Population Viability Analysis Part A To make political decisions about the extent and type of forestry in a region it is important to understand the consequences of those decisions. One tool for assessing the impact of forestry on the ecosystem is population viability analysis (PVA). This is a tool for predicting the probability that a species will become extinct in a particular region over a specific period. It has been successfully used in the United States to provide input into resource exploitation decisions and assist wildlife managers and there is now enormous potential for using population viability to assist wildlife management in Australia’s forests. A species becomes extinct when the last individual dies. This observation is a useful starting point for any discussion of extinction as it highlights the role of luck and chance in the extinction process. To make a prediction about extinction we need to understand the processes that can contribute to it and these fall into four broad categories which are discussed below. Part B A) Early attempts to predict population viability were based on demographic uncertainty whether an individual survives from one year to the next will largely be a matter of chance. Some pairs may produce several young in a single year while others may produce none in that same year. Small populations will fluctuate enormously because of the random nature of birth and death and these chance fluctuations can cause species extinctions even if, on average, the population size should increase. Taking only this uncertainty of ability to reproduce into account, extinction is unlikely if the number of individuals in a population is above about 50 and the population is growing. B) Small populations cannot avoid a certain amount of inbreeding. This is particularly true if there is a very small number of one sex. For example, if there are only 20 individuals of a species and only one is a male, all future individuals in the species must be descended from that one male. For most animal species such individuals are less likely to survive and reproduce. Inbreeding increases the chance of extinction. C) Variation within a species is the raw material upon which natural selection acts. Without genetic variability, a species lacks the capacity to evolve and cannot adapt to changes in its environment or to new predators and new diseases. The loss of genetic diversity associated with reductions in population size will contribute to the likelihood of extinction. D) Recent research has shown that other factors need to be considered. Australia’s environment fluctuates enormously from year to year. These fluctuations add yet another degree of uncertainty to the survival of many species. Catastrophes such as fire, flood, drought or epidemic may reduce population sizes to a small fraction of their average level. When allowance is made for these two additional elements of uncertainty the population size necessary to be confident of persistence for a few hundred years may increase to several thousand. Part C Besides these processes, we need to bear in mind the distribution of a population. A species that occurs in five isolated places each containing 20 individuals will not have the same probability of extinction as a species with a single population of 100 individuals in a single locality. Where logging occurs (that is, the cutting down of forests for timber) forestdependent creatures in that area will be forced to leave. Grounddwelling herbivores may return within a decade. However, arboreal marsupials (that is animals which live in trees) may not recover to prelogging densities for over a century. As more forests are logged, animal population sizes will be reduced further. Regardless of the theory or model that we choose, a reduction in population size decreases the genetic diversity of a population and increases the probability of extinction because of any or all of the processes listed above. It is therefore, a scientific fact that increasing the area that is loaded in any region will increase the probability that forestdependent animals will become extinct.
IELTS ACADEMIC READING + NOTES + ANSWER Population Viability Analysis Part A To make political decisions about the extent and type of forestry in a region it is important to understand the consequences of those decisions One tool for assessing the impact of forestry on the ecosystem is population viability analysis (PVA) This is a tool for predicting the probability that a species will become extinct in a particular region over a specific period It has been successfully used in the United States to provide input into resource exploitation decisions and assist wildlife managers and there is now enormous potential for using population viability to assist wildlife management in Australia’s forests A species becomes extinct when the last individual dies This observation is a useful starting point for any discussion of extinction as it highlights the role of luck and chance in the extinction process To make a prediction about extinction we need to understand the processes that can contribute to it and these fall into four broad categories which are discussed below Part B A) Early attempts to predict population viability were based on demographic uncertainty whether an individual survives from one year to the next will largely be a matter of chance Some pairs may produce several young in a single year while others may produce none in that same year Small populations will fluctuate enormously because of the random nature of birth and death and these chance fluctuations can cause species extinctions even if, on average, the population size should increase Taking only this uncertainty of ability to reproduce into account, extinction is unlikely if the number of individuals in a population is above about 50 and the population is growing B) Small populations cannot avoid a certain amount of inbreeding This is particularly true if there is a very small number of one sex For example, if there are only 20 individuals of a species and only one is a male, all future individuals in the species must be descended from that one male For most animal species such individuals are less likely to survive and reproduce Inbreeding increases the chance of extinction C) Variation within a species is the raw material upon which natural selection acts Without genetic variability, a species lacks the capacity to evolve and cannot adapt to changes in its environment or to new predators and new diseases The loss of genetic diversity associated with reductions in population size will contribute to the likelihood of extinction D) Recent research has shown that other factors need to be considered Australia’s environment fluctuates enormously from year to year These fluctuations add yet another degree of uncertainty to the survival of many species Catastrophes such as fire, flood, drought or epidemic may reduce population sizes to a small fraction of their average level When allowance is made for these two additional elements of uncertainty the population size necessary to be confident of persistence for a few hundred years may increase to several thousand Part C Besides these processes, we need to bear in mind the distribution of a population A species that occurs in five isolated places each containing 20 individuals will not have the same probability of extinction as a species with a single population of 100 individuals in a single locality Where logging occurs (that is, the cutting down of forests for timber) forest-dependent creatures in that area will be forced to leave Ground-dwelling herbivores may return within a decade However, arboreal marsupials (that is animals which live in trees) may not recover to pre-logging densities for over a century As more forests are logged, animal population sizes will be reduced further Regardless of the theory or model that we choose, a reduction in population size decreases the genetic diversity of a population and increases the probability of extinction because of any or all of the processes listed above It is therefore, a scientific fact that increasing the area that is loaded in any region will increase the probability that forest-dependent animals will become extinct Questions 28-31: Do the following statements agree with the views of the writer in Part A of Reading Passage 1? In boxes 28-31 on your answer sheet write: YES if the statement agrees with the writer NO if the statement contradicts the writer NOT GIVEN if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this Example A link exists between the consequences of decisions and the decision making process itself 28 Scientists are interested in the effect of forestry on native animals 29 PVA has been used in Australia for many years Answer YES 30 A species is said to be extinct when only one individual exists 31 Extinction is a naturally occurring phenomenon Questions 32-35: These questions are based on Part B of Reading Passage In paragraphs A to D the author describes four processes which may contribute to the extinction of a species Match the list of processes (i-vi) to the paragraphs Write the appropriate number (i-vi) in boxes 32-35 on your answer sheet NB There are more processes than paragraphs so you will not use all of them 32 Paragraph A 33 Paragraph B 34 Paragraph C 35 Paragraph D Processes i Loss of ability to adapt ii Natural disasters iii An imbalance of the sexes iv Human disasters v Evolution vi The haphazard nature of reproduction Questions 36-38: Based on your reading of Part C, complete the sentences below with words taken from the passage Use NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS for each answer Write your answers in boxes 36-38 on your answer sheet While the population of a species may be on the increase, there is always a chance that small isolated groups (36) Survival of a species depends on a balance between the size of a population and its (37) The likelihood that animals which live in forests will become extinct is increased when (38) Question 39: Choose the appropriate letter A-D and write it in box 39 on your answer sheet 39 An alternative heading for the passage could be: A B C D The protection of native flora and fauna Influential factors in assessing survival probability An economic rationale for the logging of forests Preventive measures for the extinction of a species ANSWERS Question 28: Scientists are interested in the effect of forestry on native animals Answer: Yes Explanation: This is the most confusing question in this reading passage The techniques and strategies that you have learned so far to find answers from a reading passage would easily assist you to decide that the right answer is 'Not Given' Believe me, this was my first instinct as well However, the right answer is 'Yes' But why? The first point to notice is that you have to find evidence for the answer from Part A, as mentioned in the reading passage So even if any evidence is given otherwise in Part B or C, would not be applicable here If you are still confused, read the question instruction again, which says 'Do the following statements agree with the views of the writer in Part A of Reading Passage 1?' Now we only have to search the proof within Part A of the paragraph and that has become a bit easier for us Look at the beginning of the Part A that says: "To make political decisions about the extent and type of forestry in a region it is important to understand the consequences of those decisions One tool for assessing the impact of forestry on the ecosystem is population viability analysis (PVA) This is a tool for predicting the probability that a species will become extinct in a particular region over a specific period." It is certain that someone is interested in the effect of forestry on native animals but we are still not convinced if this "someone" is a scientist or not? Don't be confused about the word 'political' as it does not mean only politicians are involved In this reading passage'to make political decisions' indicates the 'decision-making process' and the writer implies that the decision-making process leads directly to consequences The Part A of the reading passage includes: "One tool for assessing the impact of forestry on the ecosystem is population viability analysis (PVA)." It should be obvious that the tool (PVA) is being used by scientists and ecosystems include the native animals." Still not convinced? Let me try for one more timeWhat group of people are interested to know about the impact of forestry on the ecosystem and who would use tools to measure/assess that? Scientists Question 29 PVA has been used in Australia for many years Answer: No Explanation: The Part A of the reading passage indicates that"It (PVA) has been successfully used in the United States and there is now an enormous potential for using population viability to assist wildlife management in Australia’s forests " It should be clear that PVA is yet to be used in Australia but it has a potential to become handy to assist wildlife managements in Australia's forests Potential means 'possible, likely, prospective, future, and probable' which clearly explains that it might be used in the future and has not been used and tested Question 30: A species is said to be extinct when only one individual exists Answer: No Explanation: The sentence in Part A of the reading passage clearly mention that "A species becomes extinct when the last individual dies." So finding the answer to this question should be very easy for you and this is quite straight forward Question 31: Extinction is a naturally occurring phenomenon Answer: Not Given Explanation: According to the question instruction, we have to find evidence from the Part A of this reading passage for question 31 as well Look at the last sentence of the Part A which states "To make a prediction about extinction we need to understand the processes that can contribute to it and these fall into four broad categories which are discussed below." It makes it clear that the reasons why extinction occurs fall into four broad categories which we still don't know and would not want to know as they are not included in Part A of the reading passage They might be a natural phenomenon or could be man-made Be aware: Do not apply your general knowledge or subject matter expertise while answering the IELTS reading passages In reality, extinctions of different species might be a natural phenomenon To answer this question you have to rely on the information given in this reading passage, not your previous knowledge or expertise Tips: A group of questions (28 -31 in this case) in IELTS reading usually appears chronologically; i.e follow the order in the text of the passage Since you found the answer to the question 30 in the line "A species becomes extinct when the last individual dies, for the answer to the question 31 look the next line of this paragraph, NOT from the beginning of the paragraph Question 32- 35: Part B of the reading passage has four paragraphs namely a), b), c) and d) We need to find suitable processes that are listed in the table, i.e i-vi Do not write process name in your answer sheet Rather write the roman numbers i - vi Notice that there are six processes while you need to pick four out of these to match with the paragraphs given Question 32: Paragraph A Answer: vi (The haphazard nature of reproduction) [ In your answer sheet write only vi, we have included the answer in the () for the purpose of explaining it ] Explanation: According to the paragraph A) of Part B) "Small populations will fluctuate enormously because of the random nature of birth and death and these chance fluctuations can cause species extinctions even if, on average, the population size should increase Taking only this uncertainty of ability to reproduce into account, extinction is unlikely if the number of individuals in a population is above about 50 and the population is growing " Main points/ keywords/ keyphrases to notice here - random nature of birth and death, uncertainty of ability to reproduce into account Thus "The haphazard nature of reproduction" is the most suitable process that the writer has described here Question 33: Paragraph B Answer: iii (An imbalance of the sexes) [ In your answer sheet write only iii, we have included the answer in the () for the purpose of explaining it ] Explanation: According to the paragraph B) of Part B) "This is particularly true if there is a very small number of one sex For example, if there are only 20 individuals of a species and only one is a male, all future individuals in the species must be descended from that one male For most animal species such individuals are less likely to survive and reproduce Inbreeding increases the chance of extinction." Thus "An imbalance of the sexes" is the process the writer has described in this paragraph Question 34: Paragraph C Answer: i (Loss of ability to adapt) [ In your answer sheet write only i, we have included the answer in the () for the purpose of explaining it ] Explanation: According to the paragraph C) of Part B "Without genetic variability, a species lacks the capacity to evolve and cannot adapt to changes in its environment or to new predators and new diseases The loss of genetic diversity associated with reductions in population size will contribute to the likelihood of extinction " Thus the "Loss of ability to adapt" is the process the writer has described in this paragraph Be aware that it is tempting to pick "Evolution" as the answer to this question if you not understand the paragraph It is talking about a process which lets a species extinct and the lack/loss of adaptability is the right answer here, NOT the evaluation Question 35: Paragraph D Answer: ii (Natural disasters) [ In your answer sheet write only ii, we have included the answer in the () for the purpose of explaining it ] Explanation: According to the paragraph D) of Part B - "Recent research has shown that other factors need to be considered Australia’s environment fluctuatesenormously from year to year These fluctuations add yet another degree of uncertainty to the survival of many species Catastrophes such as fire, flood, drought or epidemic may reduce population sizes to a small fraction of their average level " Note that - Environmental fluctuations, catastrophes like flood, drought or epidemic are all natural disasters Thus "Natural Disaster" is the process the writer has described in this paragraph Questions 36-38: Note that you have to answer the questions 36 to 38 based on Part C of the paragraph You need to fill the gaps with word(s) that are TAKEN FROM THE PASSAGE and DO NOT use more than three words to fill a single gap Also, the sentence must make sense and become grammatically accurate when you use your words to fill the gaps Question 36: While the population of a species may be on the increase, there is always a chance that small isolated groups (36) Answer: (either one of the following) become extinct will become extinct may become extinct could become extinct will not survive may not survive Explanation: You have to pick three or fewer than three words to fill this gap Make sure you use word(s) that has appeared in the reading passage In this case extinct and survive are both accurate as they both come from the reading passage However, you have to use become, may become will not survive or any of the right answer to make the sentence grammatically correct You could be sure of this answer from the excerpt "A species that occurs in five isolated places each containing 20 individuals will not have the same probability of extinction as a species with a single population of 100 individuals in a single locality." Question 37: Survival of a species depends on a balance between the size of a population and its (37) Answer: (either one of the following) distribution locality Explanation: You must not use more than three words to fill this gap Make sure you use word(s) that has appeared in the reading passage In this case extinct and survive are both accurate as they both come from the reading passage You could be sure of this answer from the line(s) "Besides these processes, we need to bear in mind the distribution of a population Where logging occurs (that is, the cutting down of forests for timber) forest-dependent creatures in that area will be forced to leave Ground-dwelling herbivores may return within a decade However, arboreal marsupials (that is animals which live in trees) may not recover to pre-logging densities for over a century As more forests are logged, animal population sizes will be reduced further " Question 38: The likelihood that animals which live in forests will become extinct is increased when (38) Answer: (either one of the following) logging occurs logging takes place Explanation: You must not use more than three words to fill this gap Make sure you use word(s) that has appeared in the reading passage In this case extinct and survive are both accurate as they both come from the reading passage You could be sure of this answer from the excerpt "Where logging occurs (that is, the cutting down of forests for timber) forest-dependent creatures in that area will be forced to leave Ground-dwelling herbivores may return within a decade However, arboreal marsupials (that is animals which live in trees) may not recover to pre-logging densities for over a century As more forests are logged, animal population sizes will be reduced further " Caution: "logging occur/ logging take place" are grammatically inaccurate and hence if you write either of that, your answer would be treated as a wrong answer The same rule applies for the spelling mistakes Even if your answer is correct, you won't get any mark for a spelling mistake Thus 'logging occurs' would not be treated as a correct answer as 'loggin' is not the correct spelling The Pursuit of Happiness "New research uncovers some anti-intuitive insights into how many people are happy - and why." _ Compared with misery, happiness is a relatively unexplored terrain for social scientists Between 1967 and 1994, 46,380 articles indexed in Psychological Abstracts mentioned depression, 36,851 anxiety, and 5,099 anger Only 2,389 spoke of happiness, 2,340 life satisfaction, and 405 joy joy Recently we and other researchers have begun a systematic study of happiness During the past two decades, dozens of investigators throughout the world have asked several hundred thousand Representative sampled people to reflect on their happiness and satisfaction with life or what psychologists call "subjective well-being" In the US the National Opinion Research Center at the University of Chicago has surveyed a representative sample of roughly 1,500 people a year since 1957; the Institute for Social Research at the University of Michigan has carried out similar studies on a less regular basis, as has the Gallup Organization Governmentfunded efforts have also probed the moods of European countries We have uncovered some surprising findings People are happier than one might expect, and happiness does not appear to depend significantly on external circumstances Although viewing life as a tragedy has a long and honorable history, the responses of random samples of people around the world about their happiness paints a much rosier picture In the University of Chicago surveys, three in 10 Americans say they are very happy, for example Only one in 10 chooses the most negative description "not too happy" The majority describe themselves as "pretty happy", How can social scientists measure something as hard to pin down as happiness? Most researchers simply ask people to report their feelings of happiness or unhappiness and to assess how satisfying their lives are Such self-reported well-being is moderately consistent over years of retesting Furthermore, those who say they are happy and satisfied seem happy to their close friends and family members and to a psychologist-interviewer Their daily mood ratings reveal more positive emotions, and they smile more than those who call themselves unhappy Selfreported happiness also predicts other indicators of well-being Compared with the depressed, happy people are less self-focused, less hostile and abusive, and less susceptible to disease We have found that the even distribution of happiness cuts across almost all demographic classifications of age, economic class, race and educational level In addition, almost all strategies for assessing subjective well-being - including those that sample people's experience by polling them at random times with beepers - turn up similar findings Interviews with representative samples of people of all ages, for example, reveal that no time of life is notably happier or unhappier Similarly, men and women are equally likely to declare themselves "very happy" and "satisfied" with life, according to a statistical digest of 146 studies by Marilyn J, Haring, William Stock and Morris A, Okun, all then at Arizona State University Wealth is also a poor predictor of happiness People have not become happier over time as their cultures have become more affluent Even though Americans earn twice as much in today's dollars as they did in 1957, the proportion of those telling surveyors from the National Opinion Research Center that they are "very happy" has declined from 35 to 29 percent Even very rich people - those surveyed among Forbes magazine's 100 wealthiest Americans are only slightly happier than the average American Those whose income has increased over a 10-year period are not happier than those whose income is stagnant Indeed, in most nations the correlation between income and happiness is negligible - only in the poorest countries, such as Bangladesh and India, is income a good measure of emotional well-being Are people in rich countries happier, by and large, than people in not so rich countries? It appears in general that they are, but the margin may be slim In Portugal, for example, only one in 10 people reports being very happy, whereas in the much more prosperous Netherlands the proportion of very happy is four in 10 Yet there are curious reversals in this correlation between national wealth and well-being -the Irish during the 1980s consistently reported greater life satisfaction than the wealthier West Germans Furthermore, other factors, such as civil rights, literacy and duration of democratic government, all of which also promote reported life satisfaction, tend to go hand in hand with national wealth, As a result, it is impossible to tell whether the happiness of people in wealthier nations is based on money or is a by-product of other felicities Although happiness is not easy to predict from material circumstances, it seems consistent for those who have it, In one National Institute on Aging study of 5,000 adults, the happiest people in 1973 were still relatively happy a decade later, despite changes in work, residence and family status, [ From "The Pursuit of Happiness" by David G, Myers and Ed Diener Copyright © May 1996 by Scientific American, Inc All rights reserved ] Questions 28-30 Choose the appropriate letters A-D and write them in boxes 23-30 on your answer sheet 28 What point are the writers making in the opening paragraph? A Happiness levels have risen since 1967 В Journals take a biased view on happiness С Happiness is not a well-documented research area, D People tend to think about themselves negatively 29 What the writers say about their research findings? A They had predicted the results correctly В They felt people had responded dishonestly С They conflict with those of other researchers D Happiness levels are higher than they had believed 30 In the fourth paragraph, what does the reader learn about the research method used? A It is new В It appears to be reliable С It is better than using beepers D It reveals additional information Questions 31-34 According to the passage, which of the findings below (31-34) is quoted by which Investigative Body (A-G)? Write your answers in boxes 31-34 on your answer sheet NB There are more Investigative Bodies than findings, so you not have to use all of them 31 Happiness is not gender related 32 Over fifty percent of people consider themselves to be 'happy' 33 Happiness levels are marginally higher for those in the top income brackets 34 'Happy' people remain happy throughout their lives A B С D E F G Investigative Bodies The National Opinion Research Center, University of Chicago Arizona State University The Institute for Social Research, University of Michigan Forbes Magazine The National Institute on Aging The Gallup Organization The Government Questions 35-40 Complete the summary of Reading Passage 20 below Choose your answers from the box at the bottom of the page and write them in boxes 35-40 on your answer sheet NB There are more words than spaces so you will not use them all You may use any of the words more than once HOW HAPPY ARE WE? Example : Answer Our happiness levels are by relatively few factors Affected For example, incomes in the States have (35) over the past forty years but happiness levels have (36) over the same period In fact, people on average incomes are only slightly (37) happy than extremely rich people and a gradual increase in prosperity makes (38) difference to how happy we are In terms of national wealth, populations of wealthy nations are (39) happier than those who live in poorer countries Although in some cases this trend is (40) and it appears that other factors need to be considered Stopped Doubled Stabilized No Crept up Slightly Significant Remarkably Less Slowed down List of Words too great similar some reversed dropped much affected more clearly ANSWERS 28 С 29 D 30 В 31 В 32 A 33 D 34 E 35 doubled 36 dropped 37 less 38 no 39 slightly 40 reversed NOTES ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 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……………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………… You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 14-27 which are based on Reading Passage 21 on the following pages Questions 14-19 Reading Passage 21 has eight paragraphs (A-H) Choose the most suitable heading for each paragraph from the list of headings below Write the appropriate numbers (i-xi) in boxes 14-19 on your answer sheet NB There are more headings than paragraphs so you will not use all of them You may use any heading more than once List of Headings i Gathering the information ii Cigarettes produced to match an image iii Financial outlay on marketing iv The first advertising methods v Pressure causes a drop in sales vi Changing attitudes allow new marketing tactics vii Background to the research viii A public uproar is avoided ix The innovative move to written adverts x A century of uninhibited smoking xi Conclusions of the research 14 Paragraph A 15 Paragraph В 16 Paragraph С Example Paragraph D 17 Paragraph E 18 Paragraph F Answer iv 19 Paragraph G Example Paragraph H Answer xi Looking for a Market among Adolescents A In 1992, the most recent year for which data are available, the US tobacco industry spent $5 billion on domestic marketing That figure represents a huge increase from the approximate £250-million budget in 1971, when tobacco advertising was banned from television and radio The current expenditure translates to about $75 for every adult smoker, or to $4,500 for every adolescent who became a smoker that year This apparently high cost to attract a new smoker is very likely recouped over the average 25 years that this teen will smoke В In the first half of this century, leaders of the tobacco companies boasted that innovative mass-marketing strategies built the industry Recently, however, the tobacco business has maintained that its advertising is geared to draw established smokers to particular brands But public health advocates insist that such advertising plays a role in generating new demand, with adolescents being the primary target To explore the issue, we examined several marketing campaigns undertaken over the years and correlated them with the ages smokers say they began their habit We find that, historically, there is considerable evidence that such campaigns led to an increase in cigarette smoking among adolescents of the targeted group С National surveys collected the ages at which people started smoking The 1955 Current Population Survey (CPS) was the first to query respondents for this information, although only summary data survive Beginning in 1970, however, the National Health Interview Surveys (NHIS) included this question in some polls Answers from all the surveys were combined to produce a sample of more than 165,000 individuals Using a respondent's age at the time of the survey and the reported age of initiation, [age they started smoking], the year the person began smoking could be determined Dividing the number of adolescents (defined as those 12 to 17 years old) who started smoking during a particular interval by the number who were "eligible" to begin at the start of the interval set the initiation rate for that group D Mass-marketing campaigns began as early as the 1880s, which boosted tobacco consumption six-fold by 1900 Much of the rise was attributed to a greater number of people smoking cigarettes, as opposed to using cigars, pipes, snuff or chewing tobacco Marketing strategies included painted billboards and an extensive distribution of coupons, which a recipient could redeem for free cigarettes Some brands included soft-porn pictures of women in the packages Such tactics inspired outcry from educational leaders concerned about their corrupting influence on teenage boys Thirteen percent of the males surveyed in 1955 who reached adolescence between 1890 and 1910 commenced smoking by 18 years of age, compared with almost no females E The power of targeted advertising is more apparent if one considers the men born between 1890 and 1899 In 1912, when many of these men were teenagers, the R.J Reynolds company launched the Camel brand of cigarettes with a revolutionary approach Every city in the country was bombarded with print advertising According to the 1955 CPS, initiation by age 18 for males in this group jumped to 21.6 percent, a two-thirds increase over those boom before 1890 The NHIS initiation rate also reflected this change For adolescent males, it went up from 2.9 percent between 1910 and 1912 to 4.9 percent between 1918 and 1921 F It was not until the mid-1920s that social mores permitted cigarette advertising to focus on women In 1926 a poster depicted women imploring smokers of Chesterfield cigarettes to "Blow Some My Way" The most successful crusade, however, was for Lucky Strikes, which urged women to "Reach for a Lucky instead of a Sweet." The 1955 CPS data showed that percent of the women who were adolescents during the mid-1920s had started smoking by age 18, compared with only percent in the preceding generation of female adolescents Initiation rates from the NHIS data for adolescent girls were observed to increase threefold, from 0.6 percent between 1922 and 1925 to 1.8 percent between 1930 and 1933 In contrast, rates for males rose only slightly G The next major boost in smoking initiation in adolescent females occurred in the late 1960s In 1967 the tobacco industry launched "niche" brands aimed exclusively at women The most popular was Virginia Slims The visuals of this campaign emphasized a woman who was strong, independent and very thin Initiation in female adolescents nearly doubled, from 3.7 percent between 1964 and 1967 to 6.2 percent between 1972 and 1975 (NHIS data) During the same period, rates for adolescent males remained stable H Thus, in four distinct instances over the past 100 years, innovative and directed tobacco marketing campaigns were associated with marked surges in primary demand from adolescents only in the target group The first two were directed at males and the second two at females Of course, other factors helped to entrench smoking in society Yet it is clear from the data that advertising has been an overwhelming force in attracting new users Questions 20-24 Do the following statements agree with the information in Reading Passage 21? In boxes 20-24 write: YES if the statement is true according to the passage NO if the statement contradicts the passage NOT GIVEN if there is no information about this in the passage 20 Cigarette marketing has declined in the US since tobacco advertising banned on TV 21 Tobacco companies claim that their advertising targets existing smokers 22 The difference in initiation rates between male and female smokers at of the 19th century was due to selective marketing 23 Women who took up smoking in the past lost weight 24 The two surveys show different trends in cigarette initiation Questions 25-27 Complete the sentences below with words taken from the Reading Passage Use NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS for each answer Write your answers in boxes 25-27 on your answer sheet Tobacco companies are currently being accused of aiming their advertisements mainly at (25) Statistics on smoking habits for men born between 1890 and 1899 were gathered in the year (26) The (27) brand of cigarettes was designed for a particular sex ANSWERS 14 iii 15 vii 16 i 17 ix 18 vi 19 ii 20 NO 21 YES 22 YES 23 NOT GIVEN 24 NO 25 adolescents 26 1955 27 Virginia Slims NOTES ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… …….………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………… ... cm 1. 25 cm Cool 12 Spanish Late spring 10 13 Number of generations per year 1- 2 ANSWER NOT GIVEN NO YES YES NO South African French Spanish temperate 10 early spring 11 two to five / 2-5 12 sub-tropical... sunlight Australia’s 30 million cattle each produce 10 -12 cow pats a day This amounts to 1. 7 billion tonnes a year, enough to smother about 11 0,000 sq km of pasture, half the area of Victoria... terms of the Zoo Licensing Act 19 81 If the concerning authority knew how this establishment treated animals, this could have been shut down even before 19 81 Question 21: Colin Tudge was dissatisfied