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Trọng tâm thi tự luận Chapter 2: Attitudes and Job satistfaction components of attitudes (3 thành phần thái độ) - Attitude are evaluative statements or juidments concerning objects, people or events There are coponents of attitude: + Cognitive: The opinion or belief segment of an attitude + Affective: The emotional or feeling segment of an attitude + Behavioral: An intention to behave in a certain way toward someone or something Cognitive dissonance theory (sự không thống nhận thức, làm để làm giảm khơng thống này, người lại - tìm cách giảm khơng thống nhận thức) Cognitive dissonace: Any incompability between two or moe attitudes of - between behavior and attitudes People seek to reduce this uncomfortable gap, or dissonance, to reach stability and consistency Consistency is achieved by changing attitudes, modifying the behaviors, or through rationalization - Desire to reduce cognitive dissonance depends on: + Importance of elements + Degree of individual influence + Rewards invloved in dissonance Major causes of job satisfaction (Những ngun dẫn hài lịng công việc) Personality can influence job sastifaction: - Negative people, who set less ambitious goals, more likely give up when - confront difficulities, are usually not sastified with their jobs People with core self-evalution, who believe in their inner worth and basic competence, are more sastified with their jobs Employees response to dissatisfaction (những phản ứng không hài - lịng cơng việc) Exit: The exit response directs behavior toward leaving and looking for a new position - Voice: The voice response includes actively and constructively attempting to - improve conditions Loyalty: The loyalty response means passively but optimistically waiting for - conditions to improve Neglect: The neglect response passively allow conditions to worsen and include chronic absenteeism or lateness Major job attitudes - Job sastifaction is a positive feeling about the job resulting from an - evaluation of its charateristics Job involvement: Degree of psychological indentification with the job where - perceived performance is important to self-worth Psychological empowerment: Belief the degree of influence over the job, competency, job meaningfulness and autonomy Chapter 3: Personality and values MBTI modell - Extroverted (E) and Introverted (I) Extroverted people are outgoing, - sociable and assertive Introverted people are quiet and shy Sensing (S) and Intuitive (N) Sensing types are pratical and prefer routine and order, focus on details Intuitive types rely on unconscious process and - look at the “big picture” Thinking (T) anf Feeling (F) Thinking types use reason and logic to handle - problems Feeling types rely on their personal values and emotion Judging (J) and Perceiving (P) Judging types want to control and prefer their world to be ordered and structured Perceiving types are flexible and spontaneous INTJs are visionares, who are original and great drive ESTJ are organizers, who are realistic, logical, analytical and businesslike ENTP are conceptualizer, who are entrepreneurial, innovative, individualistic an resourceful Big five model - Extroversion: The extroversion dimension captures our comfort level with relationship Extroverts tend to be gregarious, assertive and sociable - Introverts tend to be reserves, timid and quiet Ageeableness: The agreeableness dimension refers to an individual’s propensity to defer others Highly ageeable people are cooperative, warm and trusting People who score low on agreeableness are cold, disagreeable - and antagonistic Conscientiousness: The conscientiousness dimension is measuring realibity People who score high on conscientiousness are resposible, organized, dependable and persistent People who score low on conscientiousness are - distracted, disorganized and unrealiable Emotional stability: The emotional stability dimension – often labeled by its converse – neroticism, taps a person’ability to withstand stress People who are positive emotional stability are calm, self-confident and secure People - who are negative emotional are nervous, anxious, depressed, and insecure Openness to experience: The openness to experience dimesion addresses range of interest and fansicnation with novelty Extremely open people are creative, curious and artistically sensitive Those are at the end of the category are conventional and comfortable with familiar Types of values - Terminal values: Desirable end-states of existence; the goals that a person - would like to achive during his or her lifetime Instrumental values: Preferable modes of behavior or means of achieving one’s terminal values Value dimensions of culture identified by Hofstede - Power distance: The extent to which a society accepts that power in institutions and organitions is distributed unequally + Low distance: Relatively equal power between those with statys/wealth and those without status/wealth + High distance: Extremely unequal power distribution between those with - status/wealth and those wihout status/wealth Individualism versus collectivism + Individual is the extent to which people prefer to act as individuals rather than as member of groups + Collectivism is a tight social framework in which people expect others in - groups of which they are a part to look after them and protect them Masculinity versus femininity + Masculinity: The extent to which the society values work roles of achievement, power and control, and where assertiveness and materialism are also valued + Femininity: The extent to which there is little differentiation between roles for men and women A Feminine society is one where quality of life is - the sign of success and standing out from the crowd is not admirable Uncertainty Avoidance: The extent to which a sociaty feels threatened by uncertain and ambiguous situation trieds avoid them + High Uncertainty avoidance: Society does not like ambiguos situations and tries to avoid them + Low uncertainty avoidance: Society does not mind ambiguos situations - and embraces them Time orientation + Long time orientation: A national culture attibute that emphasizes the future, thrift and persistence + A national culture attribute that emphasizes the present and the here and - now Indulgence: the extent to which people try to control their desires and impulses Relatively weak control is called “Indulgence” and relatively strong control is called “Restraint” Ex: Vietnam scores high on power distance dimension (score of 70) which means that people accept a hierarchical order in which everybody has a place and which needs no further justification Vietnam, with a score of 20 is a collectivistic society This is manifest in a close long-term commitment to the “member” group, be that a family, extended family or extended relationships Vietnam scores 40 on masculinity dimension and is thus considered a Feminine society, people are on “working in order to live”, managers strive for consensus, people value equality, solidarity and quality in their working lives Vietnam scores 30 and thus has a low preference for avoiding uncertainty, maintain a more relaxed attitude in principles and norm Vietnam scores 57, making it a pragmatic culture In societies with a pragmatic orientation, people believe that truth depends very much on situation, context and time A low score of 35 on indulgence dimension indicates that the culture of Vietnam is characterised as Restrained Societies with a low score in this dimension have a tendency to cynicism and pessimism Chapter 4: Perception and decision making Factors affecting perception There are factors affecting perception: - Factors in the Perceiver (Make the different perception): Attitudes, motives, - interests, experience, expectations… Factors in the Situation: Time, work setting, social setting Factors in the target: Novelty, motion, sounds, size, background, proximity, similarity Attribution theory Attribution theory explain the ways in which we judge people suggests that when we observe an individual’s behavior We will attempt to determine whether it is internally or externally caused: - Internal causes are under that person’s control External causes are not under that person’s control Three diterminants factors: - Distinctiveness: Show different behaviors in different situation, high distinctiveness is external, low distinctiveness is internal Ex: A person who arrives today also one who regulary “blows off” commitments We can consider him/her behavior to be internal - Consensus: Show the same as others to same situation, high consensus is external, low consensus is internal Ex: Only James did not well in this task; meanwhile; others did well We can consider James’s result is from internal causes - Consistency: Response in the same ways over time, high consistency is internal, low consistency is external Ex: James always does his task not well, his performace in the final-year report is as bas as his in the half-year report.We can consider James’s result is from internal causes Errors and bias in attribution - Fundamental attribution Error: The tendency to underestmate the influence of external factors and overestimate the influence of internal factors when making juidgments about the behaviors of others Ex: When sales decrease, the boss blame it for his employee’s ability, not because of COVID-19 However, COVID-19 is reason that is considerable - Self-serving Bias: The tendency for inividuals to attribute their own successes to internal factors while putting the blame for failures on external factors Ex: When OB-subject-group has bad result, Mary blame that its ther failure of leader In another group, Accounting principles-subject-group has good result, Mary state that: “it is our attempt and worthy success” Common shortcuts (Bien phap) in judging others - Selective perception: People selectively interpret what they see on the basis - of their interests, background, experience and attitudes Halo effect: Drawing a general impression about an individual on the basis - of a single characteristic Contrast effect: Evaluation of a person’s characteristics that are affected by comparisons with other people recently encountered who rnk higher of - lower on the same characteristics Stereotyping: Judging someone on the basis of one’s perception of ther group to which that person belongs Decision-making models in organizations - Rational decision making A number of assumptions: + Complete information + Be able to indentify all the relevent options in an unbiased maner + Choose the option with highest utility steps decision-making process: Define the problem => Identify the decision criteria => Allocate weights to the criteria => Develop the alternatives => Evaluate the alternatives => Select the best alternative - Bounded rationality decision making: Seek sastisfactory and sufficient solutions from limited data and alternatives Be have rationally within the limits of the simple model - Intuition decision-making: + An unconscious process created from distilled experience + Rely on holistic association + Links between disparate pieces of information + It is fast and affectively changred – engaging the emotions Errors and bias in decision making - Overconfidence Bias: Believing too much in our ability to make good decisions – especially when outside of own expertise Ex: A person who thinks their sense of direction is much better than it actually could show overconfidence by going on a long trip without a map and refusing to ask for directions if they get lost along the way - Anchoring bias: Using early, first received information as the basis for making subsequent judgments Ex: A car salesman is trying to sell a Ford Focus for $20,000 The customer bargains $18,000 for it After discussing the details of the car, the salesman makes an offer to the customer of $22,000 This is the anchor The customer hears the $22,000 price and thinks ‘oh, that’s way out of my price range’ However, at the same time, the customer has anchored their valuation of the car to $22,000 The salesman then says ‘We can a deal especially for you, we can go down to $20,000 if you buy today’ ‘That’s an excellent deal, it’s a bit out of my price range, but I can’t miss out on this offer’, the customer replies As the customer anchored their price expectation of the car at $22,000, anything underneath that seems like an excellent deal - Confirmation bias: Selecting and using only facts that support our decision Ex: A person believe that left-handed people are more creative than right-handed people Whenever this person encounters a person that is both left-handed and creative, they insist on this “evidence” that supports what they already believe They will ignore any “evidence” that don’t support the idea - Avaliability bias: Basing the judgment on information that is readily available at hand Ex: Managers doing performance appraisals give more weight to recent employee behaviors than to behaviors of or months earlier - Escalation of commitment: An increased commitment to a previous decision in spite of negative information Ex: Ed has been dating with Ann for years Athough he admits something are not going too well, he decides marry her - Randomness Error: People believe that they can predict the outcome of random events Ex: If you are certain your lucky tie will help you earn a client's business at a meeting later today, you're committing a randomness error A tie does not bring you luck, even you once wore it on a day when you closed a big deal - Risk aversion: The tendency to prefer a sure gain of a moderate amout over a riskier outcome, even if the riskier outcome might have higher expected payoff Ex: When An attended “Ai La Trieu Phu” program, An decided to stop at the 22 level with reward of 22 millions Dong, she might get a higher reward if she continued However, she did not because of risk aversion - Hightsight bias: After an outcome is already known, believing it could have been accurately predicted beforehand Ex: After attending a baseball game, you might insist that you knew that the winning team was going to win beforehand Chapter 5: Motivation - Job characteristics model How to motivate employees by redesign jobs How to motivate employees by rewards, benefits How to motivate employees by employee recognition programs Chapter 6: Understanding work teams Differences between group work and group team? We can consider about these differences through definitions of work group and work team: - A work group is a group that interacts primarily to share information and make decisions to help each member perform within his or her area of responsibility Work groups have no need or opportunity to engage in collective work that requires joint effort So their performance is merely the summation of each group member’s individual contribution There is no positive synergy that would create an overall level of performance greater - than the sum of the inputs A work team, on the other hand, generates positive synergy through coordinated effort The individual efforts result in a level of performance greater than the sum of those individual inputs To sum up, there are some differences between work group and team group: - About goal, work group is to share information; meanwhile; work team is to - gain collective performance About synergy, work group is neutral (or sometime negative), but work team - is positive About accountability, it is belong to individuals in work group but both - individual and mutal in work team About siklls, work group selects random and varied skills, but work team requires complementary skills Types of teams, there characteristics (4 loại nhóm, đặc điểm loại nhóm) There are types of teams: - - Problem-Solving teams: • – 12 employees from the same department • Met for a few hours each week • To discuss ways of improving quality, efficiency, and the work environment Self-Mangaed work teams: Typically 10 – 15 members Perform highly related or interdependent jobs Take on the responsibilities of their former supervisors Cross-functional teams: • Employees from about the same hierarchical level • From different work areas • Come together to accomplish a task Virtual teams: • Teams that use computer technology to unite physically dispersed • • • - - members and achieve a common goal • Less social rapport and direct interaction among members • For virtual teams to be effective, management should ensure that - Trust among members - Close monitoring - To be publicized The team effectiveness model A team-effective model contains cagetories: Context, composition and process - Context (Boi canh): + Adequate resources: Need enough tools to complete the job + Effective leadership and structure: • Agreeing to the specifics of work and how the team first together to intergrate individual skills • Even “self-managed” teams need leaders • Leadership especially important in multi-team systems + Climate of trust: Members must trust each other and ther leader + Performance and rewards systems that reflect team contributions: Can not be based on individual effort - Compositions (Thanh phan): + Abilities of members: Need technical expertise, problem-solving, decisionmaking and good interpersonal skills + Personality of members: Conscientinousness (tan tam), openess to expertience, and agreeableness all relate to team performance + Allocating roles and diversity: • Many necessary roles must be filled • Diversity can often lead to lower performance + Size of teams: The smaller the better: – is optimal + Member’s preference for teamwork: Need to consider whether the members want to be on team or not - Process (Quy trinh): + Commitement a common purpose: • Create a commom purpose that provides direction • Have reflexitivity: willing to adjust plan if necessary + Establishment of specific team goals: Must be specific, measurable, realistic and challenging + Team efficacy: Team belives in its ability to suceed + Mental models: Have an accurate and common mental map of how the work gets + A managed level of confilct: Task conflicts are helpful, interpersonal conflicts are not + Minimized social loafing: Team holds itself accountable both individually and as a team Chapter 7: Communication Interpersonal communication - Oral communication • Advandtages: Speed and feedback • Disadvantages: Distortion of the mesage - Written communication • Advandtages: Tangible and verifiable • Disadvantages: Distortion of the mesage - Nonverbal communication (Body movement, Intonations and voice emphasis, Facial expression and physical distance between sender and receiver) • Advandtages: Support other communications and provides observable expression of emotion and feeling • Disadvantages: Misperception of body language or gestures can influence receiver’ interpretation of message Communication channels Definition: The medium selected by the sender through which the message travels to the receiver There are types of communication channels: - Formal channels: Are established by the organizationa and transmit - messages that are related to the professional activities of members Informal channels: Used to transmit personal or social messages in the organization These informal channels are spontaneous and emerges as a response to individual choices Communication process Definition: Comunication process is the steps between a source and a receiver that result in the transference and understanding of meaning Key parts of communication process: The sender: Initiate message Encoding: Translating thought to message The message: What is communicated The channel: The medium the message travels through Decoding: The receiver’s action in making sense of the message Noise: Things that interfere with the message Feedback: A return messag regarding the initial communication Direction of Communication Downward Upward Communication Communication • From high to low • level • The low to higher • level content is • usually notices and directives • From Lateral Communication Communication Content in the organization is usually • feedback information • To Among people of the same rank effective implementation, try to Save time and facilitate coordination • Functional conflicts can be created when vertical official tends to be one-way minimize disruptions => dialogue and distractions channels are overlooked ... wihout status/wealth Individualism versus collectivism + Individual is the extent to which people prefer to act as individuals rather than as member of groups + Collectivism is a tight social framework... about the behaviors of others Ex: When sales decrease, the boss blame it for his employee’s ability, not because of COVID-19 However, COVID-19 is reason that is considerable - Self-serving Bias:... Judging (J) and Perceiving (P) Judging types want to control and prefer their world to be ordered and structured Perceiving types are flexible and spontaneous INTJs are visionares, who are original