AI AT WAR AI AT WAR How Big Data, Artificial Intelligence, and Machine Learning Are Changing Naval Warfare Edited by Sam J Tangredi and George Galdorisi NAVAL INSTITUTE PRESS Annapolis, Maryland Naval Institute Press 291 Wood Road Annapolis, MD 21402 © 2021 by Sam J Tangredi and George Galdorisi All rights reserved No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying and recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Tangredi, Sam J., editor | Galdorisi, George, date, editor Title: AI at war : how big data, artificial intelligence, and machine learning are changing naval warfare / edited by Sam J Tangredi and George Galdorisi Other titles: Artificial intelligence at war Description: Annapolis, Maryland : Naval Institute Press, [2021] | Includes bibliographical references and index Identifiers: LCCN 2020047097 (print) | LCCN 2020047098 (ebook) | ISBN 9781682476062 (hardcover) | ISBN 9781682476345 (pdf) | ISBN 9781682476345 (epub) Subjects: LCSH: Artificial intelligence—Military applications—United States | Naval art and science—United States—Data processing | Naval art and science—Technological innovations— United States | Big data Classification: LCC UG479 A44 2021 (print) | LCC UG479 (ebook) | DDC 359.00285/63—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020047097 LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020047098 Print editions meet the requirements of ANSI/NISO z39.48-1992 (Permanence of Paper) Printed in the United States of America 29 28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 9 First printing CONTENTS List of Illustrations Foreword—ADM JAMES G STAVRIDIS, USN (RET.) Introduction—SAM J TANGREDI AND GEORGE GALDORISI Theory and Conceptual History of Artificial Intelligence PATRICK K SULLIVAN AND THE OCEANIT TEAM AI, Autonomy, and the Third Offset Strategy Fostering Military Innovation during a Period of Great Change ROBERT O WORK The Department of the Navy’s Commitment to Big Data, AI, and Machine Learning WILLIAM BRAY AND DALE L MOORE The Navy at a Crossroads The Uneven Adoption of Autonomous Systems in the Navy PAUL SCHARRE AI Programs of Potential Military Opponents Propositions and Recommendations SAM J TANGREDI Battlefield Innovation on Patrol Designing AI for the Warfighter NINA KOLLARS Mission Command and Speed of Decision What Big Data, Artificial Intelligence, and Machine Learning Should Do for the Navy ADM SCOTT H SWIFT, USN (RET.), AND ANTONIO P SIORDIA Practical Applications of Naval AI An Overview of Artificial Intelligence in Naval Warfare CONNOR S McLEMORE AND CHARLES R CLARK How AI Is Shaping Navy Intelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance MARK OWEN, KATIE RAINEY, AND RACHEL VOLNER 10 Communicating at the Speed of War The Future of Naval Communications and the Rise of Artificial Intelligence ALBERT K LEGASPI, JEFF MAH, AND STEPHANIE HSZIEH 11 How AI Is Shaping Navy Command and Control DOUG LANGE AND JOSÉ CARREÑO 12 AI and Integrated Fires MICHAEL O’GARA 13 Artificial Intelligence and Future Force Design HARRISON SCHRAMM AND BRYAN CLARK 14 Entry Pass to Future Warfare AI Education at the U.S Naval Academy NATHANAEL CHAMBERS, FREDERICK L CRABBE, AND GAVIN TAYLOR 15 Trying to Put Mahan in a Box Insights from Attempting to Develop a Decision Aid for the Operational Commander ADAM M AYCOCK AND WILLIAM G GLENNEY IV 16 “Sea Hacking” Sun Tzu Deception in Global AI/Cybered Conflict and Navies CHRIS C DEMCHAK AND SAM J TANGREDI 17 Overcoming Impediments to AI for Unmanned Autonomy and Human Decision-Making GEORGE GALDORISI 18 The Influence of Artificial Intelligence on Naval Strategy and Tactics REAR ADM NEVIN CARR, USN (RET.), AND SAM J TANGREDI 19 The Future of AI PATRICK K SULLIVAN AND THE OCEANIT TEAM Epilogue—GEORGE GALDORISI AND SAM J TANGREDI Afterword—ADM MICHAEL S ROGERS, USN (RET.) Selected Bibliography About the Contributors Index ILLUSTRATIONS Photos 1-1 The School of Athens 17-1 Historical Pre-Invasion Speech 17-2 Pre-Invasion Speech to AI Machine Troops 17-3 Pre-Invasion AI Machine Speech to Human Troops 17-4 Pre-Invasion Speech to Human-Machine Team Tables 5-1 Comparative Populations and AI Implications (2017) 5-2 The Six Propositions 5-3 The Six Policy Recommendations 9-1 TCPED Process with AI Extension 14-1 Course Requirements Figures 1-1 The Turing Machine 3-1 John Boyd’s OODA Loop 9-1 The TCPED Process with AI Extension 9-2 Three-Layer Neural Network Architecture 9-3 Adaptive Closed-Loop Control Processing 12-1 The Joint Targeting Cycle 15-1 Mahan-in-a-Box Conceptualized at the Operational Level of War 19-1 Quantity versus Accuracy of Training Data 19-2 Marriage Rate in Wyoming versus Car Sales 19-3 Example of an Adversarial Attack in Two Dimensions 19-4 Three Different Types of Inputs FOREWORD ADM JAMES G STAVRIDIS, USN (RET.) “Go right at ’em.” Those are the words of the greatest admiral in history, Vice Admiral Lord Nelson of Trafalgar When I began to truly study his tactical approach over the years, I was a lieutenant commander looking forward to the day I would command a warship at sea As I pondered his lessons, I wondered how best a warship, and a fleet, could position themselves to achieve that maxim From my own study, I already knew—or at least suspected—that information was the key ingredient But in the midst of crisis or battle, accurate information was always difficult to obtain Common wisdom held that “first reports are always wrong.” The key to being a successful commander throughout naval history had been the ability to sort through incomplete information, assess what was probable and what was unlikely, and make a decision based on professional judgment honed by experience Nelson knew that, and I gradually learned it over the many sea miles of my voyage In those days, the late 1980s, the U.S Navy was already making the change from analog to digital Many of the weapons and sensors themselves were already digital, but it was not until the paradigm-breaking Aegis combat system proliferated throughout the surface fleet that digital information from multiple sources and sensors became a truly reliable, albeit never infallible, asset in operational (read “human”) decision-making I was lucky to be the commissioning operations officer on one of the very first Aegis ships, USS Valley Forge (CG 50), where I benefited from the technical acumen of the “father of Aegis,” Rear Adm Wayne Meyer, and the tactical acumen of Capt Wayne Hughes At the same time came the public proliferation of the personal computer, the popularization and commercialization of the Internet, and the European Command, leading the NATO alliance in global operations from 2009 to 2013 He also served as commander of U.S Southern Command, with responsibility for military operations in Latin America from 2006 to 2009 In his thirty-five-year naval career, he commanded a destroyer, destroyer squadron, and carrier strike group—all serving in combat He is a distinguished graduate of the U.S Naval Academy and earned a master of arts in law and diplomacy and PhD in international relations from the Fletcher School A prolific author on global security issues, Admiral Stavridis has published nine books and regularly writes for the New York Times, Washington Post, Atlantic, Time, Naval War College Review, and U.S Naval Institute Proceedings He is also chief international security analyst for NBC News Dr Patrick K Sullivan founded Oceanit Laboratories in 1985 as a selffunded research and development technology incubator that today employs more than 200 scientists, engineers, and professionals, providing innovative solutions in the fields of aerospace, engineering, information technology, and life sciences Oceanit has created cutting-edge innovations in biophotonics, neurotoxin detection, optics, missile defense technology, space debris management, children’s health, and environmental applications that are the subject of numerous reports and patents Dr Sullivan has extensive experience on boards and commissions, serving or having served on the national Ocean Research Advisory Panel (appointed by the Secretary of the Navy), Parker Ranch, High Technology Development Corporation, Rehabilitation Hospital of the Pacific, Nanopoint, and Hoana Medical He has developed nationally focused research programs, including the National Defense Center of Excellence for Research in Ocean Sciences and the National Electric Vehicle Demonstration program, both collaborations with the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency He is the author of Intellectual Anarchy: The Art of Disruptive Innovation He also serves as the honorary consul of Indonesia Dr Sullivan received his bachelor of science in engineering from the University of Colorado, Boulder, and his PhD in engineering from the University of Hawaii Adm Scott H Swift, USN (Ret.), is founder of The Swift Group LLC, former Massachusetts Institute of Technology Center for International Studies Robert E Wilhelm Fellow, MIT Research Affiliate, Senior Fellow at the Center for Naval Analysis, Adjunct Professor at the Naval War College and board member of the U.S Naval Institute Former commander of the U.S Pacific Fleet, Admiral Swift served for more than forty years as a naval aviator His operational assignments include Attack Squadron 94 (VA-94); Attack Squadron 97 (VA-97); Carrier Air Wing 11 staff; commander, Strike Fighter Attack Squadron 97 (VFA-97); commander, Carrier Air Wing 14; deputy commander, Naval Forces, U.S Central Command in Bahrain; commander, Carrier Strike Group (CSG) 9; and commander, U.S 7th Fleet, Yokosuka, Japan During those assignments, he participated in combat in Operations Praying Mantis, Southern Watch, Enduring Freedom, and Iraqi Freedom His shore tour assignments include commander of Strike Fighter Weapons School, Pacific; F/A-18 requirements officer, Navy Staff (OPNAV); commander, Strike Fighter Attack Squadron 122 (VFA-122); staff of the Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition, Technology and Logistics; director of operations, U S Pacific Command; and director, OPNAV He is a graduate of San Diego State University and earned a master’s degree from the U S Naval War College Dr Gavin Taylor is associate professor of computer science at the U S Naval Academy He is an award-winning teacher and an active researcher in many areas of machine learning, including reinforcement learning, data poisoning, and the optimization of neural networks His most recent writings have been on adversarial attacks against AI systems He also codirects the academy’s Center for High Performance Computing His bachelor’s degree is in mathematics from Davidson College, and his master’s degree and PhD in computer science are from Duke University He joined the USNA faculty immediately after completion of his studies A recent online student review stated, “This guy could teach a rock how to program.” Rachel Volner is a senior strategy analyst at the Naval Information Warfare Center Pacific, the Navy’s center of excellence for the development of command, control, communications, computers, intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance, cyber, and space-based capabilities, where her current focus is on strategic and technical forecasting Prior to that, she earned a master’s degree in international affairs from the University of California, San Diego, with a regional emphasis on China and a concentration in public policy In addition to strategic and technical forecasting, she concentrates her analysis on the security and economic developments in the Indo-Pacific region The Honorable Robert O Work is currently Distinguished Senior Fellow for Defense and National Security at the Center for a New American Security (CNAS) and vice-chair of the Congressionally-mandated National Security Commission on Artificial Intelligence Secretary Work previously served as the deputy secretary of defense, responsible for overseeing the day-to-day business of the Pentagon and developing the department’s $600 billion defense program He is credited for his work on the third offset strategy, which aimed to restore U.S conventional overmatch over potential adversaries Prior to serving as deputy secretary, Secretary Work spent one year as chief executive officer of CNAS after serving as Undersecretary of the Navy from 2009 to 2013 Following a twenty-seven-year active-duty career in the U.S Marine Corps, retiring as colonel, he was a senior fellow and vice president for strategic studies at the Center for Strategic and Budgetary Assessments He was also an adjunct professor at George Washington University Secretary Work received a bachelor of science from the University of Illinois at Champaign-Urbana, a master of science in systems management from the University of Southern California, a master of science in systems technology (space systems operations) from the Naval Postgraduate School, and a master in international public policy from the Johns Hopkins School of Advanced International Studies INDEX The index that appeared in the print version of this title was intentionally removed from the eBook Please use the search function on your eReading device to search for terms of interest For your reference, the terms that appear in the print index are listed below 5G technology 101st Airborne Division 2001: A Space Odyssey adaptive closed-loop control (ACLC); diagram Advanced Capabilities and Deterrence Panel (ACDP) adversarial attack; diagram Afghanistan AI Next AI revolution, See also cognitive revolution AI winter aircraft carriers Alberts, David algorithm; and adversarial AI; as applied statistics; and autonomy; back-propagation; commercial; as commodity; in communications networks; confidence in; cooperative testing of; for creativity; and DARPA; and deception; emulating human intelligence; enabling battlefield innovation; and human performance; inference algorithms; for intuition; in machine learning; in Naval Academy education; at operational level of war; in pattern recognition; poor in explaining self; and security; in synchronization, See also algorithmic warfare; pattern recognition algorithmic warfare AlphaGo, See also iGo American Artificial Intelligence Initiative amphibious assault ships analog systems anthronoetic AI anti-access/area denial applied engineering, literature on Aquinas, Thomas Aristotle Australia autonomy; dangers and ethics of; human interaction; and potential opponents of U.S.; and strategy; and Third Offset; true promise of AI; unevenness in adopting, See also robotic warfare; robot/robotics battle network; grid Behavioral Learning for Adaptive Electronic Warfare, See also electronic warfare Belyea, Lt James, RCN Bendett, Samuel Berger, Gen David, USMC Berkeley, University of California big data; AI, relationship to; and Five Eyes; and ISR; and learning curve function; and OODA loop; overwhelming networks validity of, See also data biolinguistics, See also Chomsky, Noam black box Boot, Max Bose-Einstein condensate Boyd, Col John, USAF, See also OODA (observe-orient-decide-act) loop budget, Defense; Navy; R&D, See also future years defense plan (FYDP) Burke, Adm Arleigh, USN C4ISR See command, control, communications, computers, intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (C4ISR); intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (ISR) Cambridge, University camera, surveillance Canada Captor, Mk 60 mine, See also mine warfare career paths Carnegie Mellon University Carter, Ashton, secretary of defense Castelvecchi, Davide Casti, John Cebrowski, Arthur Center for a New American Security (CNAS) Center for Naval Analyses Center for Strategic and Budgetary Assessments (CSBA) chess Chicago China, Peoples Republic of (PRC); AI policies of, See also Chinese Communist Party (CCP); People’s Liberation Army (PLA); People’s Liberation Army Navy (PLAN) China Mobile Chinese Communist Party (CCP), See also China, People’s Republic of (PRC); People’s Liberation Army (PLA); People’s Liberation Army Navy (PLAN) Chomsky, Noam Clarke, Arthur C classification and regression tree Clausewitz, Carl von closed-end classification Close-In Weapons System (CIWS) coalition Coats, Daniel R., director of national intelligence cognitive revolution cognitive science Cold War; introduction of stealth; signals deception plan combat air patrol (CAP) combat information center (CIC) combat medevac command and control (C2), See also mission command command, control, communications, computers, intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (C4ISR), See also intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (ISR) commercial AI; accelerated development; collaboration with military; deception of; incentives of opponents; level of government control; limits to application for military operations; military leveraging; PRC domination over; U.S incentive commercial-of-the-shelf (COTS) composite warfare commander (CWC) concept drift Congress, U.S Congressional Research Service constructive AI Copernicus architecture Corbett, Sir Julian S courses of action (COA) Crimea crossing the T cruise control Cuban missile crisis Cudworth, Ralph culture; military; strategic Cushing cyberattacks, See also cybersecurity; deception cybersecurity, data; access to clean data; affecting strategy; analytics; capture/collection; causal model; command and control; curve fitting; deception of; in fires process; hierarchy of; and IARPA; labeled; limits; operational insufficiency; partial; relationship to AI; from sensor grid; spurious correlations; uncertainty; unstructured text, See also big data; data exhaust; data science; data scientists; data-driven decisions; pattern recognition data exhaust data science data scientists data-driven decisions Davis, Martin deception; AI vulnerability to; expectation of Deep Blue deep learning/deep neural networks DeepMind, See also Google Defense Advanced Research Project Agency (DARPA) defense innovation initiative (DII) Defense Science Board Department of Defense AI Strategy 2018 Department of Defense HighPerformance Computing Modernization Program Design for Maintaining Maritime Superiority, A development operations (DevOps) distributed maritime operations (DMO) Doc2Vec doctrine domain; maritime Doolittle raid doubt drones, See also unmanned systems Dyck, Jeff Economist, The Ehime Maru (Japanese fishing vessel) Einstein, Albert Eisenhower, Gen Dwight D., USA electromagnetic spectrum/environment, See also electronic warfare Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer (EDVAC) electronic warfare effects grid empiricism epistemology Esper, Michael, secretary of defense ethics European Union Ex Machina expeditionary advanced base operations (EABO) experimentation F-35 Lightning II F/A-18 Hornet FAANG five (Facebook, Apple, Amazon, Netflix, Google) Facebook failures FalconView Financial Times Fischer, Bobby Fitzgerald Five Eyes Fletcher, Adm Frank Jack, USN fog computing fog of war Ford, Chris frequency spectrum, See also electromagnetic spectrum/environment future years defense plan (FYDP) Garland, Alex general AI, See also strong AI Geurts, James Gilday, Adm Michael, USN Girrier, Rear Adm Robert P., USN Gladwell, Malcolm Good, I J good old-fashioned AI (GOFAI) Google Google Maps GPS (global positioning system) gradient descent process great power competition, See also China, Peoples Republic of (PRC); Russia Greenville grids (C4I, sensor, effects, etc.) Guam Hagel, Charles (Chuck), secretary of defense Halsey, Adm William, USN Harvard Kennedy School Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs Hawking, Stephen Hayes, Richard helicopters Hilbert, David Hipple, Eric Von Hofstadter, Douglas Hoover, Capt Gilbert, USN Horowitz, Michael hostile intent Houston Howard, Michael Huawei Hughes, Capt Wayne, USN Human Rights Watch human-machine collaboration/teaming; photo human/man-in-the-loop, on-the-loop; authoritarian governments; DoD pledge Humboldt, Wilhelm von Huntington Ingalls Shipbuilding hyper-decision hypersonic weapons IBM iGo imitative learning imperfect AI India induction information contestation grid innovation; battlefield; theory; war-fighter, See also defense innovation initiative (DII) Institute for Future Warfare Studies integrated fires Integrated Mechanical Diagnostics Health and Usage Management System intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (ISR), See also command, control, communications, computers, intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (C4ISR) Intelligence Advanced Research Projects Activity (IARPA) interdisciplinary agenda international law internet internet of things Iran Iraq Japan; Imperial John S McCain Joint Artificial Intelligence Center (JAIC) Joint Force Commanders (JFC) Joint Military Operations Reference Guide joint targeting cycle; diagram Juneau Kahneman, Daniel Kalman filters Kania, Elsa Kasparov, Gary Keller, Bill Kennedy, John F., president killer robots Knights, Stanley F knowledge base (KB) Kosovo Kuhlmann, Rear Adm Dietrich, USN Kurzweil, Ray landmines lasers law of war Legendre, Adrien-Marie Leibniz, Gottfried W Leigh-Mallory, Air Marshal, RAF levels of war, See also operational level of war; tactics Libicki, Martin Lindsay, John line-of-sight links Linnainmaa, Seepo LISP programming language Locke, John logistics long-range research and development program plan (LRRDPP) MacArthur, Gen Douglas, USA machine learning (ML), 2425; adversarial attacks; algorithms; as applied statistics; deception; defined education; and empiricism; fundamental problem; for ISR; goals; military applications; Navy’s commitment to; for planning; security; violent force Mahan, Capt Alfred T., USN maritime operations center (MOC) Marshall, Andrew Marx, Karl MATLAB (computer program) Mattis, Gen James, USMC, secretary of defense McCarthy, John Meyer, Rear Adm Wayne, USN Microsoft Midway, Battle of mine warfare, See also Captor, Mk 60 mine Minsky, Marvin mission command; defined MIT (Massachusetts University of Technology) ML spring Moore, 1st Lt John, USA mobile ad hoc network (MANET) moral agent, See also ethics Moran, Adm William, USN Mosaic warfare MQ-4C Triton MQ-25 Stingray multidomain operations Napoleonic organization narrow AI, See also weak AI narrow task autonomous systems National Artificial Intelligence Research and Development Strategic Plan National Defense Strategy (NDS) National Military Strategy (NMS) National Oceanic and Atmospheric Agency (NOAA) National Science and Technology Council (NSTC) National Security Agency National Security Strategy (NSS) natural language processing Naval Integrated Capabilities Concept Naval Integrated Fire Control (NIFC)-Counter Air Naval Postgraduate School Naval War College, U.S Navy Information Warfare Center Pacific Nelson, Vice Adm Lord, RN Netflix network management, See also neural networks Neumann, John von neural networks; biological New York Times New Zealand Newell, Alan Nimitz, Adm Chester, USN normal accidents Normandy invasion, See also 101st Airborne Division North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) North Atlantic Treaty Organization Supreme Allied Command Atlantic Innovation Center North Vietnam, See also Vietnam War nuclear weapons Obama, Barack, president object recognition Office of Naval Research Office of Net Assessment Officer in Tactical Command (OTC) ontology OODA (observe-orient-decide-act) loop; diagram, See also Boyd, Col John, USAF opaque design open standards Operation Desert Storm operational level of war; definition Orca large unmanned undersea vehicle Orwell, George Palmer, Michael Papert, Seymour Patriot missile system pattern recognition: of adversarial communications; and data; deception; in DoD strategies; dominant characteristic of AI in human intuition; induction; in logistics; at machine speed; as narrow AI; on patrol; pattern-of-life analysis; predictability; in scenarios; static data; at tactical level Pearl, Judea People’s Liberation Army (PLA), See also China, People’s Republic of (PRC); Chinese Communist Party (CCP); People’s Liberation Army Navy (PLAN) People’s Liberation Army Navy (PLAN), See also China, People’s Republic of (PRC); Chinese Communist Party (CCP); People’s Liberation Army (PLA) permanent change-of-station (PCS) moves personalized assistant that learns (PAL) piracy plan, activity, and intent recognition (PAIR) Plato Popper, Karl Powell, Gen Colin, USA power control practitioners problem of induction Proceedings, U.S Naval Institute procurement Project Maven, See also pattern recognition Putin, Vladimir Python (computer program) Quadrennial Defense Review (QDR) R (computer program) RAND Corporation rationalism reconnaissance, See also intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (ISR) reconnaissance-strike complex Resnick, Mitchel results only work environment (ROWE) revolution in military affairs (RMA)/military-technical revolution Richardson, Adm John, USN risk robotic warfare robot/robotics; and autonomy; courses in; decision-making goals; limited in function, See also killer robots; robotic warfare Roper, William Royal Air Force (UK) RQ-4 Global Hawk Rumsfeld, Donald, secretary of defense Russia Russell, Stuart safety data Samuel, Arthur L satellites Sea Hunter unmanned surface vessel sensor grid service academy swarm challenge (SASC) SHRDLU natural language understanding system Silicon Valley Simon, Herbert simple AI Singer, Peter Smith, Brad Smith, Wolfgang social construction of technology (SCOT) soft kill South China Sea South Korea Soviet Union, See also North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO); Warsaw Pact Spanish armada special operations forces (SOF) Spruance, Adm Raymond squad with autonomous teammates competition (SWAT-C) Standard Missile-6 (SM-6) surface-to-air missile Stanford University Star Trek Stark static data Strait of Hormuz strategic capabilities office (SCO) strategy process strong AI supervised learning symbolic AI synchronization system of systems (SoS) tactical decision making under stress (TADMUS) tactical situation (TACSIT) tactics; definition tactics, techniques, and procedures (TTPs) task managers tasking, collection, processing, exploitation, and dissemination (TCPED); diagram Tegmark, Max Terminator Third Fleet, U.S third offset strategy (3OS) Torpedo Squadron Trafalgar, Battle of, See also Nelson, Vice Adm Lord, RN transparency Trump, Donald, president trust in AI; autonomy; by commanders; by operators; public; trustless approach Turing, Alan Typhoon Cobra Tzu, Sun Ukraine unipolar moment United Kingdom United Nations unmanned surface vessel (USV) unmanned systems Unmanned Undersea Vehicle Squadron One unmanned/uninhabited undersea vehicle (UUV) unsupervised learning U.S Air Force (USAF) U.S Army (USA) U.S Army Air Corps/Force U.S Cyber Command U.S Marine Corps (USMC) U.S Pacific Command China strategic initiatives user satisfaction UUV Master Plan Vietnam War Vincennes Vinge, Vernor wargame WarGames (movie) Warsaw Pact, See also North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) Waze weak AI, See also narrow AI Wilczek, Frank Willard, Vice Adm Robert F., USN Winner, Langdon Winograd, Terry Word2Vee World Intellectual Property Organization World War II Wozniak, Steve Wylie, Rear Adm J C., USN X-Unmanned Combat Air System Demonstrator (UCAS-D) Xi Jinping YOLO-net Younger, Sir Alex Zinni, Gen Anthony, USMC The Naval Institute Press is the book-publishing arm of the U.S Naval Institute, a private, nonprofit, membership society for sea service professionals and others who share an interest in naval and maritime affairs Established in 1873 at the U.S Naval Academy in Annapolis, Maryland, where its offices remain today, the Naval Institute has members worldwide Members of the Naval Institute support the education programs of the society and receive the influential monthly magazine Proceedings or the colorful 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please write to: Member Services U.S NAVAL INSTITUTE 291 Wood Road Annapolis, MD 21402-5034 Telephone: (800) 233-8764 Fax: (410) 571-1703 Web address: www.usni.org ... been described as the ? ?AI effect,” in which machines that were formerly referred to as possessing AI are later dismissed as merely automated processes as the science progresses A quip that has been... applications—United States | Naval art and science—United States—Data processing | Naval art and science—Technological innovations— United States | Big data Classification: LCC UG479 A44 2021. .. less than those of humans Just as humans can suffer massive heart attacks or devastating combat trauma, AI machines can “die” instantly if separated from their power sources AI machines, contained