reading comprehension, and vocabulary, often neglecting phonology, even in national entrance examinations As a result, students may prioritize these areas over pronunciation, leading to a lack of attention to phonological skills in their English learning.
Despite its significance, connected speech remains under-researched, although authors like Brown & Hilferty (2006) and Celce-Murcia et al (1996) have demonstrated that instruction in this area enhances learners' comprehension of rapid speech Incorporating connected speech features not only improves learners' intelligibility but also helps them sound more natural, reducing the impact of a foreign accent (Brown & Kondo-Brown, 2006a; Dauer & Browne, 1992) Clearly, connected speech is a crucial aspect of phonology that contributes to fluent and natural communication Therefore, English learners, particularly those majoring in the language, should prioritize their understanding of connected speech.
This study focuses on the explicit instruction of connected speech aspects and aims to evaluate first-year English major students' perceptions and production at the School of Foreign Languages, Thai Nguyen University The research seeks to assess English Language freshmen's awareness and ability to produce connected speech effectively.
Aims of the study
This study aimed to assess the impact of connected speech instruction on first-year English major students' perception and production at the School of Foreign Languages, Thai Nguyen University Additionally, it evaluated students' awareness of connected speech aspects and revised the essential theories surrounding this topic.
Scope of the study
A 10-month study was carried out in two English language classes at the School of Foreign Languages, Thai Nguyen University, focusing specifically on two key aspects of connected speech: linking and assimilation The research intentionally excluded other elements such as grammar and vocabulary to concentrate on these particular features of connected speech.
The significance of the study
This study aimed to explore the differences between students who received explicit instruction on connected speech (CS) in English and those who did not It examined how students utilized connected speech in their speaking and identified the challenges they faced in producing CS The research evaluated students' awareness and production abilities regarding connected speech and assessed the effectiveness of CS instruction for English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) Furthermore, the study proposed strategies to enhance ELF learners' understanding of connected speech and offered valuable insights for teachers to develop appropriate materials and teaching methods.
Organization
The thesis includes five chapters
Chapter 1, Introduction, introduces rationale, aims, scope and the significance of the research
Chapter 2, Literature Review, explores key theories related to English connected speech and highlights the challenges faced by Vietnamese students in mastering English pronunciation It emphasizes the importance of teaching connected speech and presents a procedural model for instruction, alongside a review of previous studies in the field.
Chapter 3, Methodology, focuses on issues of methodology including research questions, subjects, data collection instruments, a procedure of data collection, teaching procedure and data analysis
Chapter 4, Finding and Discussion, reported results of data analysis and discussion of major findings
Chapter 5, Conclusion and Implications, this chapter provides the summary of major findings, implications, limitations, and suggestions for future studies.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Theory of connected speech
“Connected speech” is such an important aspect of pronunciation that a lot of linguistic researchers spent time taking into consideration
Connected speech plays a crucial role in pronunciation, encompassing elements such as elision, assimilation, linking, rhythm, and contraction, as highlighted by Alameen (2014) Hieke (1987) elaborated on connected speech, describing it as the alterations conventional word forms experience due to the temporal and articulatory constraints of spontaneous, casual communication Additionally, Brown et al (2006) contribute to the understanding of this phenomenon.
Connected speech is an essential aspect of spoken language, present in various contexts ranging from casual conversations to formal discussions This natural phenomenon frequently manifests in continuous and informal speech patterns.
Peter Roach (2010) indicates that “in looking at connected speech, to bear in mind the difference between the ways humans speak and what would be found in
"Mechanical speech" refers to the use of devices that generate pronunciation for specific words, which can be beneficial in certain contexts However, this method is often ineffective in real oral communication due to the unnatural quality of the speech produced.
Connected speech (CS) is a prevalent phenomenon in both casual and formal spoken language, enhancing the spontaneity and flow of conversations Native speakers often exhibit rapid, continuous speech characterized by linking, elision, assimilation, and sound changes, resulting in a natural fluency The impact of CS on listening comprehension is significant, as highlighted by Henrichsen (1984), who emphasized the importance of teaching CS to learners This was further supported by Ito (2006), which demonstrated that the presence or absence of connected speech elements influences listeners' perception Additionally, Baghrahi (2014) found that teaching assimilation and linking improves listening skills Thus, gaining a comprehensive understanding of connected speech is essential for effective communication.
Communication strategies (CS) offer significant benefits to language learners, enhancing their ability to speak English naturally and comprehend spoken English with ease While CS may not be a formal criterion for evaluating presentations or mini-talks, it is essential for achieving the primary goals of English learners Establishing a strong foundation in communication strategies is crucial for effective language acquisition.
Connected speech encompasses various elements, with researchers offering diverse perspectives on its components According to Brown et al (2006), connected speech involves reduced forms, elision, assimilation, reduction, and contraction Additionally, Alameen (2014) provides a comprehensive overview of these aspects, as illustrated in the accompanying diagram.
Figure 1: CS listed by Alameen (2014)
Peter Roach divides connected speech into four aspects those were rhythm, assimilation, elision and linking Table 1 presents “aspects of connected speech” in English listed by Peter Roach (2010)
Table 1: The aspects of connected speech
Aspects of CS Description Example
Rhythm in English speech is characterized by the regular pattern of stressed syllables, creating a sense of balance This rhythmic quality is a fundamental aspect of spoken English, highlighting the significance of stress in speech delivery.
„path to the „end of the ca‟nal
Assimilation Assimilation is the process which takes place when one sound adapts itself to become similar to a neighboring sound in one or more aspects
Elision Elision is the disappearance of sounds in speech Under certain circumstances, sounds disappear
Linking Linking is a process that the final sound of the preceding word links to the initial
This study concentrates on two key aspects of connected speech: assimilation and linking, while intentionally excluding other elements Below, we provide detailed information on both linking and assimilation.
Linking, as described by Brown et al (2006b), occurs at word boundaries when the final sound of one word connects to the initial sound of the next This phonetic phenomenon is classified into three types: consonant to consonant (C-C linking), consonant to vowel (C-V linking), and vowel to vowel (V-V linking) Understanding these types of linking is essential for mastering fluent speech patterns in English.
V linking), and vowel to vowel (V-V linking)
Consonant to vowel (C-V) linking is a common phonetic phenomenon that occurs when the final consonant of a word connects to the initial vowel of the following word For instance, in the phrase "look up," the final /k/ of "look" merges with the initial /ʌ/ of "up," resulting in the pronunciation /lʊk ʌp/ sounding like /lʊ kʌp/ Additionally, when a word ends with the /f/ sound, it can transform into a voiced /v/ sound to facilitate linking, as seen in "laugh at," which is pronounced /lӕ vәt/ instead of /lӕ fәt/ It's also important to note the elision of the /h/ sound in certain pronouns and auxiliary verbs, allowing for smoother transitions; for example, "He likes her" becomes /laik sә/ C-V linking only occurs when the final consonant is fully pronounced, and if the sound is dropped, linking cannot take place, regardless of the speaker's speed.
Consonant to consonant linking occurs when two identical consonants meet at word boundaries, resulting in a slightly prolonged sound For instance, in the phrase "big girl" /bɪg gә:l/, the final sound of the first word is often unreleased Similarly, in the example "what do," the /t/ sound is not pronounced, making it seem absent Consequently, even when the ending sound is lacking, consonant-consonant linking still takes place in rapid speech.
Word ending in a high and mid-tense vowel links to a word starting with a vowel by an inserted /ʷ /, /ʳ /, or /ʲ / sound is called vowel to vowel linking or
Intrusive sounds in English include intrusive /r/, /w/, and /j/, which help link words together According to Peter Roach, the most common example is linking /r/, which occurs when a word ends with vowel sounds like /ɑ:/, /ɔ:/, /ɜ:/, /ә/, or certain diphthongs, followed by a vowel sound, as in "here" /hɪә/ and "here are" /hɪәʳ ә/ Intrusive /w/ appears when a word ends in /u:/ or /ʊ/ before a vowel, as in "go in," pronounced /gouʷ ɪn/ Similarly, intrusive /j/ occurs when a word ends in /ɪ/ or /i:/ followed by a vowel, such as in "my aunt," pronounced /maɪ ʲ a:nt/ This linking can be challenging for learners, as they are often accustomed to the original pronunciation of words and may struggle to add consonant sounds at the end.
According to Peter Roach (2010), assimilation occurs when a word ending with a single final consonant (Cᶠ) is followed by another word starting with a single initial consonant (Cᶠ) This process involves one sound adapting to become similar to a neighboring sound, particularly in rapid and casual speech Essentially, assimilation refers to the influence of one phoneme on another, leading to a greater similarity between them.
Assimilation can be categorized into two primary types: regressive and progressive Regressive assimilation occurs when a consonant (Cᶠ) changes to resemble a subsequent consonant, while progressive assimilation happens when a consonant changes to match a preceding one Regardless of the type, consonants undergo alterations based on three key aspects: place of articulation, manner of articulation, and voicing.
- Assimilation of place of articulation
In rapid speech, the alveolar sounds /t, d, n/ can transform into bilabial sounds /p, b, m/ when positioned before bilabial consonants For instance, the voiceless plosive alveolar sound /t/ shifts to /p/ before bilabial consonants, as seen in "right place," which is pronounced /raippleis/, and "white bird," pronounced /waipbә:d/ Similarly, the voiced plosive alveolar sound /d/ changes to /b/ when preceding bilabial consonants, exemplified by "goodbye," pronounced /gubbai/.
The importance of connected speech in English language learning
"Reduced forms," "sandhi forms," and "weak forms" are terms used by researchers to describe the phonological phenomenon known as connected speech This phenomenon frequently occurs in everyday conversation and continuous speech.
In spoken language, the boundaries between words are often unclear, as sounds can be clipped, linked, or altered in various ways This lack of clarity is a key reason why learners struggle to comprehend spoken discourse compared to written text Even if learners are familiar with all the words, they may fail to recognize them within the continuous flow of speech.
Vietnamese students often struggle with fast-paced conversations among native speakers, as they are accustomed to slower speech Additionally, non-native speakers frequently find it challenging to predict which words may arise in particular contexts, relying heavily on auditory cues Consequently, this reliance leads to difficulties in comprehension during conversations.
Teaching connected speech is essential for achieving smooth and fluent communication, as well as enhancing listening skills Research shows that connected speech positively impacts English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners' performance According to D Brown and K Brown (2007), connected speech offers several advantages that contribute to improved learning outcomes.
- Connected speech is a very real part of languages
- Students need to learn more than the traditional grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation that many language teachers present; connected speech is an important part they need to learn
- Connected speech is not just lazy, sloppy, careless, or slovenly language; rather, they occur in all levels of speech, including the most formal manners of speaking
For English major students, understanding connected speech is crucial for mastering phonetic phenomena and achieving natural, fluent communication This knowledge is essential for both learners and training organizations, as it lays the groundwork for enhancing speaking and listening skills Consequently, teaching connected speech should be prioritized to support students in their language development.
The difficulties of studying connected speech
Mastering a new language opens up numerous opportunities and advantages in life, but it often presents challenges for learners Acquiring a second language involves not just spelling but also pronunciation and various other elements of language comprehension For Vietnamese students, learning English as a second language can be particularly difficult, especially when it comes to mastering English pronunciation.
Kenworthy (1987) highlighted that a learner's first language significantly impacts their pronunciation in a second language (L2), with the phonetic differences between English and Vietnamese being a key factor Giap (1997) noted that English is an inflectional language, while Vietnamese is isolating, leading to distinct pronunciation methods In English, syllables are often connected, whereas in Vietnamese, they are pronounced separately Consequently, features of connected speech are prevalent in English but absent in Vietnamese As a result, Vietnamese speakers tend to apply their native speaking patterns to English, making it challenging for them to master supra-segmental features like linking and assimilation in their speech.
Besides, teaching English in Vietnam concentrates much on grammar and vocabulary while the foundation for learning English effectively lies in the
Pronunciation plays a crucial role in effective communication, as many students possess extensive vocabulary and strong grammatical structures yet struggle to speak English fluently Common issues include incorrect stress placement and missing ending sounds, which hinder their ability to master advanced pronunciation techniques Additionally, assimilation and linking at word boundaries can lead to dropped final sounds, making it difficult to achieve connected speech.
Vietnamese students often lack systematic training in supra-segmental features of English, as both teachers and students primarily concentrate on reading and writing skills to succeed in exams This focus limits students' opportunities to practice speaking and effectively incorporate connected speech into real conversations, resulting in choppy and unnatural speech patterns.
Teaching connected speech is essential for English learners, particularly for ELF-TNU students By increasing students' awareness of connected speech, we can help them speak more naturally and improve their overall comprehension of the English language.
Adapted framework from Khaghaninezhad and Nunan in teaching CS
Connected speech significantly influences both speaking and language learning, yet research in this area remains limited The lack of diverse teaching models hinders effective comparison and selection Consequently, this study integrates Khaghaninezhad's teaching model with Nunan's approaches to enhance the teaching process.
The current research adopted Khaghaninezhad’s teaching model (2014) due to its proven effectiveness in enhancing learners' listening and speaking skills through reduced forms instruction The model encompasses a structured two-hour lesson that includes six key steps: pre-listening, listening comprehension checking, fill-in-the-blank activities, raising awareness, perception exercises, and production exercises These stages align well with the present study's focus on improving students' perception and production through explicit instruction By implementing these steps and integrating additional teaching approaches for listening, speaking, and pronunciation, the study aims to achieve significant improvements in learners' abilities.
The study integrated Nunan's teaching approaches to enhance outcomes in listening and pronunciation instruction Given the limited duration of the study and current circumstances, the researcher focused on specific methods, including an inductive approach for teaching connected speech rules, dictogloss, and bottom-up processing for listening exercises, and repetition for pronunciation practice These strategies significantly improved the quality of teaching connected speech, facilitating both listening comprehension and production skills.
To enhance the effectiveness of CS instruction, a bottom-up process was introduced in step 1 to improve students' listening skills in step 2 An inductive approach and repetition were integrated in step 4 to boost students' perception and production abilities Additionally, dictation was incorporated alongside listening tasks to assess students' recognition of CS These strategic combinations are expected to benefit the overall learning experience.
Previous studies on aspects of connected speech
There have been several studies carried out by some scientists worldwide about the effects of connected speech on L2 perception and production
In the 2013 study “Investigating the Effect of Reduced Forms Instruction on EFL Learners' Listening and Speaking Abilities” by Mohammad Saber Khaghaninezhad and Ghasem Jafarzadeh, the impact of reduced forms training on Iranian EFL learners' speaking and listening skills was explored Fifty male participants, aged 16 to 37, were randomly assigned to control and experimental groups The study employed recognition and production tests, including a fill-in-the-blank dictation test for recognition and conversational tasks for production Results indicated a significant difference in performance, with the experimental group, who received reduced forms instruction, outperforming the control group in listening comprehension, recognition, and production post-tests.
In a study by Baghrahi (2014) on Iranian learners, the impact of connected speech training on listening skills was investigated, highlighting that factors beyond vocabulary and grammar affect L2 students' listening comprehension The research, titled “The Effects of Assimilation and Elision Teaching on Listening Comprehension of EFL Junior High School Students,” involved 42 junior high school students divided into experimental and control groups Pre-tests and post-tests were utilized to assess the effectiveness of teaching linking and assimilation Two tests, the Cambridge Preliminary English Test (PET) and a Connected Speech Forms Dictation Test, were employed to measure the improvement in listening skills The results indicated that learners gained confidence in listening to English, leading to enhanced listening comprehension abilities.
A study by Alameen (2014) examined the impact of linking instruction on the connected speech perception and production of non-native speakers, involving 45 participants divided into two experimental groups and a control group Utilizing dictation tests for perception and reading texts for production, the findings indicated that linking instruction significantly enhanced students' abilities in both linking perception and production This research represents a recent exploration into how connected speech affects learners' recognition and application skills.
The current study examined the impact of connected speech instruction on the perception and production skills of 40 first-year English major students at Thai Nguyen University, aged 18 to 20 This demographic differs significantly from previous research, such as Baghrahi's (2014) focus on junior high school students and Alameen's diverse participant range, which included undergraduates and graduate students across various age groups (16-37) While earlier studies explored the effectiveness of teaching connected speech to learners of different ages, this study specifically concentrated on a homogeneous group of freshmen, ensuring a consistent age and proficiency level among participants.
This study employed a similar experimental methodology to previous research, consisting of three key phases: pre-tests, treatment, and post-tests The aim was to assess the impact of explicitly teaching connected speech on first-year students at the School of Foreign Languages-TNU.
Previous research has primarily focused on the impact of code-switching (CS) instruction on listening skills rather than speaking skills, predominantly utilizing dictation tests to evaluate students' perception In contrast, the current study employed two distinct tests: a fill-in-the-blank dictation test to measure students' ability to recognize CS through listening, and a listing test to assess their recognition of CS within a text A comprehensive understanding of pronunciation and CS rules is essential for students to excel in these assessments Additionally, while earlier studies relied solely on reading or free speaking tests to evaluate CS production, this study incorporated both methods to analyze how students produce CS in spontaneous conversations and structured texts.
While the current study shares some similarities and differences with previous research, it builds on the positive findings of those studies It is anticipated that the insights gained from this prior work will contribute to achieving favorable outcomes in the present research.
METHODOLOGY
Research questions
The purpose of this study was to investigate the effectiveness of linking and assimilation instruction on ELF‟s perception and production This study aimed at answering the following questions:
1 What are the differences between control group and experimental group?
2 Does instructing explicitly assimilation and linking increase ELF‟s ability to recognize them in listening?
3 Does instructing explicitly assimilation and linking enable ELF to produce them in speaking?
The study involved 40 students from two English language classes at the School of Foreign Languages, Thai Nguyen University, consisting of 38 females and 2 males aged between 18 and 20 years The majority of the participants were 18 years old, with five students aged 19 and one student aged 20.
The study involved participants from mountainous regions who had studied English for seven to nine years, majoring in English as a foreign language at university They received instruction in pronunciation during their first semester and underwent experimental teaching in the second semester, building on their foundational knowledge of phonology to enhance their understanding of connected speech The participants were divided into a control group and an experimental group, each consisting of 20 students.
To answer all the research questions, pre-tests and post-tests were designed to evaluate students‟ recognition and production
The recognition test assessed students' understanding of theory through linking and assimilation It comprised two components: a listening test and a listing test Participants first completed a fill-in-the-blank exercise, where they listened to recordings and filled in missing words or statements The missing information exemplified key concepts of assimilation and linking, including 25 linking phenomena, with 23 consonant-vowel linkings and 1 consonant linking.
The study focused on analyzing linking and assimilation phenomena in connected speech, identifying 1 V-V linking and 13 assimilation types, including 5 place of articulation, 4 manner of articulation, and 4 voicing assimilations Students were provided with a short text and tasked with identifying the linking and assimilation occurrences within it Their scores were determined by the number of phenomena recognized, providing valuable data for the researcher to assess participants' recognition abilities regarding these two aspects of connected speech.
The research focused on production tests assessing students' reading and speaking skills These tests evaluated participants' ability to produce connected speech during informal conversations Participants were tasked with reading a level two (A2) text, which was part of the curriculum for grade 12 The target words used in the assessment are detailed in Table 2.
Table 2: The number of phenomena in listing and reading test
During the speaking test, students engaged in conversations with their partners, having five minutes to prepare before their performance Each speech was recorded and transcribed, allowing for a comprehensive analysis of the interactions The various phenomena observed during their discussions were collected, and the total number of these occurrences was used to determine each participant's score.
A quasi-experimental design was used for the present study The research followed these following steps
Initially, both groups of students underwent pre-tests to assess their linking and assimilation perception and production abilities This pre-test aimed to determine whether the students in both groups had a uniform understanding of the relevant items prior to the commencement of the research.
After taking pre-test, learners in experimental group were instructed explicitly aspects of connected speech Whereas, students in control group were still followed their regular instruction on the class
After the treatment, both control and experimental groups underwent two identical post-tests to assess their improvement These post-tests matched the format, level, and language of the pre-tests, ensuring an accurate evaluation of the differences in performance between the two groups before and after the intervention.
This study focused exclusively on connected speech, intentionally omitting grammar and vocabulary considerations The assessment was scored according to the number of assimilations and linkings identified and produced by the students Subsequently, the collected results will undergo thorough analysis.
Over a period of seven weeks, students in the experimental group received explicit instruction on assimilation and linking as key aspects of connected speech This instruction emphasized the sound changes associated with these concepts, providing a theoretical foundation and clearly explaining the rules of assimilation and linking The goal was to enhance students' understanding of these processes All materials and exercises were sourced from Hewings.
TREATMENT POST-TEST PRE-TEST
The books "English Pronunciation in Use Advanced" (2007) by Hancock, "English Pronunciation in Use Intermediate" (2012), and "English Phonetics and Phonology" (2010) by Peter Roach offer clear and logical insights into English pronunciation These resources facilitate students' understanding of consonant sounds and pronunciation rules, making it easier for them to master the complexities of English phonetics.
The course was conducted weekly, with each session comprising two periods of 50 minutes each The teaching methodology, adapted from Khaghaninezhad (2014) and integrated with Nunan's approaches, was tailored to fit the research objectives Each lesson was structured around six key steps to enhance learning effectiveness.
Step 3: Fill in the blank and dictation tasks
The description of each step was shown below:
The bottom-up listening approach was implemented to enhance students' listening skills when encountering unfamiliar vocabulary and structures Prior to listening, new words and phrases were translated and explained, while the teacher offered background information about the recording to boost comprehension Additionally, guided questions and visual aids were used to direct students' focus on the recording's main ideas, aiming to familiarize learners with the topic at hand.
Step 2: Listening comprehension checking (10 minutes)
Students listened to a recording played twice and subsequently answered listening comprehension questions This exercise aimed to assess their understanding of the material while highlighting the challenges they faced with connected speech Ultimately, this process helped learners recognize the significance of connected speech in language acquisition.
Step 3: Fill in the blank and dictation (20 minutes)
A fill-in-the-blank listening task was created and provided to each student Participants listened to various short texts and sentences featuring different types of connected speech They were instructed to complete their answer sheets by filling in the blanks with the full forms of the connected speech elements they heard.
Data collection instruments
To answer all the research questions, pre-tests and post-tests were designed to evaluate students‟ recognition and production
The recognition test assessed students' understanding of theory through linking and assimilation, comprising two components: a listening test and a listing test Participants first completed a fill-in-the-blank task, listening to recordings to fill in missing words or statements The omitted information exemplified key concepts of assimilation and linking, featuring 25 instances of linking phenomena, including 23 consonant-vowel linkings and 1 consonant-consonant linking.
The study examined linking and assimilation phenomena in connected speech, identifying 1 V-V linking and 13 assimilation types, including 5 place of articulation, 4 manner of articulation, and 4 voicing assimilations Participants were provided with a short text and tasked with listing the linking and assimilation occurrences they identified Their scores were determined by the number of recognized phenomena, enabling the researcher to assess the participants' ability to recognize these aspects of connected speech.
The study focused on assessing students' reading and speaking skills through production tests, which evaluated their ability to utilize connected speech in everyday conversations Participants were tasked with reading a level two (A2) text, taught in grade 12, with the target words detailed in Table 2.
Table 2: The number of phenomena in listing and reading test
During the speaking test, students engaged in conversations with their partners, allowing for a preparation time of five minutes before their performance Each speech was recorded and transcribed for analysis, capturing all verbal interactions and produced phenomena The total number of spoken phenomena directly influenced the participants' scores.
Procedure of data collection
A quasi-experimental design was used for the present study The research followed these following steps
Initially, pre-tests were administered to students in both groups to assess their linking and assimilation perception and production abilities This evaluation aimed to determine whether the students had a uniform level of knowledge regarding the test items prior to the commencement of the research.
After taking pre-test, learners in experimental group were instructed explicitly aspects of connected speech Whereas, students in control group were still followed their regular instruction on the class
After the treatment, both control and experimental groups underwent two identical post-tests to assess their improvement These post-tests matched the format, level, and language of the pre-tests, ensuring an accurate evaluation of the differences in performance between the two groups.
This study focused exclusively on connected speech, intentionally omitting grammar and vocabulary aspects The test was scored according to the number of assimilations and linkings identified and produced by the students, with results to be collected and analyzed thereafter.
Teaching procedure
Over a period of seven weeks, students in the experimental group received explicit instruction on assimilation and linking, two key aspects of connected speech The focus was on understanding sound changes associated with these concepts, supported by theoretical explanations and detailed rules This approach aimed to enhance students' comprehension of the processes involved in linking and assimilation All instructional materials and exercises were sourced from Hewings.
TREATMENT POST-TEST PRE-TEST
The books "English Pronunciation in Use Advanced" (2007) by Hancock, "English Pronunciation in Use Intermediate" (2012) by Hancock, and "English Phonetics and Phonology" (2010) by Peter Roach offer clear and logical insights into pronunciation These resources facilitate students' understanding and mastery of consonant sound (CS) rules effectively.
The course was conducted weekly in a single period, with each lesson structured into two 50-minute sessions The teaching methodology was adapted from Khaghaninezhad (2014) and integrated with Nunan's approaches, ensuring that the teaching stages were appropriate for the research objectives Each lesson followed a systematic six-step development process.
Step 3: Fill in the blank and dictation tasks
The description of each step was shown below:
The bottom-up listening approach was implemented to enhance students' listening skills when encountering unfamiliar vocabulary and structures Prior to listening, new words and phrases were translated and explained, while the teacher offered background information about the recording to boost comprehension Additionally, guided questions and visual aids were provided to direct students' focus towards the main ideas of the recording This stage aimed to familiarize learners with the topic they were about to engage with.
Step 2: Listening comprehension checking (10 minutes)
Students listened to a recording played twice and then answered comprehension questions to assess their understanding of the content This exercise helped them identify challenges related to connected speech and highlighted the significance of connected speech in language acquisition.
Step 3: Fill in the blank and dictation (20 minutes)
A fill-in-the-blank listening task was created and given to each student Participants listened to several short texts and sentences showcasing various types of connected speech They were instructed to complete their answer sheets by filling in the blanks with the full forms of the connected speech elements they heard.
In addition to the fill-in-the-blank task, a more challenging dictation exercise was introduced, aimed at enhancing students' language skills Prior to the listening activity, students were familiarized with new vocabulary related to the topic The text was distributed for students to compare with their notes before attempting to recreate it This active engagement allows students to identify their strengths and weaknesses in English, leading them to recognize gaps in their knowledge and guiding them in their learning process (Wajnryb 1986: 6).
Step 4: Raising students’ awareness of connected speech (20 minutes)
After familiarizing themselves with connected speech through listening, learners were instructed on its principles by examining sound changes and their governing rules The teacher provided examples and encouraged students to infer the rules before presenting the theoretical concepts This method enhances students' retention and enables them to recognize connected speech elements during listening activities.
To enhance students' ability to produce connected speech, imitation techniques were implemented following instruction During this phase, learners listened to recordings to observe sound variations and subsequently imitated and repeated the target words.
Step 5: Connected speech perception exercises (15 minutes)
Students were tasked with providing examples of connected speech (CS) learned during the lesson Additionally, they analyzed a text to identify various CS phenomena introduced in the session This exercise aimed to enhance learners' understanding and internalization of connected speech, enabling them to better comprehend and utilize the CS features of the language they encounter.
Step 6: Connected speech production exercises (20 minutes)
Practice is a crucial step for students to translate theoretical knowledge into effective communication The objective is for students to incorporate rules into their spontaneous speech As noted by Gilner (2006), communication tasks are vital for internalizing skills and knowledge, allowing learned patterns to manifest in natural production In this study, students engaged in reading word lists and discussing specific topics using previously taught "reduced forms" of English, working in pairs as per the teacher's guidelines The teacher closely monitored the students' output and provided feedback on their pronunciation.
Homework is a crucial component of the teaching and learning process, as it encompasses tasks assigned by teachers for students to complete outside of school hours According to Cooper (1989), homework plays a significant role in enhancing student success Research by Paschal et al (2001) indicates that the level of home stimulation students receive can influence their academic achievement by up to 50% Consequently, the more homework students engage with, the quicker and more effectively they retain knowledge.
In this study, the experimental group of students was assigned various homework tasks, including theoretical and practical exercises, to enhance their retention of knowledge and improve their ability to produce aspects of communication skills (CS) effectively Students recorded their homework to boost their production skills, as highlighted by Gilner (2006), who notes that student recordings allow for externalized speech and facilitate analysis and feedback This approach benefits both teachers and students; teachers can assess student performance through recordings and provide targeted recommendations, while students can use devices like smartphones or computers to compare their recordings with those of native speakers, allowing them to identify and correct mistakes.
Data analysis
Data analyses were conducted using SPSS for Windows version 22.0 and Microsoft Office Excel Both Independent-Samples and Paired-Samples t-tests were performed, with a p-value of less than 0.05 deemed statistically significant Additionally, Microsoft Excel was utilized to calculate the percentage of recognized and produced targets.
This study assessed the effectiveness of explicit instructions on connected speech; therefore, to examine if teaching explicitly was effective or not, data were analyzed basing on four stages
The study assessed the number of target words recognized and produced by students in both pre-tests and post-tests Student scores were determined by the quantity of target words successfully performed To compare the mean scores between the two groups, the realized words were quantified and calculated on a scale of 10 using a specific formula.
S: Score n: The total number of targets n₁ : The number of recognized/produced targets
Then, the average score of assimilation and linking in each test was found and used to compute mean scores using SPSS
In the next step, two Independent-samples t-tests were conducted to compare the mean scores of production and recognition ability between the control and experimental group
Paired-samples t-tests were conducted to analyze the differences in mean scores between pre-tests and post-tests within each group Additionally, independent-samples t-tests were employed to compare the variations in mean scores between the pre-tests and post-tests across different groups.
The post-test means of the control and experimental groups were compared using an Independent-samples t-test, a crucial step in demonstrating the effectiveness of explicit instructions on linking and assimilation for students.
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
Mean comparison of two groups on pre-test
The pre-test of the study was designed to evaluate the participants' proficiency in two aspects of connected speech prior to the treatment phase To analyze the data accurately, several Independent Samples T-tests were conducted to determine the homogeneity of the participants' abilities between the two groups.
1.1 The data from recognition pre- test
To assess students' recognition abilities in computer science during the pre-test, a dual-part recognition test was created, consisting of both a listening test and a listing test The results were analyzed using the Independent-Samples T Test.
The Independent-Samples T-test revealed that the mean score of the control group (3.1550) was slightly higher than that of the experimental group (3.0250), indicating a negligible difference between the two groups Additionally, the probability value for the recognition test was 639 (p > 05), suggesting that both groups exhibited similar recognition abilities in both the listing and listening tests.
Table 3: Mean comparison in aspects of CS recognition of both groups on pre-test
Despite both groups demonstrating uniformity in the listening and listing tests, participants achieved higher target recognition in the listening test compared to the listing test The “p” values for the listening and listing tests were 838 and 204, respectively, indicating that participants in both groups performed similarly in both assessments.
Table 4: Mean comparison of both groups on listening pre-test
Table 5: Mean comparison of both groups on listing pre-test
Independent-samples t-tests were conducted to assess linking and assimilation recognition prior to further investigation As shown in Table 6, the mean scores for the linking listening test were 4.9 for the experimental group and 4.98 for the control group For assimilation, the experimental group had a mean of 5.1905, while the control group scored 4.8080 The p-values were 882 for linking and 435 for assimilation, indicating no significant differences in the listening test results This suggests that both experimental and control participants exhibited similar abilities in linking and assimilation, with respective p-values of 195 and 445.
Table 6: Mean comparison of both groups on linking and assimilation listening pre-test
Table 7: Mean comparison of both groups on linking and assimilation listing pre-test
The results indicated that all "p" values exceeded 0.05, demonstrating no statistically significant difference between the control and experimental groups on the recognition pre-test This established a favorable condition for effectively evaluating the impact of teaching assimilation and linking strategies.
1.2 The data from production pre- test
The assessment of participants' performance in the CS production pre-test involved a "reading text" test and a speaking test Results from Tables 8 and 9 reveal that the production of connected speech during both reading a given text and engaging in conversation showed minimal differences.
The results from Table 8 show that the mean scores for the "reading text" pre-test were nearly identical between the control and experimental groups, with a probability value of 980, which exceeds the significance level of p = 0.05.
Table 8: Mean comparison of two groups’ performance on the reading text pre-test
Both groups of learners experienced difficulties in producing connected speech during conversations, with no significant difference in performance between the experimental and control groups (p = 501, > 05).
Table 9: Mean comparison of two groups’ performance on the speaking pre-test
Basing on aggregated data, it was concluded that participants of control group and experimental group were similar in their perception as well as producing ability.
Mean comparison of both groups on pre-test and post-test
In order to examine the variance between two groups‟ performance on the pre- tests and post-tests, paired-samples t-tests were employed The statistics were shown below
2.1 The participants’ “connected speech recognition”
The training course resulted in significant differences between the experimental and control groups in both pre-test and post-test scores Statistical analysis revealed that the post-test mean scores for both groups in CS recognition were higher than their pre-test scores (p = 000 < 05) Notably, the experimental group demonstrated a much greater improvement, with a mean score of 2.25750 compared to the control group's mean score of 0.98550.
Table 10: Mean comparison of the experimental group’s CS recognition pre and post- test
Post-test minus pre-test 2.25750 000
Table 11: Mean comparison of the control group’s CS recognition pre and post- test
Post-test minus pre-test 98550 000
The experimental group showed a significant improvement in recognizing connected speech in the post-test, while the control group exhibited no notable change Despite the control group's slightly higher pre-test mean of 3.155 compared to the experimental group's 3.025, their post-test mean only increased to 4.1405, indicating minimal progress (p = 000 < 05) In contrast, the experimental group improved from a pre-test mean of 3.025 to a post-test mean of 5.2825, demonstrating a substantial gain (p = 000 < 05) This suggests that explicitly teaching aspects of connected speech effectively raises students' awareness and recognition of it.
70.0 linking assimilation linking assimilation congrol group pretest posttest experimental group
Table 12: Mean comparison of the experimental group’s CS recognition pre and post-test
Table 13: Mean comparison of the control group’s CS recognition pre and post-test
The bar charts reveal a significant increase in the recognition of linking and assimilation in the post-test results Notably, the experimental group experienced a remarkable improvement, with target word recognition rising by 28% for linking and 15.9% for assimilation In contrast, the control group showed only modest gains of 9.4% for linking and 11% for assimilation.
Figure 2: Linking and assimilation recognition of control and experimental groups
In conclusion, both groups demonstrated positive outcomes following the investigation, as participants effectively recognized linking and assimilation in both listening and text formats While the results were not the highest achievable, they still represented a significant improvement compared to the pre-test scores.
2.2 The participants’ “connected speech production”
The comparison of CS production revealed similar recognition outcomes between the groups Paired-samples t-tests indicated that both groups achieved higher scores in their post-tests Notably, the control group's mean increased by 0.41150, while the experimental group demonstrated a more significant rise with a mean of 1.08700.
14) With p = 000, both groups had significant differences
Table 14: Mean comparison of both groups on reading test
Experimental group Post-test minus pre-test 1.08700 001 Control group Post-test minus pre-test 41150 000
Table 15 illustrates the improvement in participants' ability to apply connected speech in their conversations, showing positive changes in both the control and experimental groups compared to the pre-test The control group achieved a probability value of 000, while the experimental group recorded a value of 001, indicating significant progress in their conversational skills.
Table 15: Mean comparison of the both groups on speaking test
Experimental group Post-test minus pre-test 1.75500 001 Control group Post-test minus pre-test 1.24000 000
The bar chart illustrates the production capabilities of both the control and experimental groups, revealing an overall increase in the percentage of target words produced following treatment Notably, production ability showed a contrasting trend compared to recognition ability, with participants demonstrating a greater understanding of linking than assimilation However, in terms of actual production, participants produced more instances of assimilation than linking This discrepancy is attributed to the uneven distribution of target words, with an average of approximately 18 linking words compared to about 5 for assimilation.
Figure 3: Linking and assimilation production of control and experimental groups
50 linking assimilation linking assimilation control group experimental group pretest post test
Figures 2 and 3 clearly demonstrate that students are more proficient in recognizing target words than in producing them Additionally, there are notable differences in their ability to produce various types of linking and assimilation.
Tables 16 and 17 illustrate the linking performance of both the control and experimental groups in reading and speaking tests Participants excelled in C-C linking, achieving over 50% success, while C-V linking, despite being a common feature in spoken language, ranked second in performance Although improvements were noted in C-V linking for both groups, the ability to produce it remained below that of C-C linking V-V linking proved to be the most challenging, as students struggled to add a final consonant to connect with the initial vowel sound of the subsequent word, resulting in the lowest performance among the three linking types.
Table 16: The percentage of performed linking of both groups (Reading test)
Group Tests C-C linking C-V linking V-V linking Experimental group
Table 17: The percentage of performed linking of both groups (Speaking test)
Group Tests C-C linking C-V linking V-V linking Experimental group
Post-treatment results showed that assimilation targets increased compared to pre-test levels Notably, the experimental group outperformed the control group in both reading and speaking tests (see Tables 18 and 19) Many students tended to drop off ending sounds, leading to unintentional assimilation of manner, while assimilation of voicing was less frequently observed The data indicates that participants excelled in producing assimilation of manner but struggled with assimilation of voicing.
Table 18: The percentage of performed assimilation of both groups (Reading test)
Group Tests Assimilation of manner
Table 19: The percentage of performed assimilation of both groups (Speaking test)
Group Tests Assimilation of manner
In general, the result of post-tests was better than that of pre-test It can be concluded that explicit instructions had positive effectiveness on learners‟ production and perception.
Mean comparison of both groups on post-test
The post-test results revealed that the experimental group outperformed the control group in the recognition test To determine the significance of this difference, Independent-samples t-tests were conducted, comparing the means of both groups The findings, as shown in Table 20, indicated a significant difference between the control and experimental groups in the recognition post-test, with a p-value of 002, which is less than the 05 threshold.
Table 20: Mean comparison of two groups on recognition post-test
The results of the listing and listening tests indicated that the experimental group demonstrated a superior ability to identify phenomena in both text and audio recordings, with mean comparisons of 003 and 011, respectively (see Table 21).
Table 21: Mean comparison of two groups on listing and listening post-test
The pre-test results indicated that both groups were similar; however, the experimental group significantly outperformed the control group in the post-test This demonstrates that instruction on connected speech (CS) effectively improved English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) recognition and significantly enhanced students' awareness of connected speech Consequently, the second research question is clearly answered.
The result from table 22 illustrated that the mean of experimental group outperformed the control group (p = 042 < 05)
Table 22: Mean comparison of two groups on reading post-test
An Independent-samples t-test revealed a significant difference in performance on the CS production test (speaking) between two groups, with p = 009 < 05 Both groups showed improvement in the post-test; however, the experimental group outperformed the control group This indicates that connected speech instruction effectively enhanced learners' ability to apply connected speech in daily conversations.
Table 23: Mean comparison of two groups on speaking post-test
Discussion
Listening and speaking are essential skills in learning a foreign language, with a strong connection between the two Rankin (1929) noted that listening is the most commonly practiced language activity and is closely linked to speaking proficiency.
Tamador K Abu-Snoubar (2017) highlights the significant role of listening in enhancing oral proficiency in EFL classes Research indicates that various factors impact EFL learners' listening and speaking skills, with a consensus on the challenges posed by connected speech It has been noted that mastering connected speech not only improves learners' fluency (Morley, 1991) but also positively influences their receptive skills (Hill & Beebe).
1980) Inspired by the existing literature, this study tried to test the effect of English
“reduced forms” instruction on students‟ perception and production
The study revealed significant differences between the control and experimental groups after explicit instruction on connected speech Participants in the experimental group demonstrated improved perception and production abilities, particularly in recognizing assimilation and linking during listening tests, where their average scores increased notably compared to the control group While students showed better recognition than production skills regarding connected speech, the experimental group outperformed the control group in post-test results, indicating that explicit teaching positively impacted their production capabilities Despite some improvements in the control group's production skills, the experimental group ultimately achieved superior results, confirming the effectiveness of teaching connected speech.
The findings align with the research of Mhammad Saber Khaghaninezhad and Ghasem Jafarzadeh (2013), which indicated that teaching "reduced forms" significantly enhanced students' listening and speaking skills Their study revealed a notable difference between two groups following the treatment, focusing on male learners across various age ranges over a 10-week period In contrast, the current study examined younger female participants over 7 weeks Despite variations in age, gender, and research duration, both studies confirmed that explicit instruction in communication strategies greatly benefited learners' perception and production skills.
Baghrahi (2014) demonstrated that enhancing assimilation knowledge can significantly improve learners' listening comprehension Utilizing the Cambridge Preliminary English Test (PET) and a connected speech forms Dictation Test, the author evaluated the effects of teaching assimilation on listening skills In contrast, the current study focused solely on a fill-in-the-blank test to assess the ability to recognize connected speech (CS) in listening Despite differing aims, both studies highlight that CS recognition is crucial for comprehensive listening Consequently, the findings from Baghrahi's research can be compared with the present study, as both indicate an improvement in listening skills, providing evidence for the advantages of teaching assimilation.
Alameen (2014) examined the effects of three different instructional methods—Audio Visual (AV), Audio Only (AO), and a control group—on learners' perception and production skills While all groups showed an increased awareness of linking, there was no significant improvement in production skills The findings of Alameen's study align with those of the current research, despite differences in participant demographics; this study specifically targeted first-year English major students at a university in Vietnam, contrasting with the varied participant backgrounds in Alameen's research.
US Learning and teaching environment among participants was totally different, but the studies‟ results approved that intructing aspects of connected speech was advantageous to students‟ recognition ability
The current study aligns with previous research, revealing both differences and similarities among participants regarding gender and learning environment It highlights the significant benefits that teaching connected speech offers to English learners There is hope that the instruction of connected speech will become more widespread in English language education.