Thông tin tài liệu
1 Introduction and History of Cage Culture
Chua Thia Eng
1
and Elsie Tech
2
1
Partnerships in Environmental Management for the Seas of East Asia (PEMSEA),
DENR Compound, Visayas Avenue, Quezon City, Philippines;
2
Asian Fisheries Society
25-A Mayaman Street, UP Village, Quezon City, Philippines
History of Cage Culture
Open sea activities, such as cage and pen
culture, are viewed by many stakeholders in
the industry as the aquaculture system of
the millennium. Fish production from cages
and pens (both in freshwater and marine
environments) contributes significantly to
total foodfish produced. Cage culture has
made possible the large-scale production of
commercial finfish and will probably be
the most efficient and economical way of
raising fish.
Aquaculturists realize the need to limit
further conversion of wetlands and man
-
groves into traditional aquaculture farms.
We face a situation where even freshwater
ecosystems have reached critical levels
with respect to their carrying capacities.
The depletion of ocean and coastal fishery
resources in some areas has led to the
development of marine cage culture.
The earliest record of cage culture
practices dates back to the late 1800s in
Southeast Asia, particularly in the fresh
-
water lakes and river systems of Kampuchea
(Coche, 1976; Pantulu, 1979; Beveridge,
1987). The fish cultured included snake
-
heads (Channa spp.), catfishes (Pangasius
spp.) and gobies (Oxycleotris spp.). By 1995,
more than 5000 fish farmers were engaged
in cage culture in the Mekong river system
around Phnom Penh (Thana, 1995). There
were also reports of similar culture
practices in Indonesia in the 1920s and
1940s (Hickling, 1962).
Marine fish farming in cages traces its
beginnings to the 1950s in Japan where fish
farming research at the Fisheries Laboratory
of the Kinki University led to the com-
mercial culture of the yellowtail, Seriola
quinqueradiata. Takashima and Arimoto
(2000), however, traced back a history of 200
years where wooden farm net cages were
being operated for anchovies or sardines or
bait for skipjack. Similar cages were later
used for yellowtail culture in Japan and
developed into a significant industry as
early as 1960. The cage culture of common
carp (Cyprinus carpio) in lakes also started
at this time (Kuronuma, 1968). Since the
1970s, Thailand has developed cage culture
techniques for two important marine finfish:
the seabream (Pagrus major) and grouper
(Epinephelus spp.) (Coche, 1976). Chua and
Teng (1978) pioneered the development of
cage culture methods/designs for groupers
in Malaysia, although large-scale cage farm
-
ing in marine waters really gained ground in
the 1980s and in inland waters in the 1990s
(Shariff and Nagaraj, 2000). Korea started
growing a European variety of common carp
and maintained yellowtail in holding cage
enclosures in the late 1970s. By the end
of 1980, cage culture of the olive flounder
(Paralichthys olivacens) and black rockfish
©CAB International 2002. Diseases and Disorders of Finfish in Cage Culture
(eds P.T.K. Woo, D.W. Bruno and L.H.S. Lim) 1
(Sebastes schlegeli) was established, and
developed into a successful aquaculture
industry in the 1990s (Kim, 2000). Cage
culture of groupers (Epinephelus spp.) in the
Philippines has been practised since the
1980s. Mariculture of milkfish in the 1990s
led to the further growth and development of
the industry (Marte et al., 2000).
In Europe, cage culture of rainbow trout
(Oncorhynchus mykiss) in fresh water began
in the late 1950s and, in Norway, Atlantic
salmon (Salmo salar) followed in the 1960s.
More than 40% of its rainbow trout comes
from freshwater cages (Beveridge, 1987).
Salmonid culture is currently dominated by
production from Norway, Scotland and
Chile. Cage culture of fish was adopted in the
USA in 1964 (Coche, 1976). Records show
commercial production of channel catfish
(Ictalurus punctatus) in freshwater cages
(Collins, 1970a,b, 1972; Trotter, 1970;
Bennet, 1971; Brett, 1974; Novotny, 1975).
Cage culture in Africa, however, is still
in its infant stage (ADB/NACA, 1998). In
Central Africa, there was no real practical
experience in cage culture before 1974.
Very limited observations were recorded for
Clarias lazera (de Kimpe and Micha, 1974).
Semi-intensive rearing was done in Lake
Victoria, Tanzania, using Nile tilapia
(Tilapia zillii) (Ibrahim et al., 1974).
Research initiatives on intensive production
of commercial sized Tilapia nilotica were
carried out in Lake Kossou, Ivory Coast
(Coche, 1974, 1975; Shehadeh, 1974). Cook
(1995) reported that it was only in the 1980s
that the potential of aquaculture in South
Africa gained grounds with respect to
becoming a viable commercial industry.
Freshwater aquaculture was limited to
availability of water while mariculture had
to rely on only 3000 km of coastlines (the
majority of which did not have sheltered
bays or lagoons). In the years that followed,
efforts were geared towards improvement in
the culture of tilapia and cage design (Coche,
1976).
Currently many fish species have been
cultivated in various designs and sizes of
cages in Asia, Europe and other parts of
the world (Table 1.1). Tilapia and carp pre-
dominate in freshwater cage culture in Asia,
while salmonids are commonly farmed in
Europe and the Americas.
2 T.E. Chua and E. Tech
Species cultured Country Reference
Anguillidae
Anguilla japonica
(eel)
Bagridae
Mystus nemerus
(mystid catfish)
Chanidae
Chanos chanos
(milkfish)
Channidae
Channa macrocephalus
Channa micropeltes
(snakehead)
Channa striatus
Giant snakehead
Characidae
Colossoma macropomum
(Amazonian fish tambaqui)
Cichlidae
Black tilapia
Oreochromis mortimeri
Oreochromis niloticus
(Nile tilapia)
China
Malaysia
Philippines
Thailand
Cambodia
Vietnam
Vietnam
Malaysia
Brazil
Malaysia
Zimbabwe
Zimbabwe
Bangladesh
Malaysia
Yuan (1991)
Shariff and Nagaraj (2000)
Guerrero (1996); Ramos (1996); Bagarinao (1998);
Marte
et al
. (2000)
Lin (1990)
Thana (1995)
Pantulu (1976); Thuoc (1995)
Pantulu (1976); Thuoc (1995)
Ang
et al
. (1988)
Chellappa
et al
. (1995)
Ang
et al
. (1988)
Norberg and Stenstroem (1993)
Norberg and Stenstroem (1993)
Mazid (1995)
Shariff and Nagaraj (2000)
Table 1.1a.
Major species of freshwater finfishes cultured in cages.
Introduction and History of Cage Culture 3
Species cultured Country Reference
Red tilapia
Sarotherodon aureus
Sarotherodon esculentus
Sarotherodon galilaeus
Sarotherodon mossambicus
Sarotherodon mossambicus
×
S. honorum
(hybrid)
Sarotherodon niloticus
Sarotherodon spilirus niger
(tilapia)
Tilapia
Tilapia
Tilapia
Tilapia heudeloti
Tilapia nilotica
Tilapia niloticus
Tilapia rendalli
Tilapia zillii
Clariidae
Clarias gariepinus
Clarias lazera
(Nile catfish)
Clarias macrocephalus
(catfish)
Cyprinidae
Abramis brana
(bream)
Aristichthys nobilis
(bighead carp)
Philippines
Thailand
Egypt
Malaysia
USA
El Salvador
Puerto Rico
USA
Tanzania
Nigeria
Philippines
Taiwan
Guatemala
USA
Sri Lanka
Ivory Coast
Nigeria
Kenya
Philippines
Brazil
Dominican
Republic
Togo
USA
Sierra Leone
Togo
Dominican
Republic
Nigeria
Colombia
Zimbabwe
Tanzania
Togo
Kenya
Nigeria
Vietnam
South Africa
Egypt
Thailand
Vietnam
Russia
Nepal
Santiago and Arcilla (1993); Lopez (1995)
Chiayvareesajja
et al
. (1990); Lin (1990)
Ishak and Hassanen (1987)
Ang
et al
. (1988)
Schmittou (1969); Perry and Avault (1972)
Bayne
et al
. (1976); Ramirez (1977); Sanchez
(1978); Street (1978)
Jordan and Pagan (1973); Miller and Ballantine
(1974)
Williams
et al
. (1974)
Ibrahim
et al
. (1976)
Konikoff (1975); Ita (1976)
Guerrero (1975); IFP (1976); Pantastico and Baldia
(1979)
Maruyama and Ishida (1976)
Bardach
et al
. (1972)
Suffern
et al
. (1978)
Anon. (1980); Muthukumarana and Wcerakoon
(1987)
Coche (1975, 1976, 1977, 1978); Campbell (1976);
Shehadeh (1976); de Kimpe (1978); Amoikon
(1987)
Konikoff (1975); Campbell (1987)
Haller (1974)
PCARRD (1981); Aragon
et al
. (1985); Guerrero
(1985, 1996)
FAO (1977)
Olivo (1987)
Issifou and Amegavie (1987)
McGinty (1991)
Iscandari (1987)
Issifou and Amegavie (1987)
Olivo (1987)
Ali (1987)
Patino (1976); McLarney (1978); Popma (1978)
Norberg and Stenstroem (1993)
Ibrahim
et al
. (1974)
Issifou and Amegavie (1987)
Haller (1974)
Konikoff (1975); Campbell (1987)
Tuan and Hambrey (2000)
Hoffman and Prinsloo (1992)
Ishak (1987)
Lin (1990)
Tuan and Hambrey (2000)
Ziliukiene (1994)
Swar and Pradhan (1992); Pradhan and Pantha
(1995)
Continued
4 T.E. Chua and E. Tech
Species cultured Country Reference
Carps
Carps
Carps
Cirrhinus microbis
Cirrhinus
sp.
Ctenopharyngodon idella
(grass
carp)
Cyprinids
Cyprinus carpio
(common carp)
(mirror carp)
Hypophthalmichthys molitrix
(silver carp)
(Javanese carp)
Leptobarbus hoeveni
(slender
carp/sultan fish)
Nile carp
River carp
Eleotridae
Goby
Oxyeleotris marmoratus
(sand
goby)
Ictaluridae
Ictalurus punctatus
(Channel
catfish)
Moronidae
Morone chryops
×
M. saxatilis
(sunshine bass)
Osphronemidae
Osphronemus gourami
(giant gouramy)
Malaysia
Philippines
Sri Lanka
India
Indonesia
Iran
Cambodia
Cambodia
Malaysia
Nepal
Sri Lanka
Vietnam
Egypt
Netherlands
India
Philippines
Poland
Russia
Nepal
Indonesia
Korea
Egypt
Israel
Turkey
Nepal
Egypt
India
Malaysia
Vietnam
Malaysia
Indonesia
Egypt
Malaysia
Malaysia
Thailand
Vietnam
USA
USA
Indonesia
Malaysia
Ang
et al
. (1988)
Fermin (1990); Marte
et al
. (2000)
Muthukumarana and Weerakoon (1987)
Basavaraja (1994)
Costa-Pierce and Effendi (1988)
Matinfar and Nikouyan (1995)
Thana (1995)
Thana (1995)
Ang
et al
. (1988)
Pradhan and Pantha (1995)
Muthukumarana and Weerakoon (1987)
Lovatelli (1997)
Siemelink
et al
. (1982); Ishak (1987)
Huisman (1979)
Bandyopadhyay
et al
. (1991)
Lopez (1995)
Filipiak (1991); Mamcarz (1992)
Evtushenko (1994)
Pradhan and Pantha (1995)
Costa-Pierce and Roem (1990); Zainal
et al
.
(1990)
Kim
et al
. (1992)
Hamza (1996)
Viola and Lahav (1991); Wolhfarth and Moav
(1991)
Erden (1987)
Swar and Pradhan (1992); Pradhan and Pantha
(1995)
Hamza (1996)
Sivakami and Ayyappan (1991)
Ang
et al
. (1988)
Thuoc (1995); Lovatelli (1997)
Shariff and Nagaraj (2000)
Dahril and Ahmad (1990)
Hamza (1996)
Ang
et al
. (1988)
Ang
et al
. (1988)
Menasveta (2000)
Lovatelli (1997)
Schmittou (1969); Perry and Avault (1972); Collins
and Delmendo (1979); Parker (1988); Masser and
Duarte (1992); Burtle and Newton (1993); Webster
et al
. (1994)
Kelly and Kohler, 1996; Pagan (1970); Suwanasart
(1971); Pagan-Font (1975)
Ang
et al
. (1988)
Ang
et al
. (1988)
Table 1.1a.
Continued
.
Introduction and History of Cage Culture 5
Species cultured Country Reference
Pangasiidae
Pangasius bocourti
(yellow catfish)
Pangasius conchophilis
Pangasius hypophthalmus
(catfish)
Pangasius lardnaudi
Pangasius micronemus
Pangasius nasutus
(catfish)
Pangasius pangasius
(river
catfish)
Pangasius sutchii
(striped
catfish)
River catfish
Percidae
Perca fluviatilis
(perch)
Salmonidae
Coregonus
Coregonus albula
(vendace)
Coregonus lavaretus
(Baltic
whitefish)
(whitefish)
Coregonus peled
(peled)
Oncorhynchus mykiss
(rainbow trout)
Salmo salar
(Atlantic salmon)
Salmo trutta
(broom trout)
Stenodus
(whitefish)
Sciaenidae
Sciaenops ocellatus
(red drum or
red fish)
Siluridae
Silurus glanis
(sheat fish)
Esox lucius
(pike)
Puntius gonionotus
(minnows)
Puntius schwanenfeldii
(tinfoil barb)
(minnows)
Puntius
spp.
Vietnam
Vietnam
Cambodia
Vietnam
Cambodia
Cambodia
Vietnam
Vietnam
Thailand
Malaysia
Malaysia
France
Germany
Poland
Finland
Germany
Russia
France
Canada
Bolivia
Canada
Denmark
Iran
Sweden
Switzerland
Norway
USA
Indonesia
Northern
Europe
Ecuador
Israel
Panama
Poland
Yugoslavia
Russia
Bangladesh
Vietnam
Indonesia
Vietnam
Cambodia
Lovatelli (1997)
Lovatelli (1997); Tuan and Hambrey (2000)
Thana (1995)
Tuan and Hambrey (2000)
Thana (1995)
Thana (1995)
Tuan and Hambrey (2000)
Thuoc (1995)
Menasveta (2000)
Shariff and Nagaraj (2000)
Ang
et al
. (1988)
Tamazouzt
et al
. (1993)
Marciak (1979)
Mamcarz (1984)
Mamcarz (1984)
Schultz
et al
. (1993)
Jager and Nellen (1981)
Champigneulle and Rojas-Beltran (1990)
Mamcarz and Kozlowski (1992)
Menton (1991)
Srivastava
et al
. (1991); Cornel and Whoriskey
(1993)
Torrissen
et al
. (1995)
Matinfar and Nikouyan (1995)
Alanaerae (1992)
Mamcarz and Szczerbowski (1984)
Torrissen
et al
. (1995)
Rottiers (1994)
Goeltenboth and Krisyanto (1994)
Bronisz (1979)
Benetti
et al
. (1995)
Kissil (1996)
Garces (1992)
Mamcarz and Worniallo (1985)
Stevic
et al
. (1993)
Ziliukiene (1994)
Mazid (1995)
Thuoc (1995)
Christensen (1993)
Thuoc (1995)
Thana (1995)
6 T.E. Chua and E. Tech
Species cultured Country Reference
Chanidae
Chanos chanos
(milkfish)
Cichlidae
Oreochromis urolepsis hornorum
×
O.
mossambicus
male (Florida red tilapia)
Moronidae
Morone chryops
×
M. saxatilis
(sunshine
bass)
Pisodonophis
Pisodonophis boro
(brackishwater eel)
Salmonidae
Coregonus lavaretus
(Baltic whitefish)
Oncorhynchus mason rhodurus
(Amago
salmon)
Salmo salar
(Atlantic salmon)
Philippines
USA
USA
Vietnam
Germany
Yugoslavia
USA
Guerrero (1996); Ramos (1996); Bagarinao
(1998); Marte
et al
. (2000)
Rust
et al
. (1991)
Pagan (1970); Suwanasart (1971);
Pagan-Font (1975); Kelly and Kohler (1996)
Lovatelli (1997)
Schultz
et al
. (1993)
Teskeredzic and Teskeredzic (1990)
Rottiers (1994)
Table 1.1b. Major species of brackish water finfishes cultured in cages.
Species cultured Country Reference
Carangidae
Longirostrum/Caranx delicatissimus
(striped jack)
Seriola dumerili
Seriola magatlana
(Pacific yellowtail)
Seriola purpurescens
(amberjack)
Seriola quinqueradiata
(yellowtail)
Sturgeon
Sturgeon (beluga × sterlet, ‘bestir’)
Trachinotus carolinus
(pompano)
Trachinotus oaitensis
(pompano)
Trachinotus teraia
Centropomidae
Centropomus nigrescens
(snook)
Lates calcarifer
(seabass)
Japan
Taiwan
Ecuador
Hong Kong
Japan
China
Korea
Iran
Russia
USA
Ecuador
France
Ecuador
China
Hong Kong
Indonesia
Malaysia
Philippines
Singapore
Thailand
Vietnam
Australia
Watanabe (1988a,b)
Su
et al
. (2000)
Benetti
et al
. (1995)
Wong (1995)
Fujiya (1976); Mitani (1979); Kafuku and
Ikenoue (1983); Shepherd and Bromage (1988);
Fukumoto (1989); Watanabe
et al
. (1996)
Lin (1997)
Shepherd and Bromage (1988); Fukumoto
(1989); Jeon
et al
. (1992); Kim (1995)
Matinfar and Nikouyan (1995)
Romanycheva and Salnikov (1979)
Smith (1973)
Benetti
et al
. (1995)
Trebaol (1991)
Benetti
et al
. (1995)
Yongjia
et al
. (1996)
Wong (1995)
Sakaras (1982); Kungvankij (1987b)
Singh (1991); Hannafi
et al
. (1995)
Toledo
et al
. (1991); Fermin
et al
. (1993);
Alcantara
et al
. (1995); Lopez (1995)
Anon. (1986); Cheong and Lee (1987)
Sakaras (1984); Kungvankij (1987a); Tookwinas
(1990b); Chaitanawisuti and Piyatiratitivorakul
(1994a)
Lovatelli (1997)
Barlow
et al
. (1995); Rimmer (1998)
Table 1.1c. Major species of marine finfishes cultured in cages.
Introduction and History of Cage Culture 7
Species cultured Country Reference
Characidae
Piaractus mesopotamicus
(pacu)
Cichlidae
Oreochromis spilirus
(tilapia)
Oreochromis urolepsis hornorum
×
O.
mossambicus
male (Florida red tilapia)
Cyprinidae
Barbus gonionotus
(silver barb)
Cirrhina
(rohu)
Gadidae
Cod
Gadus morhua
(Atlantic cod)
Lutjanidae
Lutjanus argentimaculatus
(red
snapper)
Lutjanus erythropeterus
Lutjanus johni
(golden snapper)
Lutjanus russelli
(Russell’s snapper)
Lutjanus sebae
Lutjanus stellatus
Pagrus major
(Japanese red
seabream/red seabream)
Moronidae
Dicentrarchus labrax
(seabass)
(European seabass)
Oplegnathidae
Oplegnathus fasciatus
(rock bream)
Paralichthyidae
Paralichthys olivaceus
(bastard
halibut/flounder)
(olive flounder)
Percichthyidae
Lateolabrax japonicus
(Japanese
seabass)
Percidae
Stizostedion lucioperca
(wild zander)
Pleuronectidae
Hippoglossus hippoglossus
(Atlantic
halibut)
Brazil
Kuwait
USA
Vietnam
Nepal
Norway
Canada
China
Malaysia
Philippines
Singapore
Thailand
Taiwan
Malaysia
Singapore
China
Hong Kong
Malaysia
Thailand
Taiwan
Israel
Japan
Korea
Taiwan
Egypt
Italy
Israel
Korea
Japan
Japan
Japan
Korea
Korea
Korea
Finland
UK
Ferraz de Lima
et al
. (1992)
Cruz and Ridha (1990b)
Rust
et al
. (1991)
Lovatelli (1997)
Pradhan and Pantha (1995)
Kaspruk and Tvejte (1994); Hjelt (2000)
Jones and Iwama (1990)
Yongjia
et al
. (1996)
Ali (1987); Hannafi
et al
. (1995)
Emata (1996)
Cheong (1988)
Doi and Singhagraiwan (1993); Chaitanawisuti
and Piyatiratitivorakul (1994b)
Su
et al
. (2000)
Hannafi
et al
. (1995)
Lee (1982); Anon. (1986)
Yongjia
et al
. (1996)
Wong (1995)
Rahim (1982)
Tanomkiat (1982)
Su
et al
. (2000)
Kissil (1996)
Fukumoto (1989
Kim (1995)
Su
et al
. (2000)
Ishak and Hassanen (1987)
Barbato
et al
. (1991)
Kissil (1996)
Kim (1995)
Watanabe (1988a,b)
Hiraishi
et al
. (1995)
Kikuchi
et al
. (1993)
Kim (1995)
Jeon
et al
. (1992)
Kim (1995)
Salminen
et al
. (1992)
Martinez-Cordero
et al
. (1994)
Continued
8 T.E. Chua and E. Tech
Species cultured Country Reference
Limanda herzentein
(brown sole)
Limanda punctatissima
(longsnout
flounder)
Rachycentridae
Rachycentron canadum
Salmonidae
Caspian salmon
Onchorynchus kisutch
(Coho salmon)
Oncorhynchus mason rhodurus
(Amago
salmon)
Oncorhynchus mykiss
(rainbow trout)
Oncorhynchus tshavytocha
(Chinook
salmon)
Prosopium
Salmo salar
(Atlantic salmon)
Salmo trutta
(broom trout)
Salvelinus alpinus
(Arctic charr)
Sciaenidae
Cynoscion stolzmanni
(corvina)
Ophicephalus
sp. (serpent head)
Scianops teraia
(Western African
pompano)
Sebastidae
Sebastes schlegeli
(Schlegel’s
black rock fish)
Scophthalmidae
Scophthalmus maximus
(turbot)
Serranidae
Cephalopholis mimata
Cephalopholis pachycenteron
Epinephelus akaara
Epinephelus alwaora
(grouper)
Epinephelus amblycephalus
Epinephelus areolatus
(spotted grouper)
Epinephelus bleeker
Epinephelus bleekeri
Epinephelus coioides
Epinephelus fario
Epinephelus fuscoguttatus
Korea
Japan
Taiwan
Iran
Chile
Yugoslavia
Canada
Canada
Germany
Canada
Scotland
Norway
USA
France
Norway
Ecuador
Thailand
France
China
Korea
France
Vietnam
Philippines
Hong Kong
Japan
Vietnam
China
China
Taiwan
Hong Kong
Philippines
Vietnam
Philippines
Taiwan
Vietnam
Sri Lanka
Singapore
Indonesia
Kim (1995)
Hiraishi
et al
. (1995)
Su
et al
. (2000)
Matinfar and Nikouyan (1995)
Jelvez-Flores (1992)
Teskeredzic and Teskeredzic (1990)
Srivastava
et al
. (1991); Cornel and Whoriskey
(1993)
Jones and Iwama (1990)
Marciak (1979)
Egan and Kenney (1990); Menton and Allen
(1991); Duston and Saunders (1994)
Glen (1974); Went (1980); Worniallo and
Mamcarz (1985); Sangster and Munro (1991);
Smith
et al
. (1993)
Kraakenes
et al
. (1991)
Rottiers (1994)
Arzel
et al
. (1993)
Torrissen
et al
. (1995)
Benetti
et al
. (1995)
Menasveta (2000)
Trebaol (1991)
Liu
et al
. (1991)
Kim (1995)
Vigneulle and Laurencin (1995)
Tuan and Hambrey (2000)
Sayong (1981)
Chao and Lim (1991); Wong (1995)
Ukawa
et al
. (1966); Chao and Lim (1991)
Tuan and Hambrey (2000)
Chao and Lim (1991); Wong (1995)
Chao and Lim (1991)
Maruyama and Ishida (1976)
Wong (1995)
Kohno
et al
. (1988)
Tuan and Hambrey (2000)
Quinitio
et al
. (1997)
Su
et al
. (2000)
Tuan and Hambrey (2000)
Chao and Lim (1991)
Lim
et al
. (1990); Chao and Lim (1991)
Chao and Lim (1991)
Table 1.1c.
Continued
.
Introduction and History of Cage Culture 9
Species cultured Country Reference
Epinephelus hexagonatus
Epinephelus macrospilos
Epinephelus malabaricus
Epinephelus merra
Epinephelus microdon
Epinephelus moara
(kelp bass)
Epinephelus salmonoides
Epinephelus sexfaciatus
Epinephelus
spp.
Epinephelus suillus
Epinephelus summana
Epinephelus tauvina
(green grouper,
estuarine grouper)
Siganidae
Siganus canaliculatus
(rabbit fish)
Siganus guttatus
(siganid)
Sillaginidae
Sillago sihama
(sand whiting)
Sparidae
Acanthopagrus schlegeli
(black
seabream)
Chrysophrys major
(red pargo)
Mylio latus
(yellow finned seabream)
Puntazzo puntazzo
(sheepshead bream)
Rhabdosargus sarba
(goldlined
seabream)
Sparrus aurata
(gilthead seabream)
Sparrus macrocephalus
Tetraodontidae
Takifugu rubripes
(tiger puffer)
Japan
Philippines
India
Philippines
China
Philippines
Philippines
Vietnam
Japan
Japan
China
Philippines
Sri Lanka
Japan
Malaysia
Philippines
Vietnam
Malaysia
Philippines
Singapore
Thailand
Philippines
Taiwan
Philippines
Hong Kong
India
Indonesia
Malaysia
Philippines
Singapore
Singapore
Kuwait
Indonesia
Philippines
Vietnam
India
Korea
China
Hong Kong
Hong Kong
Israel
Hong Kong
Israel
Israel
China
Japan
Korea
Chao and Lim (1991)
PCARRD (1986); Quinitio and Toledo (1991)
Hamsa and Kasim (1992)
PCARRD (1986); Quinitio and Toledo (1991)
Yongjia
et al
. (1996)
Kohno
et al
. (1988)
Sayong (1981)
Tuan and Hambrey (2000)
Chao and Lim (1991)
Chao and Lim (1991)
Yongjia
et al
. (1996)
Kungvankij
et al
. (1986)
Chao and Lim (1991)
Chao and Lim (1991)
Chua (1979); Chua and Teng (1979, 1980)
Kohno
et al
. (1988)
Tuan and Hambrey (2000)
Leong (1998)
Quinitio and Toledo (1991)
Anon. (1986)
Tookwinas (1990a); Menasveta (2000)
Toledo
et al
. (1993)
Maruyama and Ishida (1976)
Sayong (1981)
Wong (1995)
Hamsa and Kasim (1992)
Lanjumin (1982)
Chua and Teng (1978); Rahim (1982); Ali (1987)
Kohno
et al
. (1988); Lopez (1995)
Cheong and Lee (1987)
Chao and Lim (1991)
Hussain
et al
. (1975); Chao and Lim (1991)
Tacon
et al
. (1990)
Lopez (1995); Soriano
et al
. (1995)
Lovatelli (1997)
James
et al
. (1985)
Kim (1995)
Yongjia
et al
. (1996)
Wong (1995)
Wong (1995)
Kissil (1996)
Wong (1995)
Kissil (1996)
Porter
et al
. (1991)
Yongjia
et al
. (1996)
Shepherd and Bromage (1988)
Moon
et al
. (1993); Kim (1995)
The rapid growth of the industry in most
countries may be attributed to: (i) suitable
offshore sites for cage culture; (ii) well
established breeding techniques that yield a
sufficient quantity of various marine and
freshwater fish juveniles; (iii) availability of
supporting industries, such as feed and fish
-
ing net manufacturers, and fish processors
and packers; (iv) strong research and devel
-
opment initiatives from institutions, govern
-
ment and universities; and (v) the private
sector ensuring refinement and improve
-
ment of techniques/culture systems, thereby
further developing the industry.
With the experiences seen in salmon
farming, seabream (Sparus auratus) and sea-
bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) cage culture
activities started to move toward offshore
areas. The lack or non-availability of
sheltered sites in many regions because of
varied coastline configurations, the build-up
of organic matter in closed bays due to poor
water exchange, and use conflicts between
industries and tourism for sea water were the
main reasons for such a shift (Lisac, 1991).
Some of the offshore cage systems
that later developed include: Dunlop
Tempest I (Fearn, 1991); ‘SADCO’ cages
(Muravjev et al., 1993); Ocean Spar
(Loverich and Croker, 1993); Farmocean
system (Gunnarson, 1993); Seacon system
(Lien, 2000); and Bridgeton Hi-Seas
(Gunnarson, 1993; Lien, 2000).
Muir (1998) considered the following
criteria important for success in offshore
cage culture: (i) location (> 2 km from
shore); (ii) environment (average waves
> 5 m, regularly 2–3 m oceanic swells,
variable wind periods); (iii) access (about
80% of the time when cages are accessible to
working staff); and (iv) operation (remote;
with automated feeding devices and long-
distance monitoring).
Advantages and Limitations of
Cage Culture
In general, cage culture practices have
numerous advantages over other culture
systems. By integrating the cage culture
system into the aquatic ecosystem the carry
-
ing capacity per unit area is optimized
because the free flow of current brings in
fresh water and removes metabolic wastes,
excess feed and faecal matter (Beveridge,
1983). Operationally, this has a number of
advantages. Some cage designs, especially
those used in inshore cultures, are rela
-
tively easy to construct with minimal
skilled labour, and cages utilize minimal
physical facilities and space. Economically,
cage culture is a low-input farming practice
with high economic return. However, cage
culture is a high risk and labour-intensive
operation. The practice is vulnerable to
natural hazards (strong tides, storms and
typhoons) and can be affected by deteriorat
-
ing water quality attributed to chronic
pollution from oil and chemical spills from
oil tankers and cargo vessels (Tabira, 1980;
Nose, 1985). In addition, poaching and
vandalism are reported by cage farmers. The
advantages and limitations of cage culture
are summarized in Table 1.2.
In view of the high production attain-
able in cage culture system and the presence
of large sheltered coastal waters in many
countries, marine cage farming can play
a significant role in increasing fish
production.
Cage culture systems vary in terms of
farm size and intensity of operation. Floating
cages, for instance, in Korea can reach yields
exceeding 500 t ha
−1
(ADB/NACA, 1998).
Cage Design
Cage design is determined by conditions in
the culture site, as well as the ecological
requirements and behaviour of the target
species for culture. Each design is site-
specific and knowledge of the topography,
wind force, wind direction, prevalence of
storms, monsoons, wave load, current
velocity and water depths are important
parameters for consideration. In designing
cages, it is also important to consider the
rate of biofouling and the species composi
-
tion of the marine fauna in and around the
potential site (Chua, 1982). A checklist of
10 T.E. Chua and E. Tech
[...]... (1987b) Cage culture of sea bass (Lates calcarifer) in Indonesia In: Copland, J.W and Grey, D.L (eds) Management of Wild and Cultured Sea Bass/Barramundi (Lates calcarifer): Proceedings of an International Workshop ACIAR Proceedings (20), pp 176–178 Introduction and History of Cage Culture Kungvankij, P., Tiro, L.B Jr, Pudadera, B.P Jr and Potestas, I.O (1986) Induced spawning and larval rearing of grouper... Assessment and Management of Aquaculture Development (TCP/RAS/2253) NACA Environment and Aquaculture Development Series No 1 Network of Aquaculture Centres in Asia-Pacific, Bangkok, pp 4–16 McGinty, A.S (1991) Tilapia production in cages: effects of cage size and number of noncaged fish The Progressive Fish-Culturist 53, 246–249 McGuigan, J.B and Sommerville, C (1985) Studies on the effects of cage culture of. .. design and construction of net enclosures Marine Research No 1, 31 pp Milne, P.H (1979) Selection of sites and design of cages, fish pens and enclosures for aquaculture In: Pillay, T.V.R and Dill, W.A (eds) Advances in Aquaculture Fishing News Books Ltd, Farnham, UK, pp 416–423 Mitani, F (1979) The present status and perspectives of the yellowtail fisheries in Japan Introduction and History of Cage Culture. .. Sustainable aquaculture and integrated coastal management In: Bardach, J.E (ed.) Sustainable Aquaculture John Wiley & Sons, New York Introduction and History of Cage Culture Chua, T.E and Teng, S.K (1978) Effects of feeding frequency on the growth of young estuary grouper Epinephelus salmoides Maxwell, cultured in floating net cages Aquaculture 14, 31–47 Chua, T.E and Teng, S.K (1979) Relative growth and production... Centre, Ottawa, pp 99–115 Introduction and History of Cage Culture Allen, K.O (1974) Effects of stocking density and water exchange rate on growth and survival of channel catfish Ictalurus punctatus (Rafinesque) in circular tanks Aquaculture 4, 20–39 Amoikon, N (1987) L’élevage en cage en eau douce en Côte d’Ivoire In: Powles, H (ed.) Cage Culture Research Projects Workshop on Cage Culture Research Projects,... coffee pulp for rearing tilapia in Central America Aquaculture 7, 133–146 Benetti, D.D., Acosta, C.A and Ayala, J.C (1995) Cage and pond aquaculture of marine finfish in Ecuador World Aquaculture 26, 7–13 Bennett, G (1971) Management of Lakes and Ponds Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., London, 375 pp Beveridge, M (1983) Current Status and Potential of Aquaculture in Bolivia ODA report, Institute of Aquaculture,...11 Introduction and History of Cage Culture Table 1.2 Advantages and limitations of cage fish culture technique Advantages Limitations Maximizes use of available water resources Reduces pressure on land resources Locations restricted to sheltered areas Requires back-up food store, hatchery and processing facilities Combines several types of culture within one water body; treatments and harvests... Growth and production potential of young grouper Epinephelus tauvina (Forskal) reared in fixed Introduction and History of Cage Culture net cages Journal of the Marine Biology Association of India 34, 271–276 Hamza, A.K (1996) Aquaculture in Egypt World Aquaculture 27, 14–19 Hannafi, H.H., Arshad, M.A and Yahaya, S (1995) Malaysia In: FAO/NACA Regional Study and Workshop on the Environmental Assessment and. .. handling and mortalities Easy fish harvest Storage and transport of live fish facilitated Initial investment is relatively small fish species popularly cultured in Asia with cage and culture specifications is provided in Table 1.3 Types of cages A fish cage is usually made up of netting with an opening at the surface to facilitate feeding, removal of debris and dead fish, and for harvesting The netcage... (Anon., 1976; Milne, 1979) and octagonal (Møller, 1979) have been used for salmonid culture in Scotland, Norway and France The size of cages ranges from less than 1 m3 to 50,000 m3 Freshwater cages for tilapia in the Philippines and Indonesia are Fig 1.2 Submersible cage for yellowtail (from Fujiya, 1979) Introduction and History of Cage Culture usually very large (exceeding 100 m3) and are installed in . (1998)
Table 1.1c. Major species of marine finfishes cultured in cages.
Introduction and History of Cage Culture 7
Species cultured Country Reference
Characidae
Piaractus. 1995)
Thailand (Tookwinas,
1990b)
Table 1.3.
Fish species and culture specifics of fish in Asia and Australia. (From Buendia, 1998).
Introduction and History of Cage
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