ALLS vol 7 no 3 2016

Advances in Language and Literary Studies Online ISSN: 2203-4714 Advances in Language and Literary Studies [ALLS] All papers on which this is printed in this book meet the minimum requirements of "Australian International Academic Centre PTY LTD" All papers published in this book are accessible online Editor-in-Chief Amelia Ying Qin, PhD University of Houston, United States Editorial Assistants Seyed Ali Rezvani Kalajahi, PhD Ruzbeh Babaee, PhD Journal Information ISSN: 2203-4714 ISBN: 978-1-291-71811-9 Website: www.alls.aiac.org.au & http://www.journals.aiac.org.au/index.php/alls/index E-mail: editor.alls@aiac.org.au Publisher Australian International Academic Centre PTY LTD 11 Souter Crescent, Footscray VIC 3011 Australia Phone: +61 9028 6880 Website: http://www.aiac.org.au Hardcopy Provider Lulu Press Inc 3101 Hillsborough Street Raleigh, NC 27607 USA Web: http://www.lulu.com/spotlight/AIAC 2010 – 2016 © ALLS No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, by print, photo print, microfilm, or any other means, without written permission from the publisher ii ALLS Editorial Team Editor-in-Chief Amelia Ying Qin, University of Houston, United States Editorial Assistants Seyed Ali Rezvani Kalajahi Ruzbeh Babaee Advisory Board Andrew Weiler, Holmesglen Institute, Australia Brian Tomlinson, Leeds Metropolitan University, United Kingdom John I Liontas, University of South Florida, United States Mark Pegrum, The University of Western Australia, Australia NS Prabhu, National University of Singapore, Singapore Editorial Board Alex Ho-Cheong Leung, Northumbria University, Newcastle, United Kingdom Ali Miremadi, California State University, United States Andrés Canga Alonso, Universidad de La Rioja, Spain Anjali Pandey, Salisbury University, United States Anthony J Liddicoat, University of South Australia, Australia Bakhtiar Naghdipour, Girne American University, Cyprus Canzhong Wu, Macquarie University, Australia Chan Swee Heng, University Putra Malaysia, Malaysia Chamkaur Singh Gill, Bond University, Australia Darryl Jones, Trinity College, Ireland Dat Bao, Monash University, Australia Fadil S Elmenfi, Omar Al-Mukhtar University/Derna, Libya Holi Ibrahim Holi, Rusaq College of Applied Sciences, Oman iii I Wayan Arka, Australian National University, Australia Jason Brown, The University of Auckland, New Zealand Jayakaran Mukundan, University Putra Malaysia, Malaysia Karim Hajhashemi, James Cook University, Australia Leila Lomashvili, Shawnee State University, United States Kylie Cardell, Flinders University, Adelaide, Australia Mahmoud M Gewaily, Minia University, Egypt Mohammad Hossein Keshavarz, Near East University, Cyprus Mohammad Reza Shams, University of Kashan, Iran, Islamic Republic of Mounir Jilani Ben Zid, Sultan Qaboos University, Oman Natasha Pourdana, Gyeongju University, Korea, Republic of Neil Anderson, James Cook University, Australia Shaofeng Li, The University of Auckland, New Zealand Siamak Babaee, University of Kashan, Iran, Islamic Republic of Vahed Zarifi, Iran, Islamic Republic of Wayne DeFehr, University of Alberta, Canada Wisdom Agorde, University of Alberta, Canada iv Vol 7, No (2016) Table of Contents Articles English Language Teaching in Rural Areas: A Scenario and Problems and Prospects in Context of Bangladesh Md.Mahroof Hossain An Investigation of the Relationship between Iranian EFL Learners’ Cultural Intelligence and Their Performance on the IELTS Listening Modules Arezoo Rafie, Robab Khosravi, Mahdi Nasiri Indonesian EFL Students’ Perspective on Writing Process: A Pilot Study Imelda Hermilinda Abas, Noor Hashima Abd Aziz The Effect of Teachers’ Written Corrective Feedback (WCF) Types on Intermediate EFL Learners’ Writing Performance Khadijeh Aghajanloo, Fariba Mobini, Robab Khosravi Practical Functional Approach to Quality Assessment in Subtitling: Pocahontas II – Case Study Alaa Eddin Hussain, Ahmad Khuddro An Evaluation of Effective Communication Skills Coursebook Shameem Ahmed Diction and Expression in Error Analysis Can Enhance Academic Writing of L2 University Students Muhammad Sajid Then and Now: Approaches to Understanding Children's Literature in Two Volumes Baker M Bani-Khair, Imad M Khawaldeh The Impact of Problem-Based Learning on Iranian EFL Learners’ Speaking Proficiency Loghman Ansarian, Ali Akbar Adlipour, Mehrnoush Akhavan Saber, Elmira Shafiei Designing an ESP Curriculum for Saudi Science Students Fahad Saleh Suleiman Alfallaj Between Home and Exile A Reading of the Exilic Experience of the Iraqi Poet Adnan Al-Sayegh Hana Khlaif Ghena The Aesthetic Values of Silence in Two Plays by Harold Pinter Niloufar Amiri Continuous Professional Development of English Language Teachers: Perception and Practices AbdulRahman Al Asmari Effectiveness of E-learning for the Teaching of English: A Study of Comparative Strategies Intakhab Alam Khan Edward Said’s Worldliness, Amateurism and Heterotopia: Negotiating the Interdisciplinarity of Literary Theory, Canonicity, and Paradigm Ayman Abu-Shomar The Perception of EFL High School Students in Using of Computer Technology in the Process of Learning: Merits and Demerits Siros Izadpanah, Mansooreh Alavi Epiphanic Awakenings in Raymond Carver’s Cathedral and Alice Walker’s Everyday Use Ala Eddin Sadeq, Mohammed Al-Badawi Google Translate as a Supplementary Tool for Learning Malay: A Case Study at Universiti Sains Malaysia v 1-12 13-20 21-27 28-37 38-56 57-70 71-79 80-83 84-94 95-99 100-110 111-116 117-124 125-135 136-145 146-156 157-160 Hossein Bahri, Tengku Sepora Tengku Mahadi Demonized Learners in Sociocultural Theory Joanna Chen Towards a New Model for Implied Metaphor Translation: English Translations of Al Muallaqat Aiman Sanad Al-Garrallah Digitized Ethnic Hate Speech: Understanding Effects of Digital Media Hate Speech on Citizen Journalism in Kenya Stephen Gichuhi Kimotho, Rahab Njeri Nyaga Discourse Analysis of Tennessee Williams’ The Glass Menagerie George Mathew Nalliveettil, Mahmoud Sobhi Mohamed Gadallah William Golding’s Iconoclastic Views about the Neanderthal Man in The Inheritors Sayed Mohammed Youssef Analysis of Variance in Vocabulary Learning Strategies Theory and Practice: A Case Study in Libya Salma H M Khalifa, Ahmad Affendi Shabdin The Effects of Pre-Reading Activities on Reading Comprehension of Iranian EFL Learners Nahid Nemati Moghaddam, Asgar Mahmoudi Synonymy in Jordanian Arabic Omar Ibrahim Salameh Alomoush Linguistic Features of Humor in Academic Writing Stephen Skalicky, Cynthia M Berger, Scott A Crossley, Danielle S McNamara The Influence of Ḥāfiẓ on Muḥammad Taqī Bahār Bahman Solati Levels of Code Switching on EFL Student’s Daily Language; Study of Language Production Zainuddin Review of A Dictionary of Global Huayu Rui Li vi 161-167 168-177 178-188 189-200 201-210 211-219 220-234 235-242 243-247 248-259 260-277 278-281 282-286 Advances in Language and Literary Studies ISSN: 2203-4714 Vol No 3; June 2016 Flourishing Creativity & Literacy Australian International Academic Centre, Australia English Language Teaching in Rural Areas: A Scenario and Problems and Prospects in Context of Bangladesh Md.Mahroof Hossain Department of English, Z.H Sikder University of Science & Technology, Bangladesh E-mail: mahroof.hossainsarker@gmail.com Doi:10.7575/aiac.alls.v.7n.3p.1 Received: 02/01/2016 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.alls.v.7n.3p.1 Accepted: 15/02/2016 Abstract Language is one of the medium of expressing our ideas, feelings and emotions And if we think about language in present world then English is one of the most used languages in the world and English is used as a second language in Bangladesh English is introduced here at the primary level and its inclusion continues till the tertiary level of education Most of the students of the primary schools in rural areas are weak in English language due to lack of skilled and trained teachers who are familiar to the modern methods and approaches of teaching and lack of materials for teaching in the classroom Primary level English curriculum implementation is essential in Bangladesh to achieve the set English language competency in the rural areas Students in the rural areas are performing poorly in English compared to their urban counterparts Statistics showed that there was a gulf of difference between the facilities enjoyed by rural schools and urban schools The study explores the challenges of teaching English language in rural areas in context of Bangladesh This study investigated the factors affecting student’s performance in English language in rural areas Data were collected using interviews, classroom observation and questionnaire Result of the study reveals that students were highly motivated to learn English for future expectations such as local and international communication, academic advancement and employment prospects It also provide a scenario of English teaching system in rural areas of Bangladesh as well as the problems and prospects of English language in perspective of Bangladesh Keywords: English language, rural areas, education, learning and teaching, competency Introduction Language is one of the most useful tools we have as humans Without it we could not think of thoughts expressible to others, nor could we engage in the activities that commonly take place in the society we build ourselves (Di Pietro, 1994) Language is very important in education The high status of English within a global economy of languages has meant that English language education is increasingly being promoted in international development initiatives A broad goal of English language programs is that of developing the communicative ability to convey and interpret a message via written or spoken modalities to another person In our country, there is no doubt that we still have not established a standard of education in schools and colleges There are too many problems in our country that have to be eradicated to embrace a comprehensive education system through which we can expect ourselves to be a richer nation We must not forget that students today will become the key members of our country who would be responsible for the overall development of our country If we not have good teacher, there is no way we could expect to have a balanced society in future And if there are not enough good teachers in English, then there would be imbalance that the urban area students will be good at English, but students in rural areas would always be deprived of getting or learning English properly The main objectives of teaching English in Bangladesh are to enable students to understand simple commands, instructions and requests in English and also carry them out (National curriculum and Textbook Boards 2006) Most of the students of rural schools are unable to attain the primary English language competencies due to prevailing challenges in our education system The main objective of this research is to find out the challenges and problems and prospects of English language teaching in rural areas in context of Bangladesh Factors that making a difference in performance of English language in rural and urban area In the present world, education is the most important aspect in society development For education school is considered to play a major role in ensuring the successful of the development It is not only the institution but also the students have to play to be proactive with an appropriate futuristic set of mind The students also need to have good skills as well as they also need to be active in co-curriculum activity along with high academic achievement Apart from all this factors the environment where the student’s lives can determine their performance in their studies In short, we can say that reason for the variations in their performance in learning and achievement are geographical location, resources, availability of technology and also the quality of teachers Urban area relates to the area that are surrounding by cities and it is well populated areas compared to rural area which is sparsely populated areas and it usually farmland or country areas Recent educational research has examined rural and ALLS 7(3):1-12, 2016 urban differences in their achievement Many educators, researchers, legislators and the general public believe that students from rural schools mostly receive an education that is inferior compared to the students that live in the urban areas And if it is about the question teaching or the matter about the acquisition of second language that is English the situation is worst There are many factors that contribute to the differences of performance in English language between students in rural and urban areas 2.1 Family factors To determine the child performance their family plays a key role Students in rural areas have low performance compared to students in urban areas because it is relate to their parents education.Some experts believe that parents expectations is the most influencial factor affecting youth decisions to pursue education (Esterman and Hedland,1995; smith,Beaulieu and Seraphine,1995) 2.2 Financial factor The students’ background relates to low socio-economic factor of their family also one of the factor that affect their performance in English language Most of the students in rural areas come from low income family so that they cannot get enough educational resources compared to students at urban areas Students who have access to more facilities or resources are getting advantage compared to those from poor families 2.3 Logistic support Rural areas educational institutions lack enough logistic support compared to urban area educational institutions Lack of facilities and resources contribute to the poor performances in English language of the students in rural area 2.4 Less qualified teachers We not have enough qualified teachers in rural areas Lack of qualified and trained English teachers in rural areas put poor impact on students English language competence than the urban areas students 2.5 Adequate books Apart from the good teachers, there are also not adequate books in the educational institutions of rural areas If we not bring good and updated English books for students, we cannot guarantee that they would learn the best Principles of English Language teaching There are certain principles of English language teaching, which are as follows: 3.1 Know your learners- their language background, their language proficiency, their experiential background 3.2 Identify the learning outcomes including the language demands of the teaching and learning 3.2 Maintain the same learning outcome for all the learners 3.3 Begin with context embedded tasks which make the abstract concrete 3.4 Provide multiple opportunities for authentic language use with a focus on students using academic language 3.5 Ensure a balance between receptive and productive language 3.6 Include opportunities for monitoring and self- evaluation Phillipson (1992) identifies each of these tenets a fallacy which are as follows: The monolingual Fallacy The native speaker fallacy The early start fallacy The maximum exposure fallacy The subtractive fallacy Teaching English language in different level of education in Bangladesh In Bangladesh education level is categorized into four stages: Primary, Secondary, Higher Secondary and finally tertiary level In rural area of Bangladesh we found Primary, Secondary and Higher secondary educational institution and most of the tertiary level educational institution is situated in urban area So we will look at the scenario of English language in primary, secondary and higher secondary educational institutions 4.1 Teaching English language at primary school of Bangladesh Jean Piaget, Lev Vygotsky and Jerome Bruner differ in important ways about their explanations of how children develop and learn, but they all agree that cognitive development of the child is linked to construction of knowledge in the brain within a social context (Banu, 2009) They also agree that language development linking sounds, words and meaning as a means of communication is a critical element of cognitive development The objectives of English curriculum in Primary school are to: a b Understand simple command/instructions/requests in English and carry them out Speak and understand simple English according to their age level ALLS 7(3):1-12, 2016 c d Read and comprehend text books according to their age group and level Write alphabets, words, numbers, simple sentences, passages, paragraphs, informal letters and numbers according to their age group and level 4.2 English language teaching at the secondary and higher secondary educational institutions It is generally agreed that the ability of our learners in English classes, especially at the secondary level is not satisfactory, due to some underlying factors The syllabus and curriculum are examination oriented and prevent students from acquiring language competency In rural area English language achievement is very poor regarding the urban area There are many reasons behind this poor performance Lack of trained teachers, ineffective course, lack of good deal of content, weak base, large student size and lack of student’s active participation are some of the main reasons why the students are lacking behind in English language in secondary and higher secondary in rural areas compared to urban areas Literature Review The teaching and learning process involves two active participants in the classroom—the teacher and the learner and that language learning not fall entirely on the teacher The students must also assume more responsibility for the learning process (Quest, 2000) It is through interactions with each other that teachers and students work together to create intellectual and practical activities that shape both the form and content of the target subject Furthermore, the English teacher is a figure in the language course Literature indicates clearly that it is the teacher who sets the tone for learning activities (Allen and Valette, 1997, Quest, 2000) Teaching materials are very important in the whole process of teaching and learning to any subject They make learning more pleasant to the students because they offer a reality of experiences, which stimulates self activity and imagination on the part of the students Attitudes refer to the sets of beliefs that the learner holds towards members of the target group and also towards his own culture (Brown, 2000) Language attitude is an important concept because it plays a key role in language learning In education, attitudes are considered both as input and output Motivation is the most used concept for explaining failure or success of a learner Also motivation has been regarded as one of the main factors that influence the speed and amount of success of foreign language learners (Gardener, 2006) It has been seen that passive learning, lack of adequate materials for teaching, motivation of the students and attitudes towards learning keeping the rural area students inefficient in English language compared to urban students Problem statement Bangladesh has a single unified educational system However, it has diversity in the local areas in terms of religion, culture, socio-economic conditions etc As Bangla is spoken by 99% of the people, the practical use of English, especially in the rural areas, has become extremely limited Bangladesh has had a long period of academic attachment to English to the acquisition of English as a second language Against such a background, however, it is generally agreed that the standard of competency of our learners in English is not satisfactory in comparison to the time they expend in learning the language In rural area of Bangladesh it has been seen that most of the students in this areas could not pass their public exam because of the failure in English subject 6.1 Overall objectives of the study a To identify the differences between rural and urban area teaching facilities and system b To find out the reasons behind the incompetency of the students in English subjects regarding the rural area c To find out the teachers and students demand to the government for improving English achievement at the rural areas educational institutions 6.2 Importance of the study The knowledge of English is more critical as well as important in the context of the global marketplace, the knowledge of society and in the age of digital information technology, Dr Mohammad Farashuddin (2011), former Governer of Bangladesh Bank, said ‘ Proficiency in English is a must for the nation to abolish poverty, hunger, disease, illiteracy and indignity This research is aimed at making contributions towards the quality improvements of English education in rural of Bangladesh By clarifying the factors that influence students’ English achievement , this study attempts to suggests a way of how to improve achievement and effective English policy input in rural area of Bangladesh 6.3 Research Questions a What are the factors affecting students’ English achievement at the rural area educational institutions students in Bangladesh? b What is the actual situation of students’ achievement in both rural and urban settings? c Which policy inputs are useful in improving students ‘English achievement’? ALLS 7(3):1-12, 2016 6.4 Theoretical scaffold 6.5 Research Method To get broad information from rural area students’ English achievement, the study primarily relied on first hand evidence, 300 secondary level students, 30 English subject teachers, 50 guardians as well as other documentary evidence To get to know the actual picture of rural area of English achievement at the secondary level, Secondary level schools (three governments and three non-governments) from Shariatpur areas were selected All over Bangladesh schools follow unique educational system, identical curriculums and similar textbooks and so on Moreover, students are sitting the same public examination nationwide Furthermore, academic instructional time and academic year area alike across the territorial control of the country Thus, the study arrived out in this region can be generalized to all other regions to a certain extent The number of students was a total of 300 students The study was conducted by observation meticulously in the classrooms and distributed questionnaires to the stakeholders’, students and English teachers Most of the oral evidence was noted immediately on the spot 6.6 Limitations of the study The research was made in Shariatpur region of Bangladesh, interviewed the stakeholders, handed questionnaires and observed the classrooms, related to the research Most of the work consisted of making note down immediately but did not focus on religious as well as political affairs this area Moreover, as the study was conducted within some chosen schools, the results of the research cannot describe the entire picture of the rural area English education of Bangladesh 6.7 Research Design In this study, the qualitative research design is used to describe the stakeholders in their natural settings 6.8 Study site The study took place in Bangladesh in a rural area, Shariatpur, which stands behind the river Padma, so the communication system in this region is not so good So the students of this region face communication difficulties to go to their educational institution Bangladesh is highly diversified in terms of socio-economic aspects Urban area usually enjoys the comparative advantages in terms of education communication, health care etc compared to rural communities Shariatpur was selected as a representative of a distinctive rural area of Bangladesh and the standard urban facilities are hardly found in this area ALLS 7(3):260-277, 2016 272 In the following verse, Bahār follows Ḥāfiẓ to some degree in denotation and concepts There are also some parallels in rhyme and meter, as in the taḍmīn (insertion of another poet’s hemistich into one’s own poem): Bahār ‫ﻫﺰﺍﺭ ﻧﮑﺘﮥ ﺑﺎﺭﯾﮑﺘﺮ ﺯ ﻣﻮ ﺍﯾﻨﺠﺎﺳﺖ‬ ‫»ﺑﻬﺎﺭ« ﭘﺮﺩﮤ ﻣﻮﯾﯿﻦ ﺣﺠﺎﺏ ﻋﻔﺖ ﻧﯿﺴﺖ‬ (Rastigār, Muntakhab-i shiʽr-i Bahār, 52) “Bahār,” the hair-like veil bears no honor! Here are a thousand points finer than a hair string Ḥāfiẓ ‫ﻧﻪ ﻫﺮ ﮐﻪ ﺳﺮ ﺑﺘﺮﺍﺷﺪ ﻗﻠﻨﺪﺭﯼ ﺩﺍﻧﺪ‬ ‫ﻫﺰﺍﺭ ﻧﮑﺘﻪ ﺑﺎﺭﯾﮑﺘﺮ ﺯ ﻣﻮ ﺍﯾﻨﺠﺎﺳﺖ‬ (Ḥāfiẓ, Dīvān 1320/1941, g 177, v 7) Here are a thousand points finer than a hair: Not everyone who shaves his head becomes a nomadic dervish Bahār ‫ﺳﺮﻧﮕﻮﻧﯽ ﺑﯿﻨﯽ ﺍﺯ ﮔﺮﺩﻥ ﻓﺮﺍﺯﯼ‬ ‫ ﮐﻪ ﻧﺎﮔﻪ‬،‫ﺑﺮﮐﺶ ﺍﺯ ﮔﺮﺩﻥ ﻓﺮﺍﺯﯼ ﺳﺮ‬ (Bahār, Dīvān, 1: 86) Do not pursue arrogance, for sudden Destruction arrives from it! Ḥāfiẓ ‫ﺑﺪﭘﺴﻨﺪﯼ ﺟﺎﻥ ﻣﻦ ﺑﺮﻫﺎﻥ ﻧﺎﺩﺍﻧﯽ ﺑﻮﺩ‬ ‫ﻧﯿﮏ ﻧﺎﻣﯽ ﺧﻮﺍﻫﯽ ﺍﯼ ﺩﻝ ﺑﺎ ﺑﺪﺍﻥ ﺻﺤﺒﺖ ﻣﺪﺍﺭ‬ (Ḥāfiẓ, Dīvān 1362/1984, 1: g 22, v 7) O heart, to seek a good name, beware the companionship of the wicked Approval of malevolent ways, my dear, is proof of ignorance Bahār ‫ﮐﺂﻓﺮﯾﻦ ﺷﻬﺮﯾﺎﺭ ﺍﺯ ﻣﻦ ﺑﮕﺮﺩﺍﻧﺪ ﺑﻼ‬ ‫ﺩﺭ ﺑﻼﯼ ﻋﺸﻖ ﺍﮔﺮ ﻣﺎﻧﺪﻡ ﻧﯿﺎﻧﺪﯾﺸﻢ ﻫﻤﯽ‬ (Bahār, Dīvān, 1: 221) If hopeless in a love affair, I shall not worry, For the Lord shall be my protector Ḥāfiẓ ‫ﻧﺎﮐﺴﻢ ﮔﺮ ﺑﻪ ﺷﮑﺎﯾﺖ ﺳﻮﯼ ﺑﯿﮕﺎﻧﻪ ﺭﻭﻡ‬ ‫ﺁﺷﻨﺎﯾﺎﻥ ﺭﻩ ﻋﺸﻖ ﮔﺮﻡ ﺧﻮﻥ ﺑﺨﻮﺭﻧﺪ‬ (Ḥāfiẓ, Dīvān 1362/1984, 1: g 352, v 4) Were those acquainted with the trail of love to slay my soul, I’d be a despicable person if complaining I approached the stranger Bahār ‫ﺣﻘﻪ ﻭ ﺩﻭﺯ ﻭ ﮐﻠﮏ ﺑﺎﺯ ﺷﯿﻮﻋﯿﺪﻥ ﮐﺮﺩ‬ (Bahār, Dīvān, 1: 241) On the pulpit and in the adytum once again, the clergy began to preach, The deceit and guileful acts once again began to spread Ḥāfiẓ ‫ﺷﯿﺦ ﺩﺭ ﻣﻨﺒﺮ ﻭ ﻣﺤﺮﺍﺏ ﺧﺸﻮﻋﯿﺪﻥ ﮐﺮﺩ‬ ALLS 7(3):260-277, 2016 273 ‫ﺑﻨﯿﺎﺩ ﻣﮑﺮ ﺑﺎ ﻓﻠﮏ ﺣﻘﻪ ﺑﺎﺯ ﮐﺮﺩ‬ ‫ﺻﻮﻓﯽ ﻧﻬﺎﺩ ﺩﺍﻡ ﻭ ﺳﺮ ﺣﻘﻪ ﺑﺎﺯ ﮐﺮﺩ‬ (Ḥāfiẓ, Dīvān 1362/1984, 1: g 129, v 1) The Sufi laid a snare and began to play tricks─ He laid the basis of deceit against the cunning sky! Here, Bahār complains about the unsatisfactory situation, but he attempts to match Ḥāfiẓ’s irony As the literati were held in low regard during his time, he composes the following satirical poem The verses follow Ḥāfiẓ’s poetry in rhyme, but not in meaning The underlined words indicate similarities of rhyme Bahār ‫ﻋﺎﻗﻞ ﻭﺍﻗﻌﯽ ﺁﻥ ﺍﺳﺖ ﮐﻪ ﻣﺎﻟﯽ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ‬ ‫ﻋﺎﻗﻞ ﺁﻥ ﻧﯿﺴﺖ ﮐﻪ ﻓﻀﻠﯽ ﻭ ﮐﻤﺎﻟﯽ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ‬ (Bahār, Dīvān, 1: 314) He who possesses knowledge and wisdom is no sage The true sage is he who has wealth and fortune Ḥāfiẓ ‫ﺑﻨﺪﻩ ﻃﻠﻌﺖ ﺍﻭ ﺑﺎﺵ ﮐﻪ ﺁﻧﯽ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ‬ ‫ﺷﺎﻫﺪ ﺁﻥ ﻧﯿﺴﺖ ﮐﻪ ﻣﻮﺋﯽ ﻭ ﻣﯿﺎﻧﯽ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ‬ (Ḥāfiẓ, Dīvān 1362/1984, 1: g 121, v 1) A beloved is not defined by beauty and allure: Be bonded to the countenance of he who has that special persona Bahār ‫ﺁﺩﻣﯽ ﺷﻮ ﺍﮔﺮﺕ ﻋﻘﻞ ﻋﻘﺎﻟﯽ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ‬ ‫ﻣﺮﺩ ﻋﺎﻗﻞ ﺩﮔﺮ ﻭ ﺁﺩﻡ ﮐﺎﻣﻞ ﺩﮔﺮ ﺍﺳﺖ‬ (Bahār, Dīvān, 1: 315) A wise man differs from a perfect human, You can become a human if your intellect is compelled by wisdom Ḥāfiẓ ‫ﻫﺮ ﮐﺴﯽ ﺑﺮ ﺣﺴﺐ ﻓﻬﻢ ﮔﻤﺎﻧﯽ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ‬ ‫ﺩﺭ ﺭﻩ ﻋﺸﻖ ﻧﺸﺪ ﮐﺲ ﺑﻪ ﯾﻘﯿﻦ ﻣﺤﺮﻡ ﺭﺍﺯ‬ (Ḥāfiẓ, Dīvān 1362/1984, 1: g 121, v 7) On the path of love, no one has become a true confidant to the mystery: Everyone’s vision measures according to their own understanding Bahār ‫ﺑﺮ ﺧﺮ ﺧﻮﺩ ﺳﻮﺍﺭ ﻣﯽ ﺑﯿﻨﻢ‬ ‫ﺗﺎ ﺭﻋﯿﺖ ﺧﺮ ﺍﺳﺖ ﺭﻧﺪﺍﻥ ﺭﺍ‬ (Bahār, Dīvān, 1: 386) For as long as the peasants are asses, I foresee the devious on horseback! Ḥāfiẓ ‫ﻃﻮﻕ ﺯﺭﯾﻦ ﻫﻤﻪ ﺑﺮ ﮔﺮﺩﻥ ﺧﺮ ﻣﯽ ﺑﯿﻨﻢ‬ ‫ﺍﺳﺐ ﺗﺎﺯﯼ ﺷﺪﻩ ﻣﺠﺮﻭﺡ ﺑﻪ ﺯﯾﺮ ﭘﺎﻻﻥ‬ (Although the above verse is widely believed to have been composed by Ḥāfiẓ, it is recorded in neither Khānlarī’s nor Qazvīnī and Ghanī’s edited versions of the Dīvān I am thus doubtful of its composition by the poet) The Arabian stallion has become feeble under the packsaddle, Yet I see golden rings around asses’ necks! Bahār ‫ﮐﺲ ﺍﺯ ﻣﺮﺩﻡ ﻣﺮﺩﻡ ﺁﺯﺍﺭ ﻧﯿﺴﺖ‬ (Bahār, Dīvān, 1: 507) ‫ﻫﻤﺎﻧﺎ ﮔﻨﻪ ﮐﺎﺭ ﺗﺮ ﺩﺭ ﺟﻬﺎﻥ‬ ALLS 7(3):260-277, 2016 274 There is no act more sinful in the world than setting to vex others Ḥāfiẓ ‫ﮐﻪ ﺩﺭ ﻃﺮﯾﻘﺖ ﻣﺎ ﻏﯿﺮ ﺍﺯ ﺍﯾﻦ ﮔﻨﺎﻫﯽ ﻧﯿﺴﺖ‬ ‫ﻣﺒﺎﺵ ﺩﺭ ﭘﯽ ﺁﺯﺍﺭ ﻭ ﻫﺮ ﭼﻪ ﺧﻮﺍﻫﯽ ﮐﻦ‬ (Ḥāfiẓ, Dīvān 1362/1984, 1: g 76, v 7) Do not set to vex others and as you please, For, in our order, there is no greater sin other than this Bahār ‫ﺗﺎ ﺯ ﻓﯿﺾ ﺻﺤﺒﺘﺶ ﺧﺎﻃﺮ ﺑﯿﺎﺳﺎﯾﺪ ﺩﻣﯽ؟‬ ‫ ﮐﻮ ﻫﻤﺪﻣﯽ‬،‫ﺭﻭﺯﮔﺎﺭ ﺁﺷﻔﺘﮕﯽ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ ﺑﻪ ﺳﺮ‬ (Bahār, Dīvān, 2: 685) The world has worrisome plans in mind, where is a companion Whose grace of utterance can comfort the mind and soul? Ḥāfiẓ ‫ﺩﻝ ﺯ ﺗﻨﻬﺎﯾﯽ ﺑﻪ ﺟﺎﻥ ﺁﻣﺪ ﺧﺪﺍﺭﺍ ﻫﻤﺪﻣﯽ‬ ‫ﺳﯿﻨﻪ ﻣﺎﻻﻣﺎﻝ ﺩﺭﺩ ﺍﺳﺖ ﺍﯼ ﺩﺭﯾﻐﺎ ﻣﺮﻫﻤﯽ‬ (Ḥāfiẓ, Dīvān 1362/1984, 2: g 461, v 1) The bosom is filled to the brim with pain Alas for a calming liniment! Because of loneliness, the heart’s at the end of its tether For God’s sake, a companion! Bahār’s discussion of the principles of neoclassical poetry appears in a two-volume anthology of his works titled Bahār va adab-i Fārsī In it, while speaking about the Indian style during the Ṣafavid period, Bahār emphasizes that many poets of the post-Ṣafavid period emulated the old masters of poetry, such as Rumi, Saʽdī, and Ḥāfiẓ (Gulbun 1:54–55) Bahār acknowledged Ḥāfiẓ as a master poet whose unique and preeminent style has had a profound impact on the general public of Iran as well as on scholars and specialists Bahār refers to him as a genius, a miracle in the world of poetry, and adds that Ḥāfiẓ was a mystic and a spiritual man (Gulbun 1:158) Bahār was a political activist who could have enjoyed a comfortable life and a prestigious position; instead he chose a humble life, in keeping with his ethical beliefs (Ᾱryānpūr 2:328) The following verse clearly indicates his financial standing and the standards by which he lived: Bahār ‫ﺍﺯ ﭘﺲ ﻣﺮﮒ ﻋﺠﺐ ﺟﺎﻩ ﻭ ﺟﻼﻟﯽ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ‬ ‫ ﻭﻟﯽ‬،‫ﺷﺎﻋﺮ ﺯﻧﺪﻩ ﻓﻘﯿﺮ ﺍﺳﺖ ﻭ ﺗﻬﯽ ﺩﺳﺖ‬ (Bahār, Dīvān, 1: 315) The poet, while alive, remains poor and needy; but Wonderful grandeur and glory awaits him after he’s gone! According to Rastigār, another contemporary Iranian scholar, Bahār spent the better part of his life defending his people against tyranny and hypocrisy; many examples of his love of freedom and disapproval of prejudice appear in his poetry (Rastigār, 14) This conduct brings to mind Ḥāfiẓ’s philosophy, which Bahār had admired from the age of fifteen Bahār sincerely believed that he was one of the best poets Iran had witnessed since Ḥāfiẓ and Saʽdī, as he states in the following verse: Bahār ‫ﺍﯾﺮﺍﻥ ﺑﻮﺩ‬ ‫ﺑﻮﺩ‬ ‫ﮐﯿﻮﺍﻥ‬ ‫ﻣﺮﺩﻡ‬ ‫ﺗﺎﺭﮎ‬ ‫ﺯﺑﺎﻥ‬ ‫ﺑﺮ‬ ‫ﻭﯾﻦ ﺳﺨﻦ ﻭﺭﺩ‬ ‫ﺍﯾﻮﺍﻧﺸﺎﻥ‬ ‫ﭘﺎﯾﻪ‬ ‫ﮔﺮ "ﺍﻣﺎﻣﯽ" ﮔﺮ "ﻫﻤﺎﻡ" ﺍﺭ "ﺳﯿﻒ" ﮔﺮ "ﺳﻠﻤﺎﻥ" ﺑﻮﺩ‬ (Bahār, Dīvān, 1: 468) It has been seven hundred years since Iran witnessed a poet like me This statement will be chanted by the people of Iran ‫ﻫﻔﺖ ﺻﺪ ﺳﺎﻝ ﺍﺳﺖ ﮐﺎﯾﺮﺍﻥ ﺷﺎﻋﺮﯼ ﭼﻮﻥ ﻣﻦ ﻧﺪﯾﺪ‬ ‫ﺍﺯ ﭘﺲ ﺳﻌﺪﯼ ﻭ ﺣﺎﻓﻆ ﮐﺎﺯ ﺟﻼﻝ ﻣﻌﻨﻮﯼ‬ ‫ﺑﻬﺎﺭ‬ ‫ﺷﺎﮔﺮﺩ‬ ‫ﺩﮔﺮ ﻫﺴﺘﻨﺪ‬ ‫ﺁﻥ ﺍﺳﺎﺗﯿﺪ‬ ALLS 7(3):260-277, 2016 275 Since Saʽdī and Ḥāfiẓ, whose spiritual glory Places their very foundation in the heavens, The other masters, such as “Imāmī,” “Humām,” “Sayf,” or “Salmān,” Are all students of Bahār Conclusion One finds originality and novelty in Bahār’s work, the beauty of his language is also remarkable It is probably because his poetry is somewhat influenced by Ḥāfiẓ’s thought and philosophy.The poets and philosophers since the declining era of the Indian style of poetry emerging during the 15th Century, who remained in Persia and flourished there, writers like Ṣā’ib, Fighānī, and Jāmī, owed much of their success to Ḥāfiẓ For Ḥāfiẓ had set such high standards in Persian poetry, especially for the ghazal, that anyone who came close to meeting these standards inevitably became illustrious As we have seen, Bahār pursued Ḥāfiẓ’s example to such an extent that anyone familiar with Ḥāfiẓ’s poetry could realize his influence on Bahār’s writing This paper aims to demonstrate that most poets who achieved renown after Ḥāfiẓ took inspiration from him Refrences Aḥmad, N (Summer 1367/1988) Naẓarī dar Dīvān-i Ḥāfiẓ Iran Nameh, 2(1), 126–40 Anvari, H (1381/2002) Farhang-i buzurg-i sukhan Tehran: Sukhan Arberry, A J (1958) Classical Persian Literature London: George Allen & Unwin Āryānpūr, Y (1372/1952) Az ṣabā tā nimā: tārikh-i 150 sāl adab-i fārsī (Vol 2) Tehran: Zavvār Āshtīyānī, S J (1377/1998) shiʽr va andisha Tehran: nashr-i markaz Āshūrī, D (1382/2003) ʽirfān va rindī dar shiʽr-i Ḥāfiẓ Tehran: nashr-i markaz Avery, P (2010) Ḥāfiẓ of Shīrāz In L Lewisohn, & L Lewisohn (Ed.), Hafiz and the Religion of Love in Classical Persian Poetry London: I B Tauris ʽArif (1381/2002) Dīvān-i ʿᾹrif Qazvīnī (Sipanlu, Ed.) 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(1977) Theory of Literature New York: Harcourt Brace Janovich Yarshater, E (1988) Persian Literature In E Yarshater (Ed.), Columbia Lectures on Iranian Studies New York: Bibliotheca Persica/Persian Heritage Foundation Zarrinkūb, ʽ Ḥ (1349/1971) az kūcha-yi rindān Tehran: kitābhā-i jibī ― (1363/1984) sayrī dar shiʽr-i fārsī Tehran: intishārāt-i Nuvīn 0000 Advances in Language and Literary Studies ISSN: 2203-4714 Vol No 3; June 2016 Australian International Academic Centre, Australia Flourishing Creativity & Literacy Levels of Code Switching on EFL Student’s Daily Language; Study of Language Production Zainuddin English and Language Literature Department, Faculty of Languages and Arts, Universitas Negeri Medan, Indonesia E-mail: zainuddin.gayo52@yahoo.com Doi:10.7575/aiac.alls.v.7n.3p.278 Received: 24/02/2016 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.alls.v.7n.3p.278 Accepted: 14/04/2016 Abstract This study is aimed at describing the levels of code switching on EFL students’ daily conversation The topic is chosen due to the facts that code switching phenomenon are commonly found in daily speech of Indonesian community such as in teenager talks, television serial dialogues and mass media Therefore, qualitative data were collected by using diary notes and semi structure interview techniques As the results, there were 15 examples of the code switching collected from the students’ daily conversations, and there were reasons why the students tend to switch codes In conclusion, by using the general linguistics form, the students produced three levels of linguistics structure in code switching namely word level, phrase level and sentence (clause) level Keyword: Code Switching, Language Production and EFL Students Introduction 1.1 Background of the Study Nowadays, bilingual or multilingual cannot be avoided in daily language especially in youth daily language It is called code switching Code switching (CS) has become an interesting phenomenon to be studied particularly in the study of second language learning because it is one of the major aspects of bilingual developmental process Generally, code switching can occur because of two reasons: first, the speaker’s deficiency in the target language Second, it is because of some multiple communicative purposes (Gysels cited in Duran, 1994) Furthermore, code switching is seen as having certain function in the communication done by bilinguals or multilingual Duran (1994), for example, states that code switching is firmly connected to bilingual Other scholars say that code switching is also a psycholinguistic development result in a bilingual’s conversation Among them, Heredia and Brown (http://www.tamiu.edu) said that people who know more than one language naturally produce code switching Crystal (1987) asserted that code switching occurs when two persons alternate two languages in their conversations It means that a person who knows more than one language makes a conversation with another person who knows more than one language too but those languages are same languages This includes those who randomly use a second language in daily language, or those who have considerable skill in a foreign language Therefore, This code switching commonly occurs among bilinguals, who switch words, phrases or/and sentences from other languages Berthold, Mangubhai and Bartorowicz (1997) found that code switching appears when speakers change from one language to another language in speech or conversations An example of code switching from Indonesian language to English language “kamu handsome bangat sih” meaning “you are really handsome” The speakers switch the word “handsome” to replace Indonesian word “tampan” in the conversation Furthermore, Cook (1991) describes three linguistic level of code switching: word, phrase, and sentence (clause) levels This level of the language would be used to identify the language level produced by the EFL students in Universitas Negeri Medan Beside that, there are a number of possible reasons why switching from one language to another occurs The first, a speaker may not be able to express him/herself in one language so switching to the other language to compensate for the deficiency As a result, the speaker may be triggered into speaking in the other language for a while The second, switching commonly occurs when an individual wishes to express solidarity with a particular social group (Crystal 1987) English is a foreign language for the students in English Language and Literature Department Universitas Negeri Medan Indonesia They use English for international communication and for Learning purpose Since English is the language that they have to master, they have practiced English in their daily conversation In natural conversation, they tend to use Indonesian language but they commonly switch English in the conversation This is a common thing for the person who knows Indonesian language and English This is something unique to be known in what extend they switch English in their conversation and the reasons in using code switching in the conversation ALLS 7(3):278-281, 2016 279 1.2 Research Problem EFL students in Universitas Negeri Medan tended to switch codes in their daily conversation particularly switch English in their Indonesian language conversations This code switching is really common among the students in UNIMED Even though actually, this phenomenon is good for the students to improve their English but the exact reasons and the level of code switching are crucially needed to be known Therefore, this research would focus on finding the level of the code switching and the reasons why the students tend to switch codes 1.3 Research Questions According to background of study and research problem, the research questions are formulated as follows: 1) What are the levels of code switching on EFL learners daily conversation in English Language and Literature Department Universitas Negeri Medan Indonesia? 2) What are the reasons of the learners in switching codes on their daily conversation? Literature Review Basically, code switching is a particular feature of bilinguals, which is related to situation where bilingual persons alternate between languages or within utterance (Greer, 2007) Moreover, Codes are usually in the varieties of language, which is used by members of a language community For monolinguals, codes are the varieties of a language or the same language But for bilingual or multilingual, the codes might include the varieties of two languages Language has some classes of variety and they are different in each language such as dialect, speech level, and style But for this research, the writer tends to be more concerned on linguistics level in the code switching Code switching (CS) is commonly used as an alterative language in conversational event The term was first employed to refer to the coexistence of more than one structural system in the speech of one individual Jakobson, Fant, and Halle (1952) who use "code" in the abstract information theoretical sense In later writings, "code" has come a synonym of "language" or "speech variety" Recent research on CS falls within two distinct traditions: the syntactic, providing insights into the linguistic principles that underline the form that CS takes; and the pragmatic that relates linguistic form to function in everyday discourse To eliminate the problem, the paper focuses on the linguistic level: word, phrase, and sentence (clause) levels and reasons of code switching habits Code switching normally occurs in informal speech or colloquial speech, which is the type of speech used in everyday, informal situations when the speaker is not paying particular attention to pronunciation, choice of words or sentence structure (Richard, 1985) Educated native speakers or language naturally use colloquial speech in formal situation with friends, fellow workers, and members of the family Formal speech is a type of speech when the speaker is very careful about pronunciation and choice of words and sentence structure (Richard, 1985) This type of speech may be used, for example, at official functions, and in debates and ceremonies Specifically, there are three types of the code switching habits The first is inter-sentential code switching, which occurs between utterances said by the same speakers The second is intra-sentential which takes place within a sentence The third is supra-sentential or unitary-code switching, which occurs when speaker switches a single item of the utterance (Milroy & Myusken, 1995) Furthermore, Becker (1997) separates the factors that make bilingual speakers switch codes in to three types: structural linguistics factors, internal psycholinguistics factors, and external social factors Specifically, Zentella (as cited in Becker, 1997) elaborates that structural linguistics factors are attached in the language structure and in individual language knowledge It means that bilingual speakers have the ability to keep the grammatical coherence of the both languages at the same time Then, the internal psycholinguistics factors are separated in to two kinds: 1) unconscious factors, which contain a brief inclination, exposure frequency, and cultural untranslatability; and 2) conscious factors, which consist of an intention for emphasis, mode, controlling address, personalization, objectification And last is an external and social nature such as participants, topic, setting and conditions Purposely, this research focuses on the second type of code switching habits It means that the study is willing to find out the linguistics levels (word, phrase, and sentence), which take place in the sentence within the conversation Then, determine the students’ reasons in switching codes whether it belongs to the first, the second, or the third factors mentioned by Becker (1997) Methodology 3.1 Subjects of the Study The subjects of this study were the EFL students in English Language and Literature Department, Universitas Negeri Medan Indonesia The number of the students in this department was 840 students The range of the ages is 17 to 23 years old 3.2 Data Collection and Analysis Techniques The data collected were qualitative data The techniques used of collecting data were diary notes and semi-structured interview The data code-switching data were collected from the daily conversation of the students And the semistructured interview was used to get the reason why the students were using code switching on their conversations Levels of the linguistics structure in their sentence were analyzed by using the theory of words form (word, phrase, and ALLS 7(3):278-281, 2016 280 clause/sentence) in English Language (Meyer, 2009) Thus, the code switching in the conversation would be categorized in to three levels, which are words, phrases and clauses/sentences Then, it would be calculated which level the students used most in their conversation Data Analysis 4.1 Code Switching Expressions and the Levels of Linguistic Structure Here are 15 expressions chosen as the data collection Here are the examples of expression considered code switching from students in English Language and Literature Department, Universitas Negeri Medan “Hang out yok!”, “Kita lagi on line lah”, “ Maaf ya komputer aku lagi error”, “Wah, kayaknya dia lagi offline”, “Boleh tahu nggak e-mail kamu?”, “Love you bangat”, “Miss you bangat.”, “Kamu bisa call aku anytime”, Aku belom save tuh nomor kamu yang baru, 10 “Kayaknya dia jealous deh, sama kau.”, 11 “Hey, Ini Randy kenalan yok! I think you are cute bangat”, 12 “ I juga bilang kalau you emang ada talent”, 13 “Aku bingung dan I don’t know what I have to do”, 14 “You tahu kan kalo I tidak suka sama you”, 15 “Coba isi saja application form itu ya!”, 4.1.1 Analyzing Code Switching (CS) Expressions and Linguistic Level a Code Switching in Word Level “You tahu kan kalo I tidak suka sama you” Table Code Switching in Word Level CS Indonesian expression CS Indonesian expression CS I juga bilang kalau you ada talent The linguistics level of the above example lies on word level The speaker just change the Indonesian word of saya into I and kamu into you The linguistic analysis is by changing the subject and object Then, they change the word bakal into talent Thus, I, you, and talent belong to words in English Linguistics (Meyer, 2009) “I” is a pronoun and the function is as a subject, while “you” is a pronoun too but can be as a subject or object in a sentence Then, “talent” is a noun b Code Switching in Phrase Level Coba isi saja application form itu!”, Table Code Switching in Phrase Level Indonesian expression Indonesian expression Indonesian expression English Expression Indonesian Expression isi saja Application form itu coba The Code Switching comes in when the phrase “Formulir pendaftaran” becomes “Application Form” which contains two words: Application and Form According to Meyer (2009) this expression is phrase level in English Linguistics c Code Switching in Sentence Level “Aku tuh bingung dan I really don’t know what I have to do” S adv V Obj (noun clause as object) ALLS 7(3):278-281, 2016 281 Table Code Switching in Sentence Level Indonesian expression Aku tuh bingung CS I really don’t know what I have to The linguistic level of the above expression is on sentence level The code switching of the Indonesia expression “saya ngak tahu lagi apa yang harus kulakukan” rendered into I really don’t know what I have to The linguistic level categorized as sentence is that the expression occurs in sentence type The part of speech of the expression is I (subject), really (adverb), don’t know (verb), and what I have to (noun clause as object) (Meyer, 2009) In accordance with the levels of the code switching produced by the EFL learners in English Language and Literature Department Universitas Negeri Medan Indonesia, it can declared that the students have already reached the three level of the English linguistics which are words, phrases, and clause (sentence) levels 4.2 Reasons for Switching Codes Data from interview to 15 students in English and literature Department State University of Medan reveals that most of code switching occurs in certain situation These students said in the interview that they use English because they did not know the Indonesian equivalence such as e-mail, online, offlline and etc Some thought that the use of Indoglish makes the conversation more prestigious like application form And others said that they switched code in order to adapt with the situation Also, there is the influence of the specific intentions or purposes of the bilingual or multilingual to use the expressions in their communication performance It means that the reasons of switching codes in students daily conversation English Language and Literature Department Universitas Negeri Medan fall more in to the second and the third factors, which are internal psycholinguistics factors and external social factors respectively Conclusion Throughout the research, the phenomenon of the code switching is presented to their usages in bilingual and multilingual community It can be concluded that, the code switching occurred in the word, phrase and sentence levels The reasons of using those expressions are mostly influenced by situation and not knowing the Indonesian language preference Therefore, from this research there are two contrasted things will be happened First, the English of the students is naturally appeared Thus, the aim of implicitly acquiring English has been appeared Second, the defense of national language (Indonesian language) has been defaced 5.1 Limitation of the Study and Recommendation Actually, this study is a simple study and of course there is limitation on this study This study actually is only focusing on the levels of the code switching and reasons why the learners switch code Moreover, the participants were only the students from English Language and Literature Department Universitas Negeri Medan Then, the analysis of the code switching is only about the linguistics level of the code And the researcher only used the diary notes and semistructured interview only collecting the data Therefore, there are some of the recommendations to the future researchers First, the next researchers are expected to the code switching study on more particular and specific analysis such as semantic, syntactic, morphology, and pragmatic aspects in code switching Second, the next researchers can the research on the advantages and disadvantages of the code switching in social life or classroom usage Third, the future researches are expected to the research in bigger number of the participants, use the variety techniques of collecting data and analysis References Becker, K (1997) Spanish/English bilingual code switching: A syncretic model Bilingual Review, 22(1), 1-36 Berthold, M., Mangubhai, F., and Batonwicz, K (1997) Bilingual & Multilingualism: Study Book Distance Education Centre Toowoomba: University of Southern Queensland Cook, V (1991) Second Language Learning and Language Teaching Melbourne: Hodder Headline group Crystal, D (1987) The Cambridge Encyclopedia of language Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Duran, L (1994) Toward a Better Understanding of Code Switching and Interlanguage in Bilinguality: Implication for Bilingual Instruction In http://www.ncela.gwu.edu Retrieved: Oct 4th, 2007 Greer, T (2007) Accomplishing identity in bilingual interaction: Code switching practices among a group of multiethnic Japanese teenagers Unpublished Ph.D University of Southern Queensland Australia Meyer, C F (2009) Introducing English Linguistics New York: Cambridge University Press Milroy, L., & Muysken, P (1995) One speaker, two languages cross-disciplinary perspectives on code switching New York: Cambridge University Press Richard, K (1985) Principle of Particle Construction In Jacqueline Gueron, Hans-Georg Obenauer, and Jean-Yues Pollock, eds., Grammatical Representation Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Foris Publications 0000 Advances in Language and Literary Studies ISSN: 2203-4714 Vol No 3; June 2016 Flourishing Creativity & Literacy Australian International Academic Centre, Australia Review of A Dictionary of Global Huayu1 Rui Li College of Chinese Language and Culture, Jinan University, China E-mail: ruirui-880721@163.com Doi:10.7575/aiac.alls.v.7n.3p.282 Received: 03/02/2016 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.alls.v.7n.3p.282 Accepted: 15/04/2016 This paper has been sponsored by Jinan University Abstract Abstract: As the first Huayu dictionary published by the Commercial Press, A Dictionary of Global Huayu (Chinese Language) did a pioneer work in many aspects It did expand the influence of Chinese and provided Chinese speaker abroad a valuable reference book for study and communication Nevertheless, there are still some demerits First of all, the amount of entries is less enough and balanced; the definitions are less accurate; the Chinese context is not adequately taken into consideration; and compared with written form, the spoken form is not paid enough attention Keywords: A Dictionary of Global Huayu, Huayu dictionary, review Introduction A Dictionary of Global Huayu (Chinese Language) is the first Huayu dictionary in the world which records varieties of Chinese language in different countries and regions in China Nowadays Chinese is not only the China’s language, but also a language used all over the world Differences between Huayu and Chinese are no longer sheer divergences of linguistic terminology (Guo 2006) According to Guo (2004), Huayu is the common language of ethnic Chinese by the standard of Putonghua (Mandarin) Huayu is distributed in mainland, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Macao, Singapore, Malaysia, Thailand, Indonesia, Vietnam, Brunei, the Philippines, Cambodia, Laos, Burma, etc Huayu not only includes the varieties of Putonghua, but also the varieties of Chinese dialects such as Cantonese, Min dialect A Dictionary of Global Huayu (Chinese Language) has been published both in China and Singapore The honorary consultants are respectively Lee Kuan Yew, the former Prime Minister of Singapore, and Li Ruihuan of the former member of the Standing Committee of the Political Bureau of the CPC Central Committee There are 12 universities and institutes participating in compiling and over 30 compilers coming from China, Singapore and Malaysia, etc A Dictionary of Global Huayu (DGH in brief) follows the descriptivism and mainly records the featured and distinctive words and senses (Preface) The aims of compiling DGH are on the one hand, promoting communication, enhancing mutual understanding (Yu 2010), and strengthening the unity between ethnic Chinese; on the other hand, speeding up the pace of convergence of words, and facilitating the Chinese language learners (Preface) Outside matter DGH that published by the Commercial Press is covered by yellow hardcover (Singapore version by blue softcover) DGH contains 36 pages of front matter, including the title page, copyright notice, preface, guide for dictionary use, table of contents, and two methods of index based on phonetics and strokes (22 pages) It also contains 12 pages of back matter, appendix, including the Chinese Phonetic Alphabet in the Pinyin system, the comparison of distinctions of graphic in same Chinese characters, the comparison of distinctions on names of same countries and capitals in the Huayu circle Word collection DGH has two wordlists, of which the main one includes 10110 words (counted by the author) Another wordlist covers the 162 words begun with a letter or number, which are divided into seven types They are abbreviations such as DINK (the abbreviation of dual income no kids), letter words such as QQ (a corresponding software in the Internet), the combinations of letters and characters such as band 仔 (the member of the band), the combinations of letters and numbers such as BIG5 (a standard of Chinese character encoding), the combinations of numbers and characters such as 916 金 (22 karat gold) and the combinations of numbers and letters such as 3T (a term of horse racing) The including of letter words in Chinese dictionaries is recently a widely controversial issue in China, which we will not mention the details According to the guide, the words included in DGH have been used by ethnic Chinese communities all over the world since 1980s The Chinese communities here refer to communities in China (mainland, Hong Kong, Macao, Taiwan) and in Southeast Asia (Singapore, Malaysia, Thailand, Indonesia), and in other countries (Japan, Australia, American, ALLS 7(3):282-286, 2016 283 Canada, etc.) Most included words are specialties of certain regions and countries, but a few of them are common words shared by all ethnic Chinese such as 家庭影院 (home theater) Generally speaking, DGH keeps a good balance in words collection among countries and regions, according to my rough statistics Among the over 10000 included words, more than 1400 words are generic words used by all Chinese communities around the world; over 5000 words are used in the mainland (all including the generic words below); and more than 4200 words are all used in Hong Kong (about 4270 words) and Macao (about 4265 words); and more than 3350 words in Taiwan There are also more than 1800 words all used in Singapore, Malaysia and Thailand The dictionary even contains 45 words used in Chinese communities in Japan and 11 words in Canada Article Compared with A Dictionary of Contemporary Chinese (the most authoritative monolingual Chinese dictionary in China, DCC in brief), which applies characters as headwords; DGH uses words (containing one to five characters, even letters and numbers) as headwords The headwords have been presented in both simplified Chinese characters (bolded) and traditional Chinese characters with a slash between them, such as 白鸽笼/白鴿籠 The mainland mainly uses the simplified Chinese characters, Singapore and Malaysia as well; while Kong Hong, Macao and Taiwan uses the traditional Chinese characters The dictionary offers phonetic information by Pinyin (Chinese Phonetic Alphabet), based on the pronunciation of Putonghua As same as DCC, the dictionary only supplies the original tones of the characters without considering the tone sandhi, and the retroflex suffixation will be presented by adding “r” behind But, for certain characters, which could be spoken in retroflex suffixation alternatively, the “r” will not be added in the dictionary; as a result of that retroflex suffixation is only common in Mandarin The dictionary offers parts of speech in abbreviations For example, “形” is short for “形容词” (adjective) The definitions given in the dictionary are clear and simple in standard Mandarin The definitions could be equivalents in Mandarin such as 乃, 先生 (Nai, sir), and explanations in words, phrases or sentences As for terms, encyclopedic information is offered in details For example, 【派位】指电脑派位 教育部门用电子计算机随机抽取号码的方式, 将小学升初中的学生分配到本学区的某一学校就读 (【Aided Allocation】refers to Computer Aided Allocation The Department of Education uses the computer to randomly allocate in schooling, i.e the entering to a certain junior middle school from primary school in certain areas) To save the space, the dictionary uses internal references instead of definitions to the words whose full-equivalents have been already included with definitions For example, 【纳骨塔 /納骨塔】义同“灵骨塔”(见 539 页) (【naguta】 has the same meaning of “lingguta”, see page 539) The dictionary provides etymological information to most of articles, which are not used in mainland The etymological information given behind definitions is related to the whole headword such as【乃】 泰语音译 (【Nai】is the transliteration from Thai), or part of the headword, such as【牛记/牛記】记: 粤方言后缀 (【niuji】, ji: a suffix in Cantonese) Some of the articles label the style, such as 【牛气/牛氣】多用于口语 (【niuqi】Being inclined to colloquial language) The dictionary also introduces metaphor meanings of the words, for example, 牛肉干/牛肉乾, 喻 指交通违章罚款通知书。含诙谐意。因港澳常吃的牛肉干是片状棕红色的那种，而交警开的罚单是棕红色长方 形的，远看酷似牛肉干，故称。(beef jerky, refers to the traffic violation penalty notice in metaphor, with a sense of humor The beef jerky in Hong Kong and Macao is flakes in brownish red, which is similar to rectangle penalty notice delivered by the police.) The dictionary also shares large space for illustrative examples for different senses of words, including phrasal and sentential examples The phrasal examples are typical uses of the headwords to some extent, while the sentential examples create the complete context In fact, almost half of sentential examples are long sentences, presenting better context for the individual words For example, 仪队/儀隊 (honor guard) has two senses, each of which has one illustrative example as follows 【仪队/儀隊】…[例]日本首相在机场第二贵宾大厦前检阅了由新加坡武装部队突击队和宪兵单位人员 组成的~｜在校庆仪式后，表演活动随即展开，有~、啦啦队的演出，成员个个服装亮丽，吸引众人的 目光。(【honor guard】…[example]Prime Minister of Japan inspected the guard of honor composed of the commandos of the Singapore Armed forces and gendarmerie units in front of the second airport VIP mansion ｜After the school anniversary ceremony, the performance starts immediately including the performance of the guard of honor and cheerleaders with beautiful costumes, caught everyone’s eyes.) I have counted the illustrative examples of the articles that phonetically begin with the letter “A” in DGH, in comparison with the monolingual DCC DGH includes 120 articles that phonetically start with the letter “A” The 120 articles in DGH have 133 senses in all; while the corresponding articles in DCC (5th edition) have 346 senses and in DCC (6th edition) 356 senses (see below) DGH DCC (5th edition) DCC (6th edition) Senses 133 346 356 Illustrative examples 226 554 575 1.67 1.60 1.62 Average number of examples for each sense illustrative ALLS 7(3):282-286, 2016 284 From letter A section, 1.67 illustrative examples have been given for each sense in average in DGH, keeping a very good balance with CDD (5th and 6th edition) As we mentioned, the definitions are given in standard and simplified Mandarin However, the illustrative examples are given in featured and local Huayu to create more authentic context for the words For example, 【开台/開檯】港澳酒 楼的晚宴往往未食饭就先～打麻将 (【kaitai】to set the table for meals or playing Mahjong During the banquets in the restaurants of Hong Kong and Macao, people usually set the tables for playing Mahjong before eating.) In this sentence, “未食饭” is typically used in Hong Kong, Macao and Taiwan, rather than in mainland The dictionary labels the region of usage after examples The labeled regions include mainland, Hong Kong, Macao, Taiwan, Singapore, Malaysia, Thailand, Indonesia, Vietnam, Brunei, Japan, Canada, America, the Philippines, Cambodia, Laos, Burma, and so on As to the universal words, they will be labeled as “all regions” Some words could be used in different regions in different meanings, which will also labeled in details Most of the labels are used in abbreviations unless the words are only used in one region For example, “印尼” is short for “印度尼西亚” (Indonesia); “新” is short for “新加坡” (Singapore) The dictionary provides the variant forms of the headword labeled by regions of usage Lastly, there are information boxes containing background knowledge, detailed introductions, quotations, etymological information, etc for the words, esp for terms and culture words Criticisms As the first Huayu dictionary, DGH has done a good job in many aspects However, there is still space for improvement First of all, the words collection is less comprehensive on one hand; on the other hand, some included words are still in question As I have counted, the dictionary covers 10110 articles, of which 1400 words are generic words, and over 5000 are used in mainland So it is inevitable that the collection is less comprehensive, except for the words used in China For example, 长屋/長屋 (Changwu) is a distinctive Huayu words in Malaysia which is neglected to include Changwu (long house) is a kind of traditional house in Malaysia, which is built along the river, about 10 to 100 meters long Sin Chew Daily has reported a piece of news about Changwu (see http://news.sinchew.com.my/node/368990) in June, 2014 “身家” (shenjia) in Malaysia refers to the assets who possesses Meanwhile, “身家” in Mandarin used to be family background or somebody with his family, but contemporarily means the assets who possesses as well So “身家” as a featured and distinctive word should have been included, labeled the original and contemporary meanings with use areas (but not, unfortunately) As I counted, 1800 words used in Singapore have been included (of which 1400 words are used in common Huayu circle), which means only less than 400 words are included as the distinctive words used in Singapore But as Zhou said, there are thousands of words in Singapore that are different from Mandarin As a descriptive global Huayu dictionary, it is necessary to collect the distinctive words comprehensively Meanwhile, over 5000 Mandarin words have been included, occupying half of the dictionary space But some of them are not necessary to include, such as rarely used words and indistinctive words For example, 城徽 (chenghui, the symbol of city) in DGH is labeled as “used in mainland”, but it is a rare word in Chinese Chenghui (城徽) hasn't been included by DCC Besides, from the large Chinese corpus “语料库在线” (http://www.cncorpus.org/index.aspx), which contains nearly twenty million tokens (i.e characters, letters, etc.), the word “城徽” is also not collected at all Another example for unnecessary collection is 创意 /創意 (chuangyi, originality) “Chuangyi” in DGH is labeled as “using in all regions”, so it is commonly used in Huayu circle It is indeed a very common and indistinctive word in Mandarin, which is not a featured word fit for words collection in DGH In addition, the collection should also pay attention to the balance of counterpart words For example, the dictionary has included “老妈子/老媽子” (old mother) but neglected the counterpart “老爷子/老爺子” (old father) Second, the dictionary provides Pinyin as phonetic information, only based on the pronunciations of Putonghua, rather than the authentic pronunciations From this aspect, the dictionary could only help users in written language, rather than oral communication Thus, from my point of view, two pronunciations should be both provided Third, the dictionary neglects certain senses of words, such as 牛肉干/牛肉乾(beef jerky) 【牛肉干/牛肉乾】niúròugān [名] 喻指交通违章罚款通知书。含诙谐意。因港澳常吃的牛肉干是片状 棕红色的那种，而交警开的罚单是棕红色长方形的，远看酷似牛肉干，故称。[例]… 使用地区 港澳、 台湾 (【beef jerky】niúròugān, [n.] refers to the traffic violation penalty notice in metaphor, with a sense of humor The beef jerky in Hong Kong and Macao is flakes in brownish red, which is similar to rectangle penalty notice delivered by the police [example]… Use areas: Hong Kong, Macao, Taiwan) The beef jerky used in mainland is a popular kind of snack, shaped in flakes in brownish red made by beef But the dictionary neglected to include the commonest sense and use of regions The same problems happen to 沙龙/沙龍 (shalong, a kind of skirt) The dictionary has missed the sense of 沙龙/沙龍(as salon) , a very common sense used in mainland The definitions given by the dictionary should be simple, and most importantly, accurate A few of definitions are ambiguous (examples will be added, which I have found before) Besides, there are also a few inaccurate definitions For example, 峇峇 (baba, ethnic Chinese) in DGH is explained as follows 【峇峇】在东南亚当地出生的男性华人。他们已经不大会说华语，以讲英语或马来语为主，但仍保留 华人的习俗。马来语音译。[例]除了少数用方言的，大部分~对中华文化、中国文字已经不太了解。 ALLS 7(3):282-286, 2016 285 使用地区 新马泰印尼文莱 (【baba】The ethnic male Chinese born in Southeast Asia They could hardly speak Huayu, instead, they mainly speak English or Malay But they have preserved the custom and tradition of Chinese It is the transliteration from Malay [example]… Use areas: Singapore, Malaysia, Thailand, Brunei, Indonesia) In fact, according to Huang (2003:10-11), “baba” has two senses, broad and narrow senses In the narrow sense, “baba” refers to the male ethnic Chinese born in Southeast Asia; and it has the counterpart called Nyonya (娘惹), the female But in the broad sense, “baba” contains male and female both, referring to all ethnic Chinese born in Southeast Asia Besides, when “baba” is used in compounds, it usually refers to the broad sense, such as 峇峇华人 (baba ethnic Chinese), 峇峇人(baba Chinese), 峇峇文化(baba culture), 峇峇社会(baba society), 峇峇语(baba Malay) So the two senses of “baba” should not be neglected and the use of “baba” in compounds should be taken into consideration in illustrative examples Chinese language is strongly dependent on context, so the illustrative examples, which provide context to individual words, are necessary and important The dictionary has done a good work in illustrative examples It offers both phrasal and (long) sentential examples in featured and local Huayu, rather than in Mandarin, which provides more authentic context for individual words But not all the illustrative examples are in high quality For example, 烂尾房 refers to the unfinished building or house due to lack of money, etc In DGH, the example is given as follows 【烂尾房】[例]日本~致华人受害，侨民购房需慎重。使用地区 大陆 (【unfinished building】[example] The Japanese ~ hurts the ethnic Chinese, so Chinese people should buy houses in discretion Use of area: mainland) “房”(house) is commonly used in all Huayu regions, and “烂尾房” is only used in mainland But literally speaking, “烂 尾房” means “worn-out tailed house” In the sentence, “致…受害”(make … get hurt) mainly means getting serious hurt, or getting killed, not only mentally, but physically In DCC, “受害”(get hurt) is explained as “遭到损害或杀害” (get hurt or killed) And because of some historical reasons, to mention the hurt that Japanese caused, some very bad behaviors might come to mind for Asian So this sentence delivers vague context, and dictionary users may misunderstand it as that “the worn-out Japanese building collapses and hurts the ethnic Chinese, so Chinese people should buy houses in discretion” Therefore, the illustrative examples are very important for making context, but vague context should be avoided The illustrative examples should provide complete context for individual words; otherwise, they are useless For example, “美得冒泡” means very beautiful but it is usually used in satire 【美得冒泡】[形] 很美丽, 漂亮极了 含戏谑或讥讽意 [例] 某甲: “我今天打扮得漂亮吗?” 某乙: “嗯, ~ ” ｜这女孩自以为~, 同学们都受不了了 使用地区: 台湾 (【beautiful as bubbles】[adj.] very beautiful, awesomely beautiful It has the bantering or satirical meaning [example] A: Do I dress up beautiful today? B: Yes, very beautiful ｜ The classmates can’t stand the girl who believe herself awesomely beautiful Use of area: Taiwan) The second example is a good one, which provides a context for the satirical meaning of the word But the first one provides very vague context to some extent From the dialogue, we can’t tell the tone of speaker B, which is praise or satire This example is useless for the users to know more information about the headword The illustrative examples in this dictionary are written in local Huayu, so there are many featured words in them besides headwords But the dictionary should respectively offer the reverse way of looking up for those featured words in the examples, otherwise, the examples will confuse the users For example, “懵查查” means muddleheaded The dictionary offers sentential examples as follows 【懵查查】[形]… [例] 有一次我走错 block 了,还~地开别人的房间, … 使用地区:港澳, 新马泰 (【muddleheaded】[adj.]… [example] Once I went wrong block and open others’ room muddleheadedly … Use of area: Hong Kong, Macao, Singapore, Malaysia, Thailand) The “block” as an English word will confuse the users who don't know English very well The illustrative example like this one is less helpful for understanding the headword Another two examples will explain to what extent should we deal with featured words in the dictionary “八号风球/八號風球”(No.8 wind ball, in literal) refers to the early warning signals of storm or strong gale sent by Hong Kong Observatory One of the given example is “天文台发出~警告信号， 特区政府提醒市民应立即返家 (The signal has been sent by the Observatory so that the government reminds the public of returning home immediately)” “返家”(return home) is not a commonly used phrase in Mandarin but it is semantically transparent so there is no difficulty to understand it as returning home Thus, the example could help users to understand the headword “八号风球/八號風球” without adding more confusions On the other hands, “市公所” refers to municipal government organization or office areas for municipal government One of the example of “市公所” is “担任药师的他，不但和妻子一起到~当志工… (as a pharmacist, he not only serves for city hall as a volunteer…)” In this sentence, the users in mainland may not be familiar with the word “志工” (volunteer), but if they want to know further, they may look up the dictionary and find it as an article in page 1035 Thus, the dictionary could provide featured words in the illustrative examples, but make sure that the words will not take further problems to the users The regional label is an important part for the dictionary, but unfortunately, the dictionary provides incomplete regional labels sometimes For example, “传译/傳譯” (interpretation) in DGH is labeled as “using in Hong Kong and Macao” But in fact, it is a common word in Mandarin meaning “interpretation”, and included by DCC as well And ALLS 7(3):282-286, 2016 286 “simultaneous interpretation” in Mandarin is “同传”, short for “同声传译” As a synchronic and descriptive dictionary, DGH should label the present usage as precise as it could Besides, we will discuss two examples about dealing with dialect The first one is “冲凉” (take a shower) which usually used in Canton (a province in mainland) But the dictionary only labeled it as “using in Hong Kong, Macao, Singapore, Malaysia and Thailand” The exclusion of labeling as “using in mainland” is probably because “冲凉” is a Cantonese dialect rather than standard Mandarin But the example of “趁钱”(rich) becomes the counter-example In DGH, “趁钱” is labeled as “using in mainland”, but in DCC, it is labeled as a dialect Therefore, DGH should make some rules or standards for labeling Conclusion As the first Huayu dictionary, DGH is a significant and meaningful work Not only it has showed the global picture of Huayu all over the world and promoted the communication among Chinese all around, but also it could benefit our most important Chinese dictionary, DCC, making some additions or corrections for what have been neglected or missed in DCC For example, 年假(nianjia, year holiday) in DGH has two senses as follows.【年假】①过年期间放的假 [例] … ②指职工每年的带薪假期[例]…使用地区: ①大陆, 台湾 ②大陆, 港澳, 新马泰 (【nianjia】 ①the vacations for Spring Festival [example]… ②the paid holidays in each year for employees [example]… Use of areas: ①mainland, Taiwan ②mainland, Hong Kong, Macao, Singapore, Malaysia, Thailand) From above, the two senses are all used in mainland, that is, in Mandarin But in DCC, “年假” has been included with two senses: winter holiday and the vacations for Spring Festival In fact, the description of “年假” in DGH is more precise than in DCC, from the perspective of contemporary Mandarin In this sense, the revision of DCC could learn experience from DGH References Chao, J., and Han, J (eds.) (2005) A Dictionary of Contemporary Chinese (5th edition) Beijing: The Commercial Press Guo, X (2004) Study on Huayu TCSOL Studies, Guo, X (2006) On the Research of Huayu Applied Linguistics, Huang, M (2003) Studies on Malaysia Baba Literature Master’s thesis of ethnology, National City University (Taipei) Jiang, L Jingchun, T., and Rong, Ch (eds.) (2012) A Dictionary of Contemporary Chinese (6th edition) Beijing: The Commercial Press Li, Y (ed.) (2010) A Dictionary of Global Huayu (Chinese Language) Beijing: The Commercial Press Yu, G (2010) Compilation Idea and Practice of A Dictionary of Global Huayu Issues of the sixth China Youth Symposium Zhou Qinghai The Introduction to the Variation of Huayu in Singapore http://www.huayuqiao.org/ articles/zhouqinghai http://news.sinchew.com.my/node/368990 http://www.cncorpus.org/index.aspx Note Li Yuming (ed.) A Dictionary of Global Huayu (Chinese Language) Beijing: The Commercial Press 2010 1148 pages ISBN 978-7-100-06907-6 Price: 138 RMB