Encyclopedia of World Cultures Volume III - South Asia - Appendix ppt

... northernandcentralIndia,numberingseveralmillions.Theirtraditionaloccupationwastappingpalmsforthesap,buttheyalsousedtobethieves.Nowsomearehuntersandfowlers;mostarefarmers.(Risley1891,2:16 6-1 68;Crooke1896,4:13 8-1 52;ThurstonandRangachari1909,6:15 8-1 59;Rose1911,2:204;RussellandHiraLal1916,4:38 0-3 85)Patari(Pathari)Acaste of prieststotheMajhwartribe,foundinUttarPradesh.(Crooke1896,4:15 3-1 55)PatharvatAcaste of stonecuttersandimagecarvers,un-usualinthattheyincludeVaishnavites,Shaivites,Lingayats,andMuslims.TheyarewidespreadinMaharashtraandKarnataka.(Enthoven192 0-1 922,3:22 2-2 23)Pathiyar(Pathiyan)AtribefoundinKozhikodeDistrict,northernKerala.Theycultivateorworkasfarmlaborers.(GopalanNair1911,8 2-8 5;Luiz1962,22 2-2 24)Patni(Patuni,Patauni,Dom-Patni)Atradingandfarm-ingcaste of WestBengalandBangladesh,whoalsoengageinfishingandbasketmaking.(Risley1891,2:17 0-1 72)PatnulkaranAweavingcastefoundinparts of TamilNadu,especiallyMadurai.TheyoriginatedinGujarat.(ThurstonandRangachari1909,6:16 0-1 76)Pattanavan(Karaiyan)Acaste of fishermenonthecoast of TamilNadu.(ThurstonandRangachari1909,6:17 7-1 86)Patwa(Patwi,Patra,Patua,Patvekari,Patvegar,llakeband,Ilaqeband,Alaqeband)Acaste of weaversinsilkandmak-ers of bodyornaments,foundinmuch of centralandnorth-ernIndia.MostareHindus,butsomeareMuslims.TherearealsoMuslimPatwasinWestBengal,whoarepeddlers.(Risley1891,1:8 3-8 5;Crooke1896,4:17 2-1 76;ThurstonandRangachari1909,6:17 6-1 77;RussellandHiraLal1916,4:38 5-3 87;Enthoven192 0-1 922,3:22 4-2 26;NanjundayyaandAnanthakrishnaIyer192 8-1 936,4:47 6-4 81)EthnonymIndexto Appendix 355Kanchaviralu-MailariKandera-DhuniyaKandera-KaderaiKandeyo-VahupuraKandhaKandhaGanda-KandhaKandu-BharbhunjaKanetKangraBrahmanKani-KanikkarKanialanathRaval-RavalJogiKanikar-KandkkarKanikaran-KanikkarKanilkarKanikkaran-KanikkarKaniRazu-BhatrajaKanisan-KaniyanKaniyanKannadiyanKannajiBhat-BhatrajaKanphataKansabanik-TameraKansar-TameraKansara-TameraKansari-TameraKantaha-UahabrabmanKanu-BharbhuijaKanwar-KawarKanyakublaBrahmanKanyan-KaniyanKaora-KlhairwarKapaliKaparia-BasdewaKapariyaKapdi-BasdewaKapewar-MunurKappiliyanKaragir-NaiKaraiyan-PattanavanKaranKarana-KaranKaranga-KoravaKaranjkar-JingarKarataha-MahabrahmanKaravaKaravazhiKarenga-KoravaKareOkkaluKarhadaBrahmanKarhadeBrahman-KarhadaBrahmanKarhatakaBrahman-KarhadaBrahmanKarigar-BeldarKarimbalan-KarimpalanKarimpalanKarmakar-KamarKamam-KaranKarnaSaleKamati-NatKamaticBrahman-KanadaBrahmanKarral-ChandalKarumpuraththal-KappfliyanKarunjra-KunjraKawaiKasar-BohoraKasar-TameraKasban-DevadasiKasbi-DevadasiKasera-TameraKashikapdi-T-rmaliKassab-KasaiKastaBrahmanKasthaKatabu-KillekyataKataha-MahabrahmnKatakoti-KatalarayanKaftlarayanKatbo-TelagaKatera-DhuniyaKathakKathar-KhattarKathiKathia-KathiKathik-KathakKatdiyaraKathkari-KatkariKathodi-KatkariKathodia-KatkariKatiaKatibaglodu-TelagaKatila-KasaiKatikeKatikldu-KatikeKatipappla-TelagaKatkariKattalan-UlladanKattan-UlladanKattiBomalawaru-TelagaKattuMahrati-KuruvikkaranKatua-KatiaKatwa-KatiaKaur-KawarKavaraKavarai-BdijaKavikaraKawarKaya-KayasthKayalanKayashta-KayasthKayasthKayath-KayasthKeer-KirKehalKelasi-NaiKeot-KewatKewatKeyot-KewatKhaa-KhoKhadriVaishnava-SataniKhagar-KotwalKhaira-KhairwarKhairwa-KhairwarKhairwarKhambuKhamtiKhandaitKhandayat-KhandaitKhangar-KotwalKhantKhapariya-KapariyaKharadi-BarhaiKharakKhareng-KuliKhariaKharia-LodhiKharian-KhariaKharpatil-AgriKharralKharria-KhariaKharvaKharvi-KharvaKharwarKharwar-KhairwarKhasa-KhasiyaKhasiyaKhasiyaRajput-DusadhKhatak-KhattakKhati-LoharKhatikKhatik-KasaiKhatriKhatriya-SataniKhattakKhattarKhattri-KhatriKhavaKhawathlang-KukiKhawchung-KukdKhayra-KhairwarKhelma-KukdKhephong-KuldKheria-KhariaKheria-LodhiKherwar-KhairwarKherwar-KharwarKhetriKhewat-KewatKhoKhodalo-BavuriKhokarKhokur-KhokarKholhou-KukiKhothalong-KulciKhubar-KumharKhuhar-KumharKhyan-KewatKiliket-KillekyataKillekyataKillekyatha-KillekyataKillikiyata-KillekyataKingariya-KingriyaKingriha-KingriyaKkwNiyaKinnaraKinnara-KanetKinnaurese-KanetKinner-KanetKiot-KewatKipgen-KulciKirKirad-KirarKirarKisada-NagasiaKisan-NagasiaKizhakkanPulaya-PuluvanKo-KhoKocch-KochhKoch-KochhKochhKoch-Mandai-KochhKochuvelanKochuvelanmar-KochuvelanKoeri-KoiriKohliKoilPantala-KoilTampuran352EthnonymIndexto Appendix Darji-JinprDarkhan-TarkhanDarshani-KanphataDarwesh-DafaliDarzDasaDasari-DasriDasi-DevadasiDasiDatiyalKachari-RabhaDaur-DauriDaureGosavi-DavreJogiDauriDavreGosavi-DavreJogiDavreJogsDawari-DauriDanaGtDepaDeshasth-DeshasthaBrahmanDeshasthaBrahmanDesi-KochiDeswali-MinaDeuri-Chutiya-ChutiaDevadasiDevadig-SuppaligDevadiga-SuppaligDevang-DevangaDevangaDevangalu-DevangaDevangaSale-DevangaDevli-BhavinDevra-DevanpDewarDhakarDhanak-DhanukDhangad-DomaraDhangad-GoflDhangar-GolfaDhangarMahratta-GollaDhanka-GamitDhanka-GodlaDhanuhar-DhanwarDianukDhanwarDhaonsi-DakautDharhi-DosadhDhari-DosadhDharkarDharua-DhurwaDhebra-BhoiDhed-DhedaDhedaDheda-MeghvalDhedha-MeshvalDhemal-DhimalDhenuar-DhanwarDher-MadigaDher-MalaDhimalDhimar-BhoiDhivar-MangelaDhivara-KewatDhobaDhoba-DhobiDhobhi-DhobiDhobiDhoby-HenaDhoddiyan-YogiDhodi-DhodiaDhodiaDholi-BajaniaDholi-MirasiDhondphoda-BeldarDhorDhotada-BottadaDbuldhoyaDhulia-BasorDhuna-DhunlyaDhundDhundia-DhodiaDhunia-BahnaDhuruyaDhupi-DhobiDhuriDhuru-DhurwaDhurwaDibongiya-ChutiaDidayiDigwan-JingarDikhit-DikshitDikhshit-DikshitDikshitDimasa-KachariDimasaKachari-KachariDivaru-HalePaikaDogarDograDohor-DhorDoluvaDom-BhangiDom-DomaraDom-MfirasiDomahra-DornaraDomar-DornaraDomaraDomban-DomaraDombar-DomaraDombara-DomaraDombari-DomaraDombo-DomaraDome-DornaraDomMirasi-MirasiDom-Patni-PatniDomra-DomaraDomri-DomaraDongaDasariDongore-GavliDoom-DomaraDophia-DaflaDorhaDosadhDosadha-DosadhDoungel ... Kerala,andwesternTamilNadu.ThereisalsoacultivatingcastenamedKadarinsoutherndistricts of WestBengal.Total:1,926in1971.(ThurstonandRangachari1909,3: 6-2 9;AnanthakrishnaIyer190 9-1 912,1: 1-2 7;Ehrenfels1952;Sarkar1959;Luiz1962,5 9-6 4;Thundy1983)KaderAtribefoundinKozhikodeandCannanoredis-tricts,innorthernKerala.Theycultivatepepper,coffee,andrice.(GopalanNair1911,8 0-8 2;Luiz1962,6 5-6 7)Kadera(Kandera,Kadhera,Golandaz,Bandar,Hawaidar)Asmallcaste of fireworkmakers,foundmainlyinNar-simhapurDistrict,centralMadhyaPradesh.TheyareHindus,buttheyworshiptheMuslimLukmanHakim,believedbythemtobetheinventor of gunpowder.Kadheraisalsore-portedasacaste of cultivatorsandboatmeninUttarPradesh.(Crooke1896,3:9 0-9 1;RussellandHiraLal1916,3:28 8-2 91)Kadia(Kadiya,Chunara)AHinduandMuslimcaste of bricklayers,foundinGujarat.(Campbell1899,74;1901,186)KaduGolta(Yadavakuladavaru,Krishnakuladavaru)AcastefoundinsouthernKarnataka,whosenamemeans'wildcowherds."TheyareVaishnavites,whorearanimalsandfarm.(NanjundayyaandAnanthakrishnaIyer192 8-1 936,3:21 9-2 42)KaduKurubaAgeneraltermforthetwotribes of BettaKurubaandJenuKurubainsouthernKarnataka.Partialtotal:14,848in1971.SeealsoKuruba.(NanjundayyaandAnanthakrishnaIyer192 8-1 936,4:6 8-7 3)KadupattanAcaste of teachers,astrologers,andmagi-ciansfoundinErnakulamDistrict,incentralKerala.(ThurstonandRangachari1909,3:3 0-3 1;AnanthakrishnaIyer190 9-1 912,2:10 3-1 15)KafirAgenericnameforthetribes of Kafiristan,intheHinduKush.Theyarewarriorsandcultivators.Thename358EthnonymIndexto Appendix MinaMinyong-AdiMir-MirasiMirasiMiriMirshikar-PardhiMisao-KukiMi-shing-MiriMishmiMistri-BarhaiMithGavada-GavadaMithiya-HalwaiMiyadar-BasorMizel-KukiMochavaru-MochiMochiMochigar-MochiModak-MayaraModaliyar-MudahyarModi-Raj-MutrasiMogerMogh-MarmaMogha-RabariMoghia-PardhiMohmandMoili-SuppaligMolesalamMominMomin-JulahaMomna-MominMondaruMondi-MondaruMondiwadu-MondaruMorasu-MorasuOkkaluMorasuOkkaluMorung-TripuraMotcare-GonsaviMowarMoyili-SuppaligMro-TripuraMru-TripuraMrung-TripuraMuamin-KachiMemanMuchi-MochiMudaijyarMudi-BagdiMudugaMudugar-MudugaMudukkan-MudugaMuduvan-MudugaMuduvar-MudugaMug-MarrnaMuhialMujawar-ChhalapdarMukaDora-KondaDoraMukeri-BanjaraMukkava-MukkuvanMukkuvanMukriMullaKuruman-MuliukurunmbaMullakurumber-MullukurumbaMullukururnbaMultani-MochiMunnudKapu-MunurMunnur-MunurMunnurwad-MunurMunurMunurwar-BeldarMunurwar-MunurMurao-KoiriMurhaMuriariMurli-WaghyaMurliJoshi-WaghyaMusabir-MochiMusaharMusalli-BhangiMusalmanBrahman-HusainiBrahimanMushahar-MusaharMushera-MusaharMussadMustigar-KhetriMuthrasi-MutrasiMuthuvan-MudugaMuthuwan-MudugaMutracha-MutrasiMut-Raj-MutrasiMutrasa-MutrasiMutrasiMutratcha-MutrasiMuttanMuttaracha-MutrasiMuttarasan-MutrasiMuttatu-AmbalavasiMuttatu-MussadMutfirajulu-MutrasiMuttiriyan-MutrasiMyadar-BasorMyam-ma-MarmaMyasaBedaMyasaNayakar-MyasaBedaMyatari-DevangaNaddaf-DhuniyaNadi-UlladanNadig-NaiNadorNaduGauda-NadorNagarakulam-NagarthaNagarata-NagarthaNagarattar-NagarthaNagarBrabrmanNagarthaNagasiaNagbansiNagesar-NagasiaNagesia-NagasiaNagoriNahalNahema-NaiNahul-NahalNaiNaidu-BaljaNaik-BhavinNaik-MutrasiNaik-RamosiNaikin-BhavinNaiklok-RamosiNakashMaistri-JingarNakkalvandlu-KuruvikkaranNaksia-NagasiaNalakeyava-NalkeNalkeNama-ChandalNama-Sudra-ChandalNambiar-AmbalavasiNambidi-AmbalavasiNaambiyar-ArnbalavasiNambiyassan-AmbalavasiNampati-AmbalavasiNamte-KukiNanakpanthiNanakputra-UdasiNanakshahi-NanakpanthiNanchinadVellalaNankuParisha-KammalanNao-NaiNaodaNapik-NaiNapit-NaiNaqqal-BhandariNaruNatNattukottaiChettiNattuMalasar-MalasarNattuMalayan-MalasarNattuvanNau-NaiNaua-NaiNaumuslimNavandannaNavayat-QuraishiNavdigar-NatNaya-MaulikNayadaru-NaiNayadiNayadi-UlladanNayady-NayadiNayinda-NaiNeyigeyavaru-ThakarNhavi-NaiNihal-NahalNihang-AkaliNikumbhNilari-ChhipaNilbandhu-GunloduNilgar-ChhipaNirali-ChhipaNishad-ChandalNishi-DaflaNoniar-NuniaNoniyan-NuniaNuniaNuniya-NuniaNut-NatOcchanOd-BeldarOdde-BeldarOdden-BeldarOde-BeldarOdewandlu-BeldarOdeya-VaderOdh-BeldarOja-KondaDoraOjhaOko-JuwoiOlee-OliOlgana-BhangiOUOliya-OUOllares-AllarOmaito-OmanaitoOmanaito Appendix 347Bengal:AStudy of aHinduSocialGroup.Calcutta:AsiaticSociety of Bengal.Sarkar,Jayanta(1987).Society,Culture,andEcologicalAdap-tationamongThreeTribes of ArunachalPradesh.Anthropo-logicalSurvey of India,Memoirno.68.Calcutta.Sarkar,Jayanta(1990).TheJarawa.Calcutta:SeagullBooks;AnthropologicalSurvey of India.Sarkar,S.S.,etal.(1959).APhysicalSurvey of theKadar of Kerala.AnthropologicalSurvey of India,Memoirno.6.Calcutta.Save,KhanderaoJagannath(1945).TheWarlis.Bombay:PadmaPublications.Saxena,RanvirPrakash(1964).TribalEconomyinCentralIndia.Calcutta:FirmaK.L.Mukhopadhyay.Sengupta,SyamalKanti(1970).TheSocialProfiles of theMahalis,theTribalBasketmakers of Midnapur.Calcutta:FirmaKL.Mukhopadhyay.Shah,Ghanshyam(1984).EconomicDifferentiationsandTribalIdentity.Delhi:AjantaPublications.Shah,P.G.(1958).Dublas of Gujarat.NewDelhi:BharatiyaAdimjatiSevakSangh.Shakespear,John(1912).TheLusheiKukiClans.London:Macmillan.Sharma,RR.P.(1961).TheSherdukpens.Shillong:North-EastFrontierAgency.Shukla,BrahmaKumar(1959).TheDaflas of theSubansiriRegion.Shillong:North-EastFrontierAgency.Siegel,Lee(1991).Net of Magic:WondersandDeceptionsinIndia.Chicago:University of ChicagoPress.Singh,Pradip(1981)."Nature-Man-SpiritComplex of aHillTribe:ARestudy."InNature-Man-SpiritComplexinTribalIndia,editedbyRS.MannandVijoyS.Sahay, 9-4 0.NewDelhi:ConceptPublishingCo.Singh,SheetalPrasad(1974)."TheVanishing'Shompen'Tribe of GreatNicobarCurrentProblemsandRemediesforSurvival."Vanyajati22(2):5 0-5 8.Sinha,Dikshit(1984).TheHillKharia of Purulia:AStudyontheImpact of PovertyonaHuntingandGatheringTribe.An-thropologicalSurvey of India,Memoirno.59.Calcutta.Sinha,R.K(1981)."ANoteontheNature-Man-SpiritComplex of aTribe(Pando)."InNature-Man-SpiritComplexinTribalIndia,editedbyRS.MannandVijoyS.Sahay,6 9- 115.NewDelhi:ConceptPublishingCo.Sinha,Raghuvir(1962).TheAkas.Shillong:Adviser'sSecretariat.SirajulHassan,Syed(1920).CastesandTribes of theNizam'sDominions.2vols.Bombay:TimesPress.Reprint.1990.Gurgaon:VintageBooks.Srinivas,MysoreNarasimhachar(1952).ReligionandSocietyamongtheCoorgs of South India.Oxford:ClarendonPress.Reprint.1965.Bombay: Asia PublishingHouse.Srivastava,L.RN.(1962).TheGallongs.Shillong:Adviser'sSecretariat.Srivastava,RamP.(1966)."Tribe-CasteMobilityinIndiaandtheCase of KumaonBhotias."InCasteandKininNepal,India,andCeylon:AnthropologicalStudiesinHindu-BuddhistContactZones,editedbyChristophvonFiirer-Haimendorf,16 1-2 12.NewDelhi:SterlingPublishers.Stevenson,MargaretSinclair(1930).WithoutthePale:TheLifeStory of anOutcaste.Calcutta:AssociationPress.Syamchoudhuri,N.K,andM.M.Das(1973).TheLalungSociety:AThemeforAnalyticalEthnography.AnthropologicalSurvey of India.Calcutta.Thundy,ZachariasP.(1983). South IndianFolktales of Kadar.Meerut:ArchanaPublications.Thurston,Edgar,andKadamkiRangachari,eds.(1909).CastesandTribes of SouthernIndia.7vols.Madras:Govern-mentPress.[Numerousreprints.1Thusu,KidarNath(1965).TheDhurwa of Bastar.Anthropo-logicalSurvey of India,Memoirno.16.Calcutta.Thusu,KidarNath(1977).ThePengoPorajas of Koraput:AnEthnographicSurvey.AnthropologicalSurvey of India,Mem-oirno.39.Calcutta.Thusu,KidarNath,andMakhanJha(1969).OllarGadba of Koraput.AnthropologicalSurvey of India,Memoirno.27.Calcutta.Trivedi,HarshadR(1986).TheMers of SaurashtraRevisitedandStudiedintheLight of Socio-CulturalChangeandCross-CousinMarriage.NewDelhi:ConceptPublishingCo.Vidyarthi,LalitaPrasad(1963).TheMaler:AStudyinNature-Man-SpiritComplex of aHillTribeinBihar.Calcutta:Bookland.Vidyarthi,LalitaPrasad,andV.S.Upadhyay(1980).TheKharia:ThenandNow,aComparativeStudy of Hill,Dhelki,andDudhKharia of theCentral-EasternRegion of India.NewDelhi:ConceptPublishingCo. Appendix 313Ambig,Ambiga,Ambekar,Barkar,Barekari,Bhillakabberu,)ad,Sungar,SunnakalluBestha,DurgaMurgi,Parkitiwaru,Parivara,Toreya,Torea,Gangimakkalu,Gangemakkalu)AHinducastegroup,foundinMaharashtra,AndhraPradesh,TamilNadu,andKarnataka.Manyworkasdomes-ticservantsorporters,thoughtheywereformerlyfishermenandpalanquinbearers.Thename"Toreya"comesfromtore,"riverbank,"andisalsousedforthelowestphratry of BadagasintheNilgirisDistrict of TamilNadu.InMaharashtratheyareaKannada-speakingcaste of fishers,ferrymen,andformerpalanquinbearers,nowsometimesbeg-garsorfarmers.(ThurstonandRangachari1909,1:21 8-2 22;3: 1-6 ;7:17 6-1 82;RussellandHiraLal1916,1:348;Enthoven192 0-1 922,2:11 0-1 18;SirajulHassan1920,1:7 7-8 2;NanjundayyaandAnanthakrishnaIyer192 8-1 936,2:23 9-2 58;4:63 7-6 39)BhabraAJaincaste,mainlytraders,foundinthePunjab.SeealsoBAN'A.(Rose1911,1:8 0-8 2)BhadauriyaAsection of theRajputs,foundinwesternUttarPradesh.(Crooke1896,1:25 0-2 52)Bhagat(Bhakat)Aclass of Vaishnavitedevoteesinnorth-ernIndia.Thetermseemstobeappliedratherloosely:asec-tion of theOraontribeisknownasBhakat.Atribe of easternUttarPradeshisalsocalledBhagatorRadha.(Risley1891,1:9 1-9 2;Crooke1896,1:25 2-2 53;4:19 5-1 96)BhainaAtribefoundinthewildforestlands of BilaspurDistrict,inMadhyaPradesh.Theyworshipa"noselessgod-dess"andareessentiallyHindus.TheymaysharesomeearlyancestrywiththeBaigas.Total:24,740in1971.(RussellandHiraLal1916,2:22 4-2 33)BhaleSultanAsection of Rajputs,foundinmuch of UttarPradesh.(Crooke1896,1:25 3-2 56)Bhamta(Bhamtya,Uchla,Uchlia,Takari,Ghantichor,Ganthachor)AsmallHinducaste of ... Kerala,andwesternTamilNadu.ThereisalsoacultivatingcastenamedKadarinsoutherndistricts of WestBengal.Total:1,926in1971.(ThurstonandRangachari1909,3: 6-2 9;AnanthakrishnaIyer190 9-1 912,1: 1-2 7;Ehrenfels1952;Sarkar1959;Luiz1962,5 9-6 4;Thundy1983)KaderAtribefoundinKozhikodeandCannanoredis-tricts,innorthernKerala.Theycultivatepepper,coffee,andrice.(GopalanNair1911,8 0-8 2;Luiz1962,6 5-6 7)Kadera(Kandera,Kadhera,Golandaz,Bandar,Hawaidar)Asmallcaste of fireworkmakers,foundmainlyinNar-simhapurDistrict,centralMadhyaPradesh.TheyareHindus,buttheyworshiptheMuslimLukmanHakim,believedbythemtobetheinventor of gunpowder.Kadheraisalsore-portedasacaste of cultivatorsandboatmeninUttarPradesh.(Crooke1896,3:9 0-9 1;RussellandHiraLal1916,3:28 8-2 91)Kadia(Kadiya,Chunara)AHinduandMuslimcaste of bricklayers,foundinGujarat.(Campbell1899,74;1901,186)KaduGolta(Yadavakuladavaru,Krishnakuladavaru)AcastefoundinsouthernKarnataka,whosenamemeans'wildcowherds."TheyareVaishnavites,whorearanimalsandfarm.(NanjundayyaandAnanthakrishnaIyer192 8-1 936,3:21 9-2 42)KaduKurubaAgeneraltermforthetwotribes of BettaKurubaandJenuKurubainsouthernKarnataka.Partialtotal:14,848in1971.SeealsoKuruba.(NanjundayyaandAnanthakrishnaIyer192 8-1 936,4:6 8-7 3)KadupattanAcaste of teachers,astrologers,andmagi-ciansfoundinErnakulamDistrict,incentralKerala.(ThurstonandRangachari1909,3:3 0-3 1;AnanthakrishnaIyer190 9-1 912,2:10 3-1 15)KafirAgenericnameforthetribes of Kafiristan,intheHinduKush.Theyarewarriorsandcultivators.Thename358EthnonymIndexto Appendix MinaMinyong-AdiMir-MirasiMirasiMiriMirshikar-PardhiMisao-KukiMi-shing-MiriMishmiMistri-BarhaiMithGavada-GavadaMithiya-HalwaiMiyadar-BasorMizel-KukiMochavaru-MochiMochiMochigar-MochiModak-MayaraModaliyar-MudahyarModi-Raj-MutrasiMogerMogh-MarmaMogha-RabariMoghia-PardhiMohmandMoili-SuppaligMolesalamMominMomin-JulahaMomna-MominMondaruMondi-MondaruMondiwadu-MondaruMorasu-MorasuOkkaluMorasuOkkaluMorung-TripuraMotcare-GonsaviMowarMoyili-SuppaligMro-TripuraMru-TripuraMrung-TripuraMuamin-KachiMemanMuchi-MochiMudaijyarMudi-BagdiMudugaMudugar-MudugaMudukkan-MudugaMuduvan-MudugaMuduvar-MudugaMug-MarrnaMuhialMujawar-ChhalapdarMukaDora-KondaDoraMukeri-BanjaraMukkava-MukkuvanMukkuvanMukriMullaKuruman-MuliukurunmbaMullakurumber-MullukurumbaMullukururnbaMultani-MochiMunnudKapu-MunurMunnur-MunurMunnurwad-MunurMunurMunurwar-BeldarMunurwar-MunurMurao-KoiriMurhaMuriariMurli-WaghyaMurliJoshi-WaghyaMusabir-MochiMusaharMusalli-BhangiMusalmanBrahman-HusainiBrahimanMushahar-MusaharMushera-MusaharMussadMustigar-KhetriMuthrasi-MutrasiMuthuvan-MudugaMuthuwan-MudugaMutracha-MutrasiMut-Raj-MutrasiMutrasa-MutrasiMutrasiMutratcha-MutrasiMuttanMuttaracha-MutrasiMuttarasan-MutrasiMuttatu-AmbalavasiMuttatu-MussadMutfirajulu-MutrasiMuttiriyan-MutrasiMyadar-BasorMyam-ma-MarmaMyasaBedaMyasaNayakar-MyasaBedaMyatari-DevangaNaddaf-DhuniyaNadi-UlladanNadig-NaiNadorNaduGauda-NadorNagarakulam-NagarthaNagarata-NagarthaNagarattar-NagarthaNagarBrabrmanNagarthaNagasiaNagbansiNagesar-NagasiaNagesia-NagasiaNagoriNahalNahema-NaiNahul-NahalNaiNaidu-BaljaNaik-BhavinNaik-MutrasiNaik-RamosiNaikin-BhavinNaiklok-RamosiNakashMaistri-JingarNakkalvandlu-KuruvikkaranNaksia-NagasiaNalakeyava-NalkeNalkeNama-ChandalNama-Sudra-ChandalNambiar-AmbalavasiNambidi-AmbalavasiNaambiyar-ArnbalavasiNambiyassan-AmbalavasiNampati-AmbalavasiNamte-KukiNanakpanthiNanakputra-UdasiNanakshahi-NanakpanthiNanchinadVellalaNankuParisha-KammalanNao-NaiNaodaNapik-NaiNapit-NaiNaqqal-BhandariNaruNatNattukottaiChettiNattuMalasar-MalasarNattuMalayan-MalasarNattuvanNau-NaiNaua-NaiNaumuslimNavandannaNavayat-QuraishiNavdigar-NatNaya-MaulikNayadaru-NaiNayadiNayadi-UlladanNayady-NayadiNayinda-NaiNeyigeyavaru-ThakarNhavi-NaiNihal-NahalNihang-AkaliNikumbhNilari-ChhipaNilbandhu-GunloduNilgar-ChhipaNirali-ChhipaNishad-ChandalNishi-DaflaNoniar-NuniaNoniyan-NuniaNuniaNuniya-NuniaNut-NatOcchanOd-BeldarOdde-BeldarOdden-BeldarOde-BeldarOdewandlu-BeldarOdeya-VaderOdh-BeldarOja-KondaDoraOjhaOko-JuwoiOlee-OliOlgana-BhangiOUOliya-OUOllares-AllarOmaito-OmanaitoOmanaito Appendix 347Bengal:AStudy of aHinduSocialGroup.Calcutta:AsiaticSociety of Bengal.Sarkar,Jayanta(1987).Society,Culture,andEcologicalAdap-tationamongThreeTribes of ArunachalPradesh.Anthropo-logicalSurvey of India,Memoirno.68.Calcutta.Sarkar,Jayanta(1990).TheJarawa.Calcutta:SeagullBooks;AnthropologicalSurvey of India.Sarkar,S.S.,etal.(1959).APhysicalSurvey of theKadar of Kerala.AnthropologicalSurvey of India,Memoirno.6.Calcutta.Save,KhanderaoJagannath(1945).TheWarlis.Bombay:PadmaPublications.Saxena,RanvirPrakash(1964).TribalEconomyinCentralIndia.Calcutta:FirmaK.L.Mukhopadhyay.Sengupta,SyamalKanti(1970).TheSocialProfiles of theMahalis,theTribalBasketmakers of Midnapur.Calcutta:FirmaKL.Mukhopadhyay.Shah,Ghanshyam(1984).EconomicDifferentiationsandTribalIdentity.Delhi:AjantaPublications.Shah,P.G.(1958).Dublas of Gujarat.NewDelhi:BharatiyaAdimjatiSevakSangh.Shakespear,John(1912).TheLusheiKukiClans.London:Macmillan.Sharma,RR.P.(1961).TheSherdukpens.Shillong:North-EastFrontierAgency.Shukla,BrahmaKumar(1959).TheDaflas of theSubansiriRegion.Shillong:North-EastFrontierAgency.Siegel,Lee(1991).Net of Magic:WondersandDeceptionsinIndia.Chicago:University of ChicagoPress.Singh,Pradip(1981)."Nature-Man-SpiritComplex of aHillTribe:ARestudy."InNature-Man-SpiritComplexinTribalIndia,editedbyRS.MannandVijoyS.Sahay, 9-4 0.NewDelhi:ConceptPublishingCo.Singh,SheetalPrasad(1974)."TheVanishing'Shompen'Tribe of GreatNicobarCurrentProblemsandRemediesforSurvival."Vanyajati22(2):5 0-5 8.Sinha,Dikshit(1984).TheHillKharia of Purulia:AStudyontheImpact of PovertyonaHuntingandGatheringTribe.An-thropologicalSurvey of India,Memoirno.59.Calcutta.Sinha,R.K(1981)."ANoteontheNature-Man-SpiritComplex of aTribe(Pando)."InNature-Man-SpiritComplexinTribalIndia,editedbyRS.MannandVijoyS.Sahay,6 9- 115.NewDelhi:ConceptPublishingCo.Sinha,Raghuvir(1962).TheAkas.Shillong:Adviser'sSecretariat.SirajulHassan,Syed(1920).CastesandTribes of theNizam'sDominions.2vols.Bombay:TimesPress.Reprint.1990.Gurgaon:VintageBooks.Srinivas,MysoreNarasimhachar(1952).ReligionandSocietyamongtheCoorgs of South India.Oxford:ClarendonPress.Reprint.1965.Bombay: Asia PublishingHouse.Srivastava,L.RN.(1962).TheGallongs.Shillong:Adviser'sSecretariat.Srivastava,RamP.(1966)."Tribe-CasteMobilityinIndiaandtheCase of KumaonBhotias."InCasteandKininNepal,India,andCeylon:AnthropologicalStudiesinHindu-BuddhistContactZones,editedbyChristophvonFiirer-Haimendorf,16 1-2 12.NewDelhi:SterlingPublishers.Stevenson,MargaretSinclair(1930).WithoutthePale:TheLifeStory of anOutcaste.Calcutta:AssociationPress.Syamchoudhuri,N.K,andM.M.Das(1973).TheLalungSociety:AThemeforAnalyticalEthnography.AnthropologicalSurvey of India.Calcutta.Thundy,ZachariasP.(1983). South IndianFolktales of Kadar.Meerut:ArchanaPublications.Thurston,Edgar,andKadamkiRangachari,eds.(1909).CastesandTribes of SouthernIndia.7vols.Madras:Govern-mentPress.[Numerousreprints.1Thusu,KidarNath(1965).TheDhurwa of Bastar.Anthropo-logicalSurvey of India,Memoirno.16.Calcutta.Thusu,KidarNath(1977).ThePengoPorajas of Koraput:AnEthnographicSurvey.AnthropologicalSurvey of India,Mem-oirno.39.Calcutta.Thusu,KidarNath,andMakhanJha(1969).OllarGadba of Koraput.AnthropologicalSurvey of India,Memoirno.27.Calcutta.Trivedi,HarshadR(1986).TheMers of SaurashtraRevisitedandStudiedintheLight of Socio-CulturalChangeandCross-CousinMarriage.NewDelhi:ConceptPublishingCo.Vidyarthi,LalitaPrasad(1963).TheMaler:AStudyinNature-Man-SpiritComplex of aHillTribeinBihar.Calcutta:Bookland.Vidyarthi,LalitaPrasad,andV.S.Upadhyay(1980).TheKharia:ThenandNow,aComparativeStudy of Hill,Dhelki,andDudhKharia of theCentral-EasternRegion of India.NewDelhi:ConceptPublishingCo. Appendix 313Ambig,Ambiga,Ambekar,Barkar,Barekari,Bhillakabberu,)ad,Sungar,SunnakalluBestha,DurgaMurgi,Parkitiwaru,Parivara,Toreya,Torea,Gangimakkalu,Gangemakkalu)AHinducastegroup,foundinMaharashtra,AndhraPradesh,TamilNadu,andKarnataka.Manyworkasdomes-ticservantsorporters,thoughtheywereformerlyfishermenandpalanquinbearers.Thename"Toreya"comesfromtore,"riverbank,"andisalsousedforthelowestphratry of BadagasintheNilgirisDistrict of TamilNadu.InMaharashtratheyareaKannada-speakingcaste of fishers,ferrymen,andformerpalanquinbearers,nowsometimesbeg-garsorfarmers.(ThurstonandRangachari1909,1:21 8-2 22;3: 1-6 ;7:17 6-1 82;RussellandHiraLal1916,1:348;Enthoven192 0-1 922,2:11 0-1 18;SirajulHassan1920,1:7 7-8 2;NanjundayyaandAnanthakrishnaIyer192 8-1 936,2:23 9-2 58;4:63 7-6 39)BhabraAJaincaste,mainlytraders,foundinthePunjab.SeealsoBAN'A.(Rose1911,1:8 0-8 2)BhadauriyaAsection of theRajputs,foundinwesternUttarPradesh.(Crooke1896,1:25 0-2 52)Bhagat(Bhakat)Aclass of Vaishnavitedevoteesinnorth-ernIndia.Thetermseemstobeappliedratherloosely:asec-tion of theOraontribeisknownasBhakat.Atribe of easternUttarPradeshisalsocalledBhagatorRadha.(Risley1891,1:9 1-9 2;Crooke1896,1:25 2-2 53;4:19 5-1 96)BhainaAtribefoundinthewildforestlands of BilaspurDistrict,inMadhyaPradesh.Theyworshipa"noselessgod-dess"andareessentiallyHindus.TheymaysharesomeearlyancestrywiththeBaigas.Total:24,740in1971.(RussellandHiraLal1916,2:22 4-2 33)BhaleSultanAsection of Rajputs,foundinmuch of UttarPradesh.(Crooke1896,1:25 3-2 56)Bhamta(Bhamtya,Uchla,Uchlia,Takari,Ghantichor,Ganthachor)AsmallHinducasteof...

... adivinerhasidentifiedwhatistobedone.Thereareallmanner of privatecuringrituals,andtheseareheldbywhomeverknowshow,notbyprofessionals;theytendtoinvolvesacrificestointrudingspirits,soulrecall-ing,andtheleaving of miniatureimages of wealthoutsidethevillageforthespirits.Therearefewdefiniteseasonalcalen-dricalceremonies,butvillageritesmustbeheldbeforeclear-ing,planting,andharvesting.Allsorts of means(suchasob-servingcracksinheatedeggshells,thebileductsinpiglivers,orhowadyingfowlcrossesitslegs)areusedfordiviningthesource of troublesandtheauspiciousness of plans.Arts.Withminorexceptions,allChinartisnonrepresen-tative,andmanyChinusedtofindithardeventorecognizeadrawnorpaintedhumanfigure,thoughphotographswereclearenoughtothem.Floral-geometricdecorationisfoundintheweavingandinthememorialpostsmentionedearlier.Some of thedesignfiguresconventionallystandforthings-forexample,forvariouskinds of possessionsbelongingtoapersonbeingcommemorated-butnoneisiconic.DiseaseandCuring.Thefirstrecourseinthetreatment of diseasesandeven of woundsistheuse of mediumswhoar-rangefortheplacation of thespiritsresponsible,whomightotherwisepreventrecovery.Alongsidethisthereisawideva-riety of quiteidiosyncratictreatment,chiefly of anherbalna-ture,whichismainlypassedonfrommotherstodaughtersanddaughters-in-law.DeathandAfterlife.Thedeadareburied,andintheSouthernChinhillsthereissecondaryreburial of thebonesinasmalljar.Ingeneraltheblanket-wrappedcorpseisin-terredinastone-linedchamberinoneside of averticalpit.Thosewhohavediedaviolentdeathandwhothereforearelikelytohavebecomedangerousghostsareburiedinasepa-rategravesite,remotefromthevillageandsurroundingtrails.Therange of memorialconstructionsisconsiderable,butamongthemshouldbementioned-inadditiontothecom-memorativeposts-thestoneplatformsinandaroundthevillage,onwhichpeoplecanrestandonwhich,somesay,thespirit of thedeceasedmaysometimescomeandrest;andtheclusters of miniaturehousesontallstilts,inwhichperi-odicofferings of foodandminiaturefurnishingsareplacedforthespirit of thedeceased.Aninterestingfeature of thestoneplatforms(inthecase of deceasedmales),behindwhichthememorialpostsareraised,istheline of smallstonesthatmayalsobepresent,eachrepresentingeitherahumanvictim of thedeceasedor,equivalently,anotherman'swifeseducedbythedeceased.Modemmemorialstoneshavewrittenonthemlists of thedeceased'spossessionsinlife,ofteninastonishingdetail,downtotheoddenameledtincuporpair of woolensocks.SeealsoMizoBibliographyCarey,B.S.,andH.P.Tuck(1896).TheChinHills.2vols.Rangoon:GovernmentPress.Lehman,F.K.(1963).TheStructure of ChinSociety.Urbana:University of IllinoisPress.Lehman,F.K.(1970)."OnChinandKachinMarriageCy-cles."Man,n.s.5:11 8-1 25.Lehman,F.K.(1989)."InternalInflationaryPressuresinthePrestigeEconomy of theFeast -of- MeritComplex."InUpland-LowlandContrastsinMainlandSoutheast Asia, ed-itedbySusanB.Russell,8 9-1 02.NorthernIllinoisUniver-sityCenterforSoutheast Asia StudiesOccasionalPaper.DeKalb.Parry,N.E.(1932).TheLakhers.London:Macmillan.Shakespear,John(1912).TheLusheiKukiClans.London:Macmillan.CochinJew71dianSociety,editedbyMiltonB.SingerandBernardS.Cohn,39 7-4 11.Chicago:Aldine.Patterson,MaureenL.P.(1970)."ChangingPatterns of Oc-cupationamongChitpavanBrahmans."IndianEconomicandSocialHistoryReview7:37 5-3 96.Patterson,MaureenL. ... kinds of goods)insurroundingvillages.Thereweresmithswhomadethetraditionalsilver-amalgam(lateralumi-num)jewelry-suchasthebracelets,belts,earrings,rings,andnecklaceshungwithimportedbeadsandsilverrupeecoins-aswellasbrasshairpinsandotheritems,butthosear-tisanswereevenfewerinnumberthantheonesmentionedabove.indeed,thetradeinthelatteritemswasakintothelong-distancetradeinheirloomgoods,suchasthegreatgongsfromMyanmar(Burma),brassvesselsfromIndia,andothersorts of itemsthatsignifiedatleastanominalclaimuponthegoods of thevaaiplainscountry.Trade.All of thesemoreexpensiveitemsconstitutedthebasis of theprestigeeconomy of thesehillsandpassednotonlybysalebutbycirculation of myriadceremonialpaymentsandfines(especiallymarriage-prices,blood-moneypayments,andcompensationpaymentsfordefamation of status).Pres-tigegoodsandgayals-especiallyimportantfortheiruseinsacrificesassociatedwiththe"meritfeasts"bywhichsocialrankwasattainedorvalidated-werethetraditionalwealth of thesepeople.Furthermore,thedisplayorannouncement of theentirearray of whatonecurrentlyownedorhadownedinlife-symbolicallyindicatedoncarvedmemorialpostserectedforprestigiousdead-wasthedefinitivesign of one'ssocialandceremonialrank.Morespecifically,thepossession of asupposedlyuniqueobjectfromtheoutside world, likelytopossessaunique"personal"name of itsown,wasespeciallyimportant.Theideabehindtheprestigeeconomyisthatprosperityinthis world dependsuponthesacrificialexchange of goodswithinhabitants of theLand of theDead,andonlyifonehadconductedfeasts of meritwouldoneandone'sdescendantshavewealthandwell-being.Thus,too,thecon-tinuity of lineagebetweenthedeadandtbelivingwasimpor-tant;itwasespeciallyimportantforanyonetobememorial-izedafterhisorherdeath.Memorialservicewasdonenotonlybythedisplay of wealthandbyitsfigurationonmemor-ialpostsandstonesbutalsointhecomposition of songs(vahia)commemoratingaman'sgreatnessontheoccasion of one of hisfeasts.Sogreatlywerewealthandpossessionstiedupwithaperson'ssocialpositionthatamongthemosthei-noustraditionaloffencesinthissocietyweretheft,bastardy,andthesupposedpossession of "evileye"(hnam,theuncon-sciousandheritableabilitytocauseharmbylookingenvi-ouslyuponanother'sprosperity,orevensomeone'sconsump-tion of agoodmeal).Allthesesituationsmeantthatpropertyhadfailedtopassbymeans of expectedformalexchanges:ithadpassedinsteadbyarbitraryexpropriation,orthroughachildbornout of wedlockwithoutbenefit of marriage-price,orbymisfortunecausedbymurderousenvy of possessionstowhichonehadnolegitimateclaim.Division of Labor.Thefewclasses of part-timecraftspe-cialistarementionedabove.Womendomore of thedomestictasksandallthetraditionalweaving.Theyarealsoalmostex-clusivelythespiritmediumsbecausemalespiritfamiliarschoosethem.Menalonecutdowntheforestsandworkassmiths.Thereappeartobenofemalehuntersorwarriorsex-ceptinlegends,probablybecausenowomancanholdinherownnameafeast of celebrationforthekilling of amajorani-mal,orafeast of celebration of ahumantrophyheadorthat of atiger.(Inall of thesecasesthepointistotametheangryspirit of thedeceasedanimalorpersonandsendittoserveoneandone'sforebearsintheLand of theDead.)Awomancan,however,holdadomesticfeast of meritinthename of herdeceasedhusband,inwhichdomesticanimalsaresimi-larlysacrificedonbehalf of theLand of theDead.Neverthe-less,onlymencanbevillagepriests,whoaremostlyap-pointedbychiefsandheadmenbecausetheyhavememorizedtherequiredchantsandformulasandknowtheritualse-quences.Priestsserveasmasters of ceremonyatthefeasts of meritandcelebrationandatthevariouskinds of rite of placation-bothcyclicalandsporadic-addressedtothevar-iousspiritowners of theface of theland,greatandsmall.Al-mostallothertasksandactivitiescanbeundertakenbyeithersex;therehaveevenbeenhistoricalinstances of importantfemalechiefs,whoattainedofficethroughbeingwidowed.Therearefewifanyexploitablenaturalresourcesinthesehillsandvirtuallynomodernindustry,atleastnothingmadeforexport.Asidefromthesalaries of teachersandgovern-mentservants of allsortsandtheincomes of merchantsandshopkeepers,themainsource of moneyisthewages of Chinwhoworkontheoutside-preeminentlyinMyanmar,inthearmedforces.LandTenure.Thisaspect of Chincultureishighlyvaria-ble.Avillagehascompleteownership of itstract,andeventherighttohuntinitmustberequestedfromthevillage;however,itispossibletorentlandsinanothervillage'stractonanindividualoracommunalbasis.Villagetractbound-ariesarepreciselyindicatedbylandmarks.Frequentlyagivenhillsidetract,oreventhewholevillagetract,willbeownedbyachieforotherhereditaryaristocrat.Theright of achieftotheduesandservices of hisvillagersinfactderivesfromhisownership of theland,whiletheultimateownershipbyavil-lage of itslandasawholederivesfromtheheritablepactmadebytheancestralfounders of thevillagewiththespiritowners of theland.Theparamountrightisownership,sinceCoorg73tegratedintoKeralasociety,theywereinfluencedbymanyHindupracticesandbeliefs(e.g.,theemphasisuponpurity of descent,theweddingcustomsandcanopy,andthe"asceti-cism"associatedwithPassoverpreparations).Reportedly,theCochinJewshaveneversufferedfromanti-Semitismatthehands of theirHinduneighbors.ReligiousPractitioners.TheCochinJewsneverhadanyrabbis,butseveralmenservedasshochetim(ritualslaugh-terers)andhazanim(cantors)bothfortheirowncommuni-tiesandforanothercommunity of IndianJews,theBeneIs-raelinBombay.Ceremonies.Boththe'White"andthe"Black"Jewsper-formtheirceremoniesseparatelyintheirownsynagoguesandhomes.However,theceremoniesaresimilaranddistinctlyCochini,reflectingbothlocalHinduandChristianinflu-ences.Bothgroupsbuildamanara,oraperion,forthewed-ding,usuallyatthegroom'shouse.Afteraritualbaththebridereceivesatali,anIndianpendant,inimitation of localNayarpractice.Thegroomandbridedressintraditionalwed-dingdress.Thegroomentersthesynagogueonawhitecarpet-acustomapparentlyobservedby'Black"andnot'White"Jews-andsitsnearthepodiumuntilthebride'spro-cessionarrives.Thegroomhimself-andnotarabbi,asinotherJewishcommunities-actuallyannounceshisbetrothalandmarriagetohisbride.Arts.Dailyprayerswerechantedaccordingtotheshinglicustom,auniqueversion of thestandardJewishprayers.Inaddition,theCochinJewshavealargenumber of folksongsthattheysingregularly.Somearesungatweddings,somearelullabies,andsomespecificallyrecallthereturntoZion.In1984theCochinJewsinIsraelstagedahugepageantrelatinginsonganddancethestory of theiremigrationfromIndiaandtheirintegrationintoIsraelisociety.DeathandAfterlife.TheCochinJewsbelieveinanafter-life,influencedbothbyJewishandHindubeliefs.TheirdeadareburiedinJewishcemeteries.SeealsoBeneIsraelBibliographyKatz,Nathan,andEllenGoldberg(1989).'AsceticismandCasteinthePassoverObservances of theCochinJews."Jour-nal of theAmericanAcademy of Religion62:5 3-8 2.Mandelbaum,DavidG.(1975).'SocialStratificationamongtheJews of CochininIndiaandinIsrael."JewishJournal of Sociology17:16 5-2 10.Velayudhan,P.A.,etal.(1971).Commemorative Volume: CochinSynagogue,QuatercentenaryCelebration.Cochin:KeralaHistoricalAssociation.Weil,ShalvaJ.(1982).'SymmetrybetweenChristianandJewsinIndia:theCnaniteChristianandtheCochinJews of Kerala."ContributionstoIndianSociology16:17 5-1 96.Weil,ShalvaJ.(1984).FromCochintoEretzIsrael(inHe-brew).Jerusalem:KumuBerina.SHALVAJ.WEILCoorgETHNONYMS:Coorgi,KodaraCoorgisatiny,isolated,mountainousdistrictin south- westIndia,boundedontheeastbythehighMysorePlateau,averaginganelevation of 1,000meters,andonthewestbyamountainousfrontier3 0-5 0kilometersfromthewesterncoast.Itsgreatestlength,northto south, isabout100kilome-ters,anditsgreatestbreadth,easttowest,is65kilometers.TheWesternGhatmountainrangerunsfromnorthto south anditsmanyspursstrikeoutinalldirectionsthroughthesmallprovince,nowadistrict of KarnatakaState.Themainrivers,theKveriandLaksmanatirtha,areshallowandunnavigable.TheCoorgyearisdividedintothreeseasons-cold,hot,andrainy-withamarkedvariationinrainfallinthevariousregions.Theaverageyearlytemperaturerangesfrom10'to27'C.Coorgisprimarilyanagriculturalcountrywithcoffeeandricebeingthemainproducts.Coorgcontainsdensefor-ests of bamboo,sandalwood,andcardamom.Faunaincludeselephants,tigers,panthers,boars,anddeer.Theearlyhistory of CoorgcanbetracedbacktotheninthcenturyA.D.andconsists of asuccession of feudalrulersleadinguptothedynasty of theLingayatrajasbeginninginthe1600s.Thelastsurvivors of thedynastywerethebrothers,Doddavirarajendra(died1809)andLingarajendra(died1820).Theheirtothethrone,adaughter,Devammaji,was10atthetime of herfather'sdeathandthethronewasthere-foreusurpedbyanuncle.Theuncle,Lingarajendra,wassuc-ceededbyhissonChikkavirarajendra(ViraRajaII)whowaspoorlyacceptedbyhissubjects.Thisledtotheeventualan-nexation of CoorgbytheBritishin1834.Theannexationledtoanumber of economic,political,andsocialreforms,one of themostprominentbeingtheabolition of slavery.Therearethreelevels of territorialgroup;thevillageisthesmallestandthemostimportant.Villages,whicharemul-ticaste,containanumber of ancestralestates,eachcomprised of amainhouse of stoneandwoodandnearbyservants'huts of mudandbamboo.Thenad,consisting of severalvillages,isthenextlargergroup.Inthe1931census94percent of thepopulation of Coorglivedinsuchvillages.TraditionallyCoorgwasdividedintothirty-fivenadsandtwelvekombus,whichservejudicialpurposes.Everyvillagehasacouncil of eldersthatispresidedoverbyaheadmanwhosepositionishereditary.TherearetwotownsinCoorg:Mercara,(orMadikeri)withapopulation of 7,112;andVirarajpet,with4,106per-sons(as of 1931).Mercaraliesinthenorth-centralportion of theregion.Virarajpetisthemostimportantcommercialcentertoday. Of thetotal1931population of 163,327,89percentwereHindus,8percentMuslims,and2percentChristians.Thenumber of Kodaguspeakerswaslistedas72,085inthe1971census.TheprimarylanguagesspokeninCoorgareKodagu,Kannada(Dravidianlanguage),Hindi,andEnglish.CoorgsconsiderthemselvestobeKshatriyas,whocon-stitutethecaste of rulersandsoldiersinthetraditionalhier-archyandrankbelowonlyBrahmans.TodayCoorgsaresome of theprominentmilitaryleadersinIndia.Therearemore60Chakmadren.TheyaretaughtBuddhistideologyatanearlyage.Re-spectfor ... kinds of goods)insurroundingvillages.Thereweresmithswhomadethetraditionalsilver-amalgam(lateralumi-num)jewelry-suchasthebracelets,belts,earrings,rings,andnecklaceshungwithimportedbeadsandsilverrupeecoins-aswellasbrasshairpinsandotheritems,butthosear-tisanswereevenfewerinnumberthantheonesmentionedabove.indeed,thetradeinthelatteritemswasakintothelong-distancetradeinheirloomgoods,suchasthegreatgongsfromMyanmar(Burma),brassvesselsfromIndia,andothersorts of itemsthatsignifiedatleastanominalclaimuponthegoods of thevaaiplainscountry.Trade.All of thesemoreexpensiveitemsconstitutedthebasis of theprestigeeconomy of thesehillsandpassednotonlybysalebutbycirculation of myriadceremonialpaymentsandfines(especiallymarriage-prices,blood-moneypayments,andcompensationpaymentsfordefamation of status).Pres-tigegoodsandgayals-especiallyimportantfortheiruseinsacrificesassociatedwiththe"meritfeasts"bywhichsocialrankwasattainedorvalidated-werethetraditionalwealth of thesepeople.Furthermore,thedisplayorannouncement of theentirearray of whatonecurrentlyownedorhadownedinlife-symbolicallyindicatedoncarvedmemorialpostserectedforprestigiousdead-wasthedefinitivesign of one'ssocialandceremonialrank.Morespecifically,thepossession of asupposedlyuniqueobjectfromtheoutside world, likelytopossessaunique"personal"name of itsown,wasespeciallyimportant.Theideabehindtheprestigeeconomyisthatprosperityinthis world dependsuponthesacrificialexchange of goodswithinhabitants of theLand of theDead,andonlyifonehadconductedfeasts of meritwouldoneandone'sdescendantshavewealthandwell-being.Thus,too,thecon-tinuity of lineagebetweenthedeadandtbelivingwasimpor-tant;itwasespeciallyimportantforanyonetobememorial-izedafterhisorherdeath.Memorialservicewasdonenotonlybythedisplay of wealthandbyitsfigurationonmemor-ialpostsandstonesbutalsointhecomposition of songs(vahia)commemoratingaman'sgreatnessontheoccasion of one of hisfeasts.Sogreatlywerewealthandpossessionstiedupwithaperson'ssocialpositionthatamongthemosthei-noustraditionaloffencesinthissocietyweretheft,bastardy,andthesupposedpossession of "evileye"(hnam,theuncon-sciousandheritableabilitytocauseharmbylookingenvi-ouslyuponanother'sprosperity,orevensomeone'sconsump-tion of agoodmeal).Allthesesituationsmeantthatpropertyhadfailedtopassbymeans of expectedformalexchanges:ithadpassedinsteadbyarbitraryexpropriation,orthroughachildbornout of wedlockwithoutbenefit of marriage-price,orbymisfortunecausedbymurderousenvy of possessionstowhichonehadnolegitimateclaim.Division of Labor.Thefewclasses of part-timecraftspe-cialistarementionedabove.Womendomore of thedomestictasksandallthetraditionalweaving.Theyarealsoalmostex-clusivelythespiritmediumsbecausemalespiritfamiliarschoosethem.Menalonecutdowntheforestsandworkassmiths.Thereappeartobenofemalehuntersorwarriorsex-ceptinlegends,probablybecausenowomancanholdinherownnameafeast of celebrationforthekilling of amajorani-mal,orafeast of celebration of ahumantrophyheadorthat of atiger.(Inall of thesecasesthepointistotametheangryspirit of thedeceasedanimalorpersonandsendittoserveoneandone'sforebearsintheLand of theDead.)Awomancan,however,holdadomesticfeast of meritinthename of herdeceasedhusband,inwhichdomesticanimalsaresimi-larlysacrificedonbehalf of theLand of theDead.Neverthe-less,onlymencanbevillagepriests,whoaremostlyap-pointedbychiefsandheadmenbecausetheyhavememorizedtherequiredchantsandformulasandknowtheritualse-quences.Priestsserveasmasters of ceremonyatthefeasts of meritandcelebrationandatthevariouskinds of rite of placation-bothcyclicalandsporadic-addressedtothevar-iousspiritowners of theface of theland,greatandsmall.Al-mostallothertasksandactivitiescanbeundertakenbyeithersex;therehaveevenbeenhistoricalinstances of importantfemalechiefs,whoattainedofficethroughbeingwidowed.Therearefewifanyexploitablenaturalresourcesinthesehillsandvirtuallynomodernindustry,atleastnothingmadeforexport.Asidefromthesalaries of teachersandgovern-mentservants of allsortsandtheincomes of merchantsandshopkeepers,themainsource of moneyisthewages of Chinwhoworkontheoutside-preeminentlyinMyanmar,inthearmedforces.LandTenure.Thisaspect of Chincultureishighlyvaria-ble.Avillagehascompleteownership of itstract,andeventherighttohuntinitmustberequestedfromthevillage;however,itispossibletorentlandsinanothervillage'stractonanindividualoracommunalbasis.Villagetractbound-ariesarepreciselyindicatedbylandmarks.Frequentlyagivenhillsidetract,oreventhewholevillagetract,willbeownedbyachieforotherhereditaryaristocrat.Theright of achieftotheduesandservices of hisvillagersinfactderivesfromhisownership of theland,whiletheultimateownershipbyavil-lage of itslandasawholederivesfromtheheritablepactmadebytheancestralfounders of thevillagewiththespiritowners of theland.Theparamountrightisownership,sinceCoorg73tegratedintoKeralasociety,theywereinfluencedbymanyHindupracticesandbeliefs(e.g.,theemphasisuponpurity of descent,theweddingcustomsandcanopy,andthe"asceti-cism"associatedwithPassoverpreparations).Reportedly,theCochinJewshaveneversufferedfromanti-Semitismatthehands of theirHinduneighbors.ReligiousPractitioners.TheCochinJewsneverhadanyrabbis,butseveralmenservedasshochetim(ritualslaugh-terers)andhazanim(cantors)bothfortheirowncommuni-tiesandforanothercommunity of IndianJews,theBeneIs-raelinBombay.Ceremonies.Boththe'White"andthe"Black"Jewsper-formtheirceremoniesseparatelyintheirownsynagoguesandhomes.However,theceremoniesaresimilaranddistinctlyCochini,reflectingbothlocalHinduandChristianinflu-ences.Bothgroupsbuildamanara,oraperion,forthewed-ding,usuallyatthegroom'shouse.Afteraritualbaththebridereceivesatali,anIndianpendant,inimitation of localNayarpractice.Thegroomandbridedressintraditionalwed-dingdress.Thegroomentersthesynagogueonawhitecarpet-acustomapparentlyobservedby'Black"andnot'White"Jews-andsitsnearthepodiumuntilthebride'spro-cessionarrives.Thegroomhimself-andnotarabbi,asinotherJewishcommunities-actuallyannounceshisbetrothalandmarriagetohisbride.Arts.Dailyprayerswerechantedaccordingtotheshinglicustom,auniqueversion of thestandardJewishprayers.Inaddition,theCochinJewshavealargenumber of folksongsthattheysingregularly.Somearesungatweddings,somearelullabies,andsomespecificallyrecallthereturntoZion.In1984theCochinJewsinIsraelstagedahugepageantrelatinginsonganddancethestory of theiremigrationfromIndiaandtheirintegrationintoIsraelisociety.DeathandAfterlife.TheCochinJewsbelieveinanafter-life,influencedbothbyJewishandHindubeliefs.TheirdeadareburiedinJewishcemeteries.SeealsoBeneIsraelBibliographyKatz,Nathan,andEllenGoldberg(1989).'AsceticismandCasteinthePassoverObservances of theCochinJews."Jour-nal of theAmericanAcademy of Religion62:5 3-8 2.Mandelbaum,DavidG.(1975).'SocialStratificationamongtheJews of CochininIndiaandinIsrael."JewishJournal of Sociology17:16 5-2 10.Velayudhan,P.A.,etal.(1971).Commemorative Volume: CochinSynagogue,QuatercentenaryCelebration.Cochin:KeralaHistoricalAssociation.Weil,ShalvaJ.(1982).'SymmetrybetweenChristianandJewsinIndia:theCnaniteChristianandtheCochinJews of Kerala."ContributionstoIndianSociology16:17 5-1 96.Weil,ShalvaJ.(1984).FromCochintoEretzIsrael(inHe-brew).Jerusalem:KumuBerina.SHALVAJ.WEILCoorgETHNONYMS:Coorgi,KodaraCoorgisatiny,isolated,mountainousdistrictin south- westIndia,boundedontheeastbythehighMysorePlateau,averaginganelevation of 1,000meters,andonthewestbyamountainousfrontier3 0-5 0kilometersfromthewesterncoast.Itsgreatestlength,northto south, isabout100kilome-ters,anditsgreatestbreadth,easttowest,is65kilometers.TheWesternGhatmountainrangerunsfromnorthto south anditsmanyspursstrikeoutinalldirectionsthroughthesmallprovince,nowadistrict of KarnatakaState.Themainrivers,theKveriandLaksmanatirtha,areshallowandunnavigable.TheCoorgyearisdividedintothreeseasons-cold,hot,andrainy-withamarkedvariationinrainfallinthevariousregions.Theaverageyearlytemperaturerangesfrom10'to27'C.Coorgisprimarilyanagriculturalcountrywithcoffeeandricebeingthemainproducts.Coorgcontainsdensefor-ests of bamboo,sandalwood,andcardamom.Faunaincludeselephants,tigers,panthers,boars,anddeer.Theearlyhistory of CoorgcanbetracedbacktotheninthcenturyA.D.andconsists of asuccession of feudalrulersleadinguptothedynasty of theLingayatrajasbeginninginthe1600s.Thelastsurvivors of thedynastywerethebrothers,Doddavirarajendra(died1809)andLingarajendra(died1820).Theheirtothethrone,adaughter,Devammaji,was10atthetime of herfather'sdeathandthethronewasthere-foreusurpedbyanuncle.Theuncle,Lingarajendra,wassuc-ceededbyhissonChikkavirarajendra(ViraRajaII)whowaspoorlyacceptedbyhissubjects.Thisledtotheeventualan-nexation of CoorgbytheBritishin1834.Theannexationledtoanumber of economic,political,andsocialreforms,one of themostprominentbeingtheabolition of slavery.Therearethreelevels of territorialgroup;thevillageisthesmallestandthemostimportant.Villages,whicharemul-ticaste,containanumber of ancestralestates,eachcomprised of amainhouse of stoneandwoodandnearbyservants'huts of mudandbamboo.Thenad,consisting of severalvillages,isthenextlargergroup.Inthe1931census94percent of thepopulation of Coorglivedinsuchvillages.TraditionallyCoorgwasdividedintothirty-fivenadsandtwelvekombus,whichservejudicialpurposes.Everyvillagehasacouncil of eldersthatispresidedoverbyaheadmanwhosepositionishereditary.TherearetwotownsinCoorg:Mercara,(orMadikeri)withapopulation of 7,112;andVirarajpet,with4,106per-sons(as of 1931).Mercaraliesinthenorth-centralportion of theregion.Virarajpetisthemostimportantcommercialcentertoday. Of thetotal1931population of 163,327,89percentwereHindus,8percentMuslims,and2percentChristians.Thenumber of Kodaguspeakerswaslistedas72,085inthe1971census.TheprimarylanguagesspokeninCoorgareKodagu,Kannada(Dravidianlanguage),Hindi,andEnglish.CoorgsconsiderthemselvestobeKshatriyas,whocon-stitutethecaste of rulersandsoldiersinthetraditionalhier-archyandrankbelowonlyBrahmans.TodayCoorgsaresome of theprominentmilitaryleadersinIndia.Therearemore60Chakmadren.TheyaretaughtBuddhistideologyatanearlyage.Re-spectfor...

... 106forest of itskindinthe world. Post -World WarIIdamproj-ects,includingthat of BhavaniSagar,createdtemporaryworkforothers.ManyIrulahaveenteredthegeneraljobmarketintheCoimbatore-Mettupalaiyam-Ootacamundregionandareemployedinawidearray of jobsinthepublicandprivatesec-tors.Suchjobsincludepositionsinairforceandarmycamps,nationalizedbanks,theincometaxoffice,thePostandTele-graphDepartment,theRailwayDepartment,theSugarcaneBreedingInstituteandPankajaMill,bothinCoimbatore(theonlymillthatemploysIrulas,out of twentysurveyed),thecorditefactoryatAruvankadu,andtheHindustanPhoto-FilmindustrynearOotacamund.TheIrulahavecattle,chick-ens,dogs,goats,andsheep,andafew of themmaykeepbuf-falo,pigeons,orpigs.Pigs,dogs,andchickensserveasscavengersinsomelowlandhamlets.Junglefowl,Nilgirilan-gurs,parrots,peacocks,quail,andassortedsquirrelsappeartobethemostcommonlytamedwildcreatures.IndustrialArts.TheIrulamaketheirowndrumsandwindinstrumentsfortheirmusicalenjoyment.TheKota of theupperNilgirisgenerallynolongersupplymusicastheyoncetraditionallydid,sotheIrulaarenowfrequentlyemployedasmusiciansatBadagaandTodafunerals.Trade.Akind of barteringtradehaspersistedforgenera-tionsbetweentheKina-r.Kota of theupperNilgirisandthenearbyIrula.TheKotaobtainhoney,brooms,winnowersandbasketsmade of bambooandbananasheathstrips,punkusedtolightfires(Kotapriestsmaynotusematchestolightfires)andresinincensefromtheIrulainreturnforironfieldandgardenimplementsmadebyKotablacksmiths.Division of Labor.Womenstillperformallthehouse-hold-relatedtasks.Whilemalesperformthoseagriculturaltasksrequiringmorestrength,suchasplowingorhoeingtheearthinpreparationforthesowing of grain,womenalso per-formmanyagriculturaltasks.Malestypicallydothesowing,andwomenoftendothemostboring of taskssuchasweed-ing,reaping,andthecarrying of loads of harvestedgardenproduceorgrain.Bothmalesandfemalesarehiredforahost of laboringtasks.Becauseinfantcarethusbecomesaprob-lem,itisnotunusualforwomentotaketheirinfantstowork-places.Olderchildrennotattendingschoolareoftentakencare of bytheelderlyinextendedfamilies.LandTenure.Members of theThengumarahadaCooper-ativeSocietycultivateallottedamounts of land.Afew of theIrulaowntitletoland,sometimesintheform of patta(landownership)documents.GaudasandChettiarsinparticularhavetakenoverIrulalandthroughloanmanipulation,andsometherebynowalsohaveIrulasworkingforthem.ManyIrulaleaselandfromlandowners.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.TheIrulaformanendogamouscastewithtwelveexogamouspatricians(inSanskritgotras,inTamilkulams)-Devanan(orThevananorDevala),Kal-katti,Koduvan(orKodugar),Kuppan(orKoppilingam),Kurunagan,Ollaga,Peratha,Porigan,Pungan(orPoong-karu),Samban(orChamban),Uppigan(orUppali),andVellagai(orVellai)-andaclanrepresentedbythethudaitree(Ilexdenticulata).Nevertheless,becausemembers of apatriciancannotmarrymembersinoneormore"brother"pa-tricians,thereareexogamouspatricianunitsamongtheIrula.Theoverallsize of theseunitsvariesfromoneareatoanother.Thus,theIrulakinshipsystemissimilartotheonethatdomi-natesinsouthernIndia.Inaddition,theIrulahaveasystemwherebyeachpatricianisaffiliatedwithafriendshippatricianwhosemembershelpwhenanevent,typicallyarite of pas-sage,requirescooperativeeffort.TheidealmarriageamongtheIrulais of afemalewithherfather'ssister'sson(i.e.,amalewiththe ... asthebridesmaid,andthebride'sbrotherwillserveasthebestman.Thebrideisbroughtbyherrelativesandthegroom'spartytothegroom'shouseontheweddingday.Inthehouseorwithinatemporaryshelter(pandal)erectednearthehouse,thegroominthemostpertinentact of themarriageceremonyandinconformitywiththewidespreadpracticeinsouthernIndia,tiesanecklace(tali,providedbyhismaternaluncle)aroundthebride'sneck.Afeastisthenprovidedbythegroom'speople.Milletwouldinpasttimeshavebeenserved,butitisnowfashionabletoservericewithcurry.Thegroomafterwardbowstothefeet of gueststoreceivetheirblessingandisfollowedinthisactbyhiswife.Alongwiththeirbless-ing,theguestsgivemoney(typicallyRs1,2,or5)tothecou-ple.Alllatergotothebride'shouse,andthereisthenan-otherfeast(again,withriceandcurry),whichrunsintothenight.Allfeastingisaccompaniedbythedancing of malesandfemales(usuallyinseparategroupsbutinonecircle).Theconsumption of intoxicatingbeveragesisalsoliabletotakeplace.Theestablishment of aseparatepatrilocalhouse-holdaftermarriageisthenorm.Conformingwiththewide-spreadpracticeinsouthernIndia,thewifeusuallyreturnstoherpaternalhomeinherseventhmonth of pregnancyandre-mainsthereuntilafterherinfantisdelivered.Whileawom-an'sinabilitytobearachildisnotconsideredgroundsfordi-vorce,anIrulamanmaymarryanotherwomanifhisfirstwifecannotconceive.Hethenismarriedtobothwomen.Theusualgroundsfordivorceareunfaithfulnessorahusband'slack of provisionforhiswife.Whenamarriageistroubled,aIndianChristian103BibliographyChaudhuri,NiradC.(1979).Hinduism,aReligiontoLiveBy.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress;London:Chatto&Windus.Zaehner,RC.(1962).Hinduism.London:OxfordUniver-sityPress.PAULHOCKINGSStutley,Margaret,andJamesStutley(1977).Harper'sDic-tionary of Hinduism:ItsMythology,Folklore,Philosophy,Liter-ature,andHistory.NewYork:Harper&Row.IndianChristianETHNONYMS:noneIndianChristiansarebelieversinthedivinity of JesusChrist.Despitethepersistingideain South Asia thatChris-tianityisthe"whiteman'sreligion,"ithasamassivefollowingtodayinthesubcontinent.Still,itisverymuchaminorityfaith,accountingfornearly8percent of theSriLankanpopu-lationbutlessthan3percentineach of theother South Asiancountries.In1991Indiahadanestimated21millionChristians,andtheother South Asiancountriestogetherhadanother3million.TheideathatChristianitywasintroducedbythecolo-nialpowers-RomanCatholicismbythePortugueseandthenAnglicanismbytheEnglish-isnotstrictlytrue.Keralaandsomeotherparts of thewestcoasthadcertainlybeenevangelizedbyNestorianmissionariessincethesixthcentury,andmanyin south IndiabelievethattheapostleThomascametoTamilNaduandwasmartyredandburiedinwhatisnowMadrascity.TheseearlyreligiousconnectionswerewithSyria(cf.SyrianChristians).ThePortuguesebroughtPortu-gueseandItalianpriestswiththem,andin1557Goa,theirmajorIndiancolony,becameanarchbishopric.Withthefounding of theEastIndiaCompanyin1600theEnglishin-troducedtheAnglicanfaith,andastimepassedotherProtes-tantsectsappeared.Theyears185 0-1 900werethehighpoint of Protestantmissionactivityin South Asia, withmin-istersfromAmericaandvirtuallyeverycountryinEuropevyingforconverts,especiallyamongtheUntouchables,tri-bals,anddowntroddenslumdwellers.Insomeareastheyweredramaticallysuccessfulatgainingconverts:theMizos of northeasternIndiaarenearlyallChristianstoday,thankstothesomewhatobscureWelshBaptistmission.Attheotherend of thecountry,though,theBadagasare97percentHinduafterseventyyears of concertedeffortbytheBaselEvangelicalmission,followedbyanotherseventyyears of othermissionaryactivity.TheRomanCatholicmissionarieshavenotfaredanybetteramongtheBadagas;butelsewheretherearelargeCatholiccongregationsinmanytownsandcit-ies.BytheCongregationdePropagandaFide(1622)theCatholicchurchencouragedthetraining of ... Indianpriests,andalsobroughtinlargenumbers of EuropeanJesuitsinasu-pervisorycapacity.Theyear1947markedalandmarkinProtestantchurchhistory,notjustbecausethiswastheyear of independenceforbothIndiaandPakistanbutalsobecauseitwastheyearwhentheChurch of South Indiacameintobeing-thefirstunifiedProtestantchurchanywhere.It of courseabsorbedtheformerAnglican,Methodist,andseveralothersectarianinstitutions.In1970therefollowedaunifiedProtestantChurch of NorthIndiaandaProtestantChurch of Pakistan.Thesechurches,bothProtestantandCatholic,arenowentirelyinthehands of South Asianbishopsandarchbish-ops,withveryfew of theformerEuropeanmissionariesre-maining.InSriLankaand south India,thegreatestgrowthshaverecentlybeenseenamongtheRomanCatholics,notprimarilybecause of newconversionsbutratherbecause of acalculatedavoidance of familyplanning.InNepalChristianandMuslimmissionaryactivityisprohibitedbylaw.Thehistory of Christianityin South Asia hasindeedbeenacheckeredone,butithasbeenanimportantinstru-ment of Westernization.ThefirstprintingpressesandthefirstmodemcollegeswereintroducedbyEuropeanmissionar-ies.Bythemiddle of thenineteenthcenturythesepeopleweremakingimportantcontributionstothegeneralsocialuplift of thecountry(andnotonlyforChristianconverts)bytheirpromotion of ruralandurbanschooling,adultliteracy,femaleeducation,colleges,hospitalsandclinics,andmodemurbancareers.AsaresulttheChristianpopulationhaswieldedadisproportionateinfluenceinmodemIndianandSriLankanlife.Littleconversionisstilltakingplace.IndianChristianstodaytendtobeurban,arealwaysmo-nogamous,andformnuclearfamiliesuponmarriage(whichtakesplaceinachurch).TheyusuallyfollowWesternizedprofessions,becomingteachers,nurses,bankclerks,andcivilservants.SeealsoEuropeansin South Asia; SyrianChristian of KeralaBibliographyCoutinho,Fortunato(1958).Leregimeparoissialdesdiocesesderitelatindel'Indedesorigines(XVIesiecleanosjours).Paris:EditionsBiatrice-Nauwelaerts.Gibbs,MildredE.(1972).TheAnglicanChurchinIndia,160 0-1 970.Delhi:IndianSocietyforPromotingChristianKnowledge.Nanjundayya,H.V.,andL.K.AnanthakrishnaIyer(1930)."IndianChristian."InTheMysoreTribesandCastes,editedbyH.V.NanjundayyaandL.K.AnanthakrishnaIyer.Vol.3, 1-7 6.Mysore:MysoreUniversity.Neill,Stephen(1984).AHistory of ChristianityinIndia.2vols.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.Thomas,AbrahamV.(1974).ChristiansinSecularIndia.Rutherford:FairleighDickinsonUniversity.PAULHOCKINGSIrula105gosa)andtamarindareoftenpresentwithinlowlandsettle-ments.ThelowlandIrulawhoherdcattleforothers,typicallyindrierareaswiththornforest,areassociatedwithadistinc-tivesettlementpatterninwhichalargecattleenclosureissur-roundedbyathornywall of piledbranches.TheIrulaalsohaveburialgroundswithancestraltemples,calledkoppamanais,inwhichstonesassociatedwiththedepartedspirits of thedeadarehoused.Eachpatricianhasaburialplaceandakoppamanai,butthetwoarenotnecessarilytogether(forexample,whileSambanpeopleareonlyburiedatKallampa-layam,thereareSambankoppamanaisatHallimoyarandKunjappanai).Althoughaburialgroundisusuallyclosetoasettlement,itcanbefartheraway.Asinmanyotherparts of Asia andintothePacificBasin,thesacredness of aburialgroundisoftenassociatedwiththepagodatree(thePolyne-sianfrangipani).Largelybecausemany of theIrulaarelandlesslaborers,most of themliveinone-roomedhouses.Nevertheless,IrulaplantationlaborersinhabitingtheNilgirislopesstilloccupybipartitehouseswiththesacredcookingareaformallyseparated(typicallynotwithawallbutwithashallowearthenplatform)fromthelivingandsleepingareas.TheKasabatothenorth of theNilgirimassif,whoherdcattleforothers(Badagasincluded),occupytripartitestructureswithlivingquartersforhumanstooneside of aroomwithanopenfront,andacalfroomtotheotherside.Theopenfront of thecenterroomfacilitatesthewatching of theenclosedcattleatnight,anditismostusefulwhenpredatorsorwildel-ephantscomenear.WhiletraditionalIrulahousesaremade of wattleanddaub,withthatchedroofs(orinsomeinstancesbananasheathsforwallingandroofing),moreIrulaarelivinginhouseswithwalls of stoneorbrickandroofswithtiles,es-peciallyifthegovernmenthasprovidedfinancialassistance.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Theearliestre-portsindicatethatthehoe-usingIrula of theeasternNilgirislopesobtainedonecrop of milletinayearfromshiftedplots,involvingagrowingperiodthatcoincidedwiththewesterlymonsoon.Theythendependedupongardenproduce,gath-erededibles,andhuntingforsurvivaloncetheharvestedgrainhadbeenconsumed.ThattheseIrulawereprobablynamedafterayamspeciesisindicative of howimportantyamsweretothemwhentheyturnedtogathering.Severalwildyamspecieswereavailable.Irulaarestillwellknownforthegatheringandsupply of honeytotheirneighbors.Despitesculpturedrepresentations of bowsandarrowsinsomeNilgiridolmensathigherelevation,itisnoteworthythattheIrulaseemalwaystohaveusednetsandspearswhentheyhunted.Ourrecord of atleasteightyspecies of plantsgrowinginIrulagardenstestifiestothepastandcontinuingsignificance of gardenstoalltheIrula.Thatatleasttwenty-five of theidenti-fiedplantshadaNew World originalsoprovesthewilling-ness of theIrulatoincorporateintroducedspeciesintotheireconomy.Thecontinuedcultivation of fingermillet(Eleusinecorocana),Italianmillet(Setariaitalica),andlittlemillet(Panicumsumatrense)andnodryricebytheIrulaonthehigherslopesmayinitselfrepresentaNeolithicsurvival,be-causethecultivation of dryricehasinSoutheast Asia widelyreplacedtheearliercultivation of theItalianandlittlemilletsfromChina.TheIrulastillcommonlygrowthesetwospecies of millettogetherandthenharvesttheItalianmilletwhenthelittlemilletisfarfrommaturation.Verysmallsicklesareusedforharvestingindividualgrainheads.Whenfingermillet(grownapartfromtheothertwo)istobeharvested,theplantsarevisitedperiodicallytopermittheremoval of grainasitripens.Anothereconomicpursuitthatmayhavecontin-uedfromNeolithictimes,duringwhichcattlerearingwaswidespreadinsouthernIndia,isthemannerbywhichlow-landIrulainforestedareaskeepcattlefortheirneighbors(Kuruvasincluded).ThefewIrulawhostillmanagetoprac-ticeshiftingagriculturesetfireinAprilorMaytothevegeta-tiontheyhavecut,sothecultivation of milletwillthentakeplaceduringthewesterlymonsoon.Thebarnyardmillet(Echinochloa),bullrushmillet(Pennisetum),commonmillet(Panicummiliaceum)andsorghummillet(Sorghum),all of thelowland,renownedfortheirdroughtresistance,andthustypicallygrownondryfields,arecultivatedwiththeaid of plowsandmainlyintheseason of thewesterlymonsoon.Nowwiththecooperation of theForestDepartment,theIrulagatherforestproduce(includingmedicinalplants)forsale.SincemostIrula of theNilgirislopescurrentlyworkasplantationlaborers,plantationmanagementsstartingwiththoseinthetime of theBritishRajhadtoprovideperiodicre-leasetimeforthoseIrulawhoneededtoperformtheirownagriculturalchores.TheGandhianquesttoimprovethelives of members of theScheduledTribesisdemonstratedbythemannerinwhichthegovernmenthasenabledIrula of theeasternNilgirislopestoestablishcoffeeandteagardens of theirown,andatKunjappanaitheSilkBoard of thegovern-ment of TamilNaduisnowprovidingfinancialassistancetoenablesilkwormfarmingamongtheIrula.From1974thegovernmentgavesmallplotstoIrulaontheeasternslopes,andtheCooperativeLandDevelopmentBank(anagency of theTamilNadugovernment)atthenearesttown(Kotagiri)wasby1979helpingtofinancethegrowing of coffeeandteainnurseries,sothattheIrulacouldhavetheirowncommer-cializedgardens.WhileafewIrulawhowiselymanagedtheirgrantedlandsandloansprospered,manydidnotmanagetheirendeavorswellandthereturnpaymentonloansatalowratewaseventuallyendedinmanyinstancesbyaspecialbillpassedinMadrasbytheTamilNadugovernment.Itispri-marilythecooperation of thegovernment,withtheForestDepartment of TamilNaduplayinganimportantrole,thathasenabledmorelowlandIrulatobecomeinvolvedinthean-nualcultivation of irrigatedrice.Hallimoyar,Kallampalayam,andThengumarahada(withitsCooperativeSociety),inwhichtheIrulaliveclosetothemembers of severalcastes,haveirrigationnetworks.OnericecropstartedinMarchisharvestedinJune,andthesecondcropstartedinJulyisreadyinDecember.In1978anewlyconstructedricemillbecameoperationalatThengumarahada.Irulalivingtothe south of theNilgirimassifare...

... careforjhumfieldsandgirlsaretaughthowtoweave.Magicoreligiousritesare,forthemostpart,masteredbymeans of observation.ThesoleexceptiontothisnormistheKhazangpinachant(whichac-Limbu149orNepalidishes.Riceisthemostpopularstaple of theLepchadiet;wheat,maize,andbuckwheatarealsoeatenbutarenotnearlyaspopular.Milletisgrownforfermentingasanalcoholicbeverage;thisgrainisnevereatenbypeople.TheLepchadietisroundedoutwithfreshfruitsandvegetables;fishisoccasionallycaughtbutnotoften.Thetraditionalspartannature of Lepchalifedoesnotlenditselftosecularartorpainting,which(exceptforspe-ciallytrainedlamas)arecompletelyalientothem.Theyare,however,outstandingcarpenters,andmanydofindemploy-mentinthistrade;theyarealsonotedfortheirweavingandspinningabilities.TheMarwari,anIndianmerchantcaste,arechieflyresponsibleforsettingupshopsandactingasmoneylenderstotheLepcha.Theprinciplecashcrop of theLepchaiscardamom,theirmainexport.Thereisnorigiddivision of laborbasedonsex;women,however,arestrictlyforbiddentokillanyanimals.Groups of womenandmenworksidebysideinthefields,andalthoughmengenerallyweavethebasketsandmats,andwomenspinyam,ifone of thesexesweretotryoneortheotheractivity,nostigmawouldbeattachedtoit.Kinship,Marriage,andFamilyTheLepchasaredividedintogroupsbasedonbirthandmar-riage;thesearethepatrilinealclanandtheimmediatenuclearandextendedfamily.TheLepchascountdescentforninegenerationsonthefather'ssideandaminimum of fouronthemother's.Theyhaveaverysmallnumber of kinshiptermsandexcludethewholecategory of cousins;and,exceptforthemother'sbrothers,theymakenodistinctionbetweenthepa-ternalandmaternallines.Forpeopleyoungerthanthespeaker,theydonotmakeanydistinctionbasedongender.Onlychildren'sspouseshavedifferenttermsforson-in-lawanddaughter-in-law.Anysexualconnectionwithbloodrelationsforninegen-erationsonthefather'ssideandfouronthemother'ssideisconsideredincestuous.Lepchatraditionallymarryveryyoung,girlsusuallybeforeage14andboysbyage16.TherearetwostagesinLepchamarriage:betrothalandbringinghomethebride.Thebetrothalphaseisavalidatingceremonyatwhichthefamily of thegroompresentsthebride'sfamilywithgifts,called"theprice of thebride,"andoncetheseareacceptedthemarriageiscompletedandthegroommayhavefullaccesstohisbride.SociopoliticalOrganizationEachLepchavillageistraditionallyheadedbyavillageleader,whoisresponsibleforkeepingorderandcollectingtaxes.CrimeisaveryrareoccurrenceinaLepchavillage;murderisalmostunheard of, althoughtherehavebeenaccusations of poisoning.TheftishighlyunusualbecausetheLepchaecon-omyisfoundedonthebeliefthatpeopledonotsteal,andwhenthisdoeshappenitisverydisquieting.Anyoutbreak of aquarrelishandledimmediatelybyneutralpersons.TheLepchaattitudetowardaggressionisthatitisnotnaturalandthatitisdestructivetothecommunityatlarge.ReligionTheLepchapracticetwomutuallycontradictoryreligionssi-multaneously,withoutanyambivalentfeeling.TheolderMunreligion,namedafterthetitle of thepriests,involvesaspecialrelationshipwithafamilyspirit.Thisspiritisappeasedbyanimalsacrificesandbydirectcommunication,aspart of anefforttowardoffevilspiritswhocauseillnessanddisaster.Itisinterestingtonotethat,amongthemanymythsandleg-ends of theLepcha,therearemanyaccounts of theAbomina-bleSnowman(Yeti)intheglacialregions of theHimalayas,andheisworshipedasthegod of thehunt,theowner of allmountaingame,andthelord of allforestcreatures.TibetanLamaismwasintroducedintheseventeenthcenturyandisrootedinapriesthoodandinsanctitygainedbylearning,notbyinspiration;thesacrifice of animalsisconsideredaterriblesinbymembers of thisreligion.SeealsoSikkimeseBibliographyGorer,Geoffrey(1938).HimalayanVillage:AnAccount of theLepchas of Sikkim.London:MichaelJoseph.2nded.NewYork:BasicBooks,1967.Hooker,JosephD.(1891).HimalayanJournals.London:Ward,Lock,Bowden&Co.[Numerousearliereditions.]Jest,Corneille(1960).'ReligiousBeliefs of theLepchasintheKalimpongDistrict(WestBengal)."Journal of theRoyalAsiaticSociety1960:12 4-1 34.Morris,John(1938).LivingwithLepchas:ABookabouttheSikkimHimalayas.London:WilliamHeinemann.Siiger,Halfdan,andJorgenRischel(1967).TheLepchas:CultureandReligion of aHimalayanPeople.EthnographicalSeries2.Copenhagen:NationalMuseum of Denmark.Tobias,Michael(1967).MountainPeople.Norman:Univer-sity of OklahomaPress.2nded.1986.NewYork:BasicBooks.JAYDiMAGGIOLimbuETHNONYMS:noneOrientationTheLimbu,one of thelargesttribalaggregatesinNepal,liveinthemosteasterlypart of NepalbetweentheArunRiverandtheborder of SikkimDistrict,India.TheLimbuare of MongoliandescentandspeakaTibeto-Burmandialect.In1970,thepopulationwasestimatedat245,000.HistoryandCulturalRelationsInthelatterpart of theeighteenthcenturyNepalwasformedbyunitingvariousethnicgroupsandnumerousprincipalitiesunderahigh-casteHindudynasty.Thisconquestresultedinanumber of migrations of high-casteHindugroupsintoeast-152Lingayattionisaporchwitharaisedplatform,usuallyopenbutsome-timesclosed,whichisusedforvisitorsandresting.Athresh-oldandadoorframewithcarvedfigures of Basavaleadtothesecondsection,whichconsists of unitsusedforhousingthecattleandfordomesticpurposes,includingakitchen,astore-room,andapuja(worship)room.Thethirdsection of thehouse,thebackyard,isusedforstoringhay,fuel,etc.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Theeconomy of aLingayatvillage,whichispredominantlyagricultural,re-flectstheLingayatculture.Theirsocialstructureispopulistic,withbirthandoccupationintertwined.Lingayatsareengagedinanentirerange of occupationalactivities-agriculture,commerceandtrade,teachingandscholarship,blacksmith-ing,carpentry,weaving,oilpressing,hairdressing,etc.Tradi-tionally,Lingayatfarmersproducedpartlyforlocalconsump-tionandpartlyforamarketeconomy,andplowedtheirlandwithmetal-shodwoodenplowspoweredbypairs of bullocks.Much of economiclifewasregulatedbytheayasystem,inwhichexchange of goodsandservicestookplace.Thelocalartisangroupsandlabordependeduponthefarmersfortheirsurvival.Withindependencein1947andthelaunching of five-yearplansandcommunitydevelopmentprojects,thetra-ditionalmode of cultivationisbeinggraduallymodernizedbytheuse of chemicals,fertilizers,liftpumps,irrigation,etc.Rurallife,oncecharacterizedbyexchangerelationships,isgivingwaytocompetitiveinterestsrevolvingaroundtheeco-nomicrealities of supplyanddemand.Forexample,thearti-sancommunityinthevillagehasnearlycloseditsdoorstolocalcustomers,asitnowseeksnewopportunitiesinthenearbycitymarketinitstraditionalspecialities.Andthevil-lagewasherman'sfamilyalsoisinvolvedinthecityelectriclaunderingestablishment,thecobblerinitsshoestores,theblacksmithintool-makingjobs,andthegoldsmithinthejew-elrystore.Sotraditionalworkisbecomingmodemwork,andtraditionalskillsarebecomingmodernizedintheprocess.Thevillagefarmers,whoonceproducedprimarilyfordomes-ticandlocalpurposes,nowprefercashcropssuchassugar-cane,cotton,chilies,fruits,andvegetablesforexport.Butsuchconcernsdonotseemtohaveerodedtraditionalvaluesasindicatedbytheincreasingnumber of cooperativesocietiesinLingayatvillages.UrbanLingayatsarefoundequallyinalloccupationsanddominatesmalltrade,commerce,andthetextileindustryinKarnataka.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.Thekinshipuniverse of theLingayatscanbedescribedinterms of twocategories:effec-tiveandnoneffective.Relationshipsamongeffectivekinareclose,intimate,obligatory,andreciprocal,whereasthoseamongnoneffectivekinarelessintimateandfunctionallyin-significant.Effectivekinarethosecloselyrelatedbydescentandmarriage,andmateselectionamongsuchkinispreferen-tial.Noneffectivekinareremotelyrelatedandrarelyremem-bered,andmeaningfulinteractionbetweenthemisabsent.Ideally,Lingayatkinshipemphasizesthepatrimonialprinci-ple,butinrealitymatrilinealorientationsprevailbothinsen-timentsandobligations.KingroupsamongruralLingayatsmaintainandreinforcetheirkinshiprelationsthroughuncle-niece,cross-cousin,andexchangemarriages.Affinalrelation-shipsarerecognizedonlyiftheyareinvolvedinpreferentialmarriages.KinshipTerminology.Lingayatkinshipmaybedescribedasmultilateralwithpartlydescriptiveandpartlygenerickinterms.Father'sbrothersandsisters,forexample,arede-scribedas"big"or"little""fathers"and"mothers"dependingonrelativeage;termsforpaternalandmaternalgrandfathersandgrandmothersaretreatedinthesameway.MarriageandFamilyMarriage.AcommonpracticeamongLingayatparentsistoarrangetheirchildren'smarriages.Aboutfivedecadesago,abrideandbridegroomcouldseeeachother'sfaceonlyatthemarriagepedestal,butincreasingeducationandwidespreadurbanizationhavecreptintothevillagesandslowlyaffectedtheways of traditionalmatchmaking.Thesedays'love"mar-riagesareheard of eveninthecountryside.IneducatedLingayatfamilies,youngergenerationsenjoysomefreedominthechoice of partners,apracticeunheard of halfacenturyago.Theuse of horoscopesisconspicuouslyabsentamongthe_Lingayats.Divorceandseparationareuncommonandmaritalbreakdownsarefrownedupon.Precautionsagainstpossibledisintegrationaretakenbyarranginginterkinmar-riages,whichhelptostrengthenthemaritalbonds.Intheevent of abreakdown,however,Lingayatattitudestowarddi-vorce,especiallyincomparisonwithsomeotherreligiousgroups,areliberalandtolerant.Theyareequallyliberalinen-couragingwidowremarriages,whicharecondemnedbytheHindu-Brahmanicsociety.ResidenceispatrilocalamongruralLingayats.Uponmarriage,thebridegoestolivewiththegroom'shousehold.Amongurbanitestheyareexpectedtoliveindependently.ForaneducatedLingayatcouple,neo-localresidenceisthenorm.DomesticUnit.TheextendedfamilyisregardedastheidealarrangementamongruralLingayats,althoughthenu-clearfamilyisactuallymorecommonandthereareocca-sionalinstances of conjugalfamilyarrangements.Nuclearorconjugal,thefamilydoesnotliveinisolation,asitisalwaysembeddedinthelargerkingroup.Sincethecollectivesolidar-ity of thekingroupistheprimevalueinthecommunity,fam-ilyautonomyandprivacyareneveritsconcerns.Allrelatedfamiliesareheldtogetherbyasense of mutualityandcomple-mentarity.Suchinterdependenceisseenonoccasions of births,weddings,fairs,andfestivals.TheurbanLingayatfam-ilyisprimarilynuclearbutittoomaintainsitstieswithitsruralkinbyprovidingshelter,hospitality,andemploymentopportunities,whenneeded.Inheritance.Traditionally,legalrightsfavoredthepatri-lineage.Uponmarriage,agirltookherhusband'ssurnameandallthelegalclaimsthatwentwithit.Herloss of ashareinherparentalfamilyproperty,however,wasmetthroughade-quategifts of jewelryandgoldduringhermarriageandonsuccessivevisitstothenatalfamily.Herparentsandsiblingsfulfilledtheirmoralobligationstoher,especiallyintimes of crisis.Suchcustomsandconventionsgenerallycreatedanen-vironmentinwhichbrother-sisterrelationscontinuedevenaftertheparents'deaths.TheSuccessionAct of 1956thatgaveguaranteedequalrightstosurvivingchildren of deceasedparentsalteredthebondsthatonceunitedtheconjugalandnatalfamiliesandbrother-sisterrelationships.Itisnotun-150Limbu.emNepal,causinganethnicandculturalsplitwiththeLimbus.Limbusareconsideredthefirstsettlers of eastNepalandarethoughttobedescendants of theKiratis.Limbusbe-cameknowntohistoryintheeighteenthcentury,atatimewhenanumber of smallchiefdomsinLimbuanwereundertheauthority of thekingdom of Bijayapur.TheLimbuswereexpectedtograntlandtotheimmigrantsfortheirsupport.TheNepalesegovernmentbroughtalltriballands(withtheexception of certainLimbus)underraikar,"asystem of land-lordismunderwhichtherights of anindividualtoutilizationandtransfer of thelandarerecognizedbythestateaslongastaxesarepaid."BeforethissystemwasenforcedallLimbugroupsheldlandunderthesystem of kipat,inwhich"anindi-vidualobtainsrightstolandbyvirtue of hismembershipinaseries of nestingkingroups."Thischange of landtenurecausedLimbustoloselandstotheHinduimmigrants,whoweremostly of Brahmancaste.Thereweretworeasonsforthischange.First,ashortage of landswasbeginningtobefelt,andthereforethegovernmentdissolvedalltheLimbuanrightstotheirkipatlands.Asecondfactorwastheabsence of ownershipdocuments,whichledtolegalconflictsoverown-ershipandrent.Surrenderedkipatlandshelpedtofinancerevenuesettlements,postalservices,andthearmy.TheLimbuswereleftonlywiththelandtheywerelivingonandcultivating.TheBrahmanshadsomeadvantagesoverLim-bus:theywereskilledandhadlaborresourcesthattheLimbuslackedandneeded.Theywerealsoabletoreadandwrite,whichqualifiedthemforadministrativejobsandforcedtheabolition of thekipatsystem.Intheeyes of theLimbus,Brahmanswere"ungratefulservants"whoweretrustedwiththeirlandbut"stole"itinstead.TheLimbusarenowdeter-minedtosalvagetheirlandunderthekipatsystemandrefrainfrompassingitontomembers of othergroups.Brahmans,atacosttotheLimbus,havebecomethemostauthoritarianethnicgroupineastNepal.ResentmentisalsofeltbytheBrahmanstowardtheLimbus;BrahmansregardtheLimbusas"simple"and"concernedonlyforthepresent."BrahmansfeelthatifLimbushadlookedtothefuture,theywouldnothavegrantedtheirlands.TheLimbuanstruggleforlandisanongoingprocessthatcontinuestoaffectsocialandpoliticalconditionsintheregion.EconomyAgricultureisthemainsource of income.Theabundance of landhasmadethecultivation of newagriculturallandspossi-ble,butinsufficientknowledge of technologyhaslimitedtheirproductivity.Limbugrowwheat,rice,andmaize,andtheytradesome of thecropsforgoodsthatcannotbegrownormadeintheirregion.Asexualdivision of laboroccursinagriculture.Menplowthefields,womenplanttheseeds,andattheharvestingperiodbothsexesjointocompletethejob.Duringcultivationfamiliesbringfriendstohelpwiththefields.Thesegroups of peoplesharelaborwithoneanotherduringespeciallybusytimes.Anothersource of incomeforLimbusismilitaryservice.EconomichardshiphasmadeitworthwhiletojointhearmybothinNepalandinIndiainre-turnforasmallamount of cash.Associatedwithmilitaryserviceisrespectandhonor,especiallyforthose of highermil-itaryrank.Kinship,Marriage,andFamilyMarriageisdefinedasalegitimateunionbetweenamanandawomansothattheymayproducelegitimatechildren.Inthepast,marriageswerearrangedbyfamilieswithneitherthebridenorthegroomhavingmuchcommentonthemarriagepaymentsorceremonies.Aftertheweddingthegirlwouldgiveupherlastnameforherhusband's,inreturnforabride-price.Modemtimeshavechangedthisandnowbothpartieshaveachancetochooseanddecideonthematter.Thegiftgivingcontinuesaftertheweddingandmarriagepaymentsex-tendovermanyyears.Womenplayagreatandveryactivepartinthemarriage,inpartbecauseinmanyhouseholdsthemanservesinthearmyformanyyearsandthewomanisthedecisionmakerconcerningthehouse,children,marriage,andbusiness.Womenalsoinfluencethestability of amarriage.Themother-in-lawphobiaisstronglyfelt,andinmostcasesthemother-in-lawistheprimereasonforabride'sdeparture.Languageisalsoabarrierifthebrideisfromadifferentre-gion.TheLimbus,likemanyNepalese,arehesitanttoad-dressoneanotherdirectly.Callingoutanameinpublicistabooandcreatesembarrassment;thereforethenewbrideiscalled"you"or"thewife of so-and-so"(teknonymy)andshedoesnothavefullstatusasawomanuntilshebearsachild.Untilfullacceptancebythemother-in-law,themarriageisuncertain,asthewifecanreturntohernatalhomeifsheismadetofeeluncomfortable.Polygamyisnotwidelyprac-ticed;itispracticedonlyifthewifeisbarrenorhasfailedtoproducesons.Kinshipisveryimportantinamarriage.Aunionwithkinisconsideredsuccessfulandideal.FortheLimbustherearethreetypes of marriages:adultery,arrange-ment,and"theft."Allthreearelegal.Incase of adulterousmarriageabride-priceisnotrequired.Somecompensationispaidtotheformerhusbandbythenewhusband.Also,ifthewomanissingle,thenewhusbandvisitsthewoman'snatalhomewithofferingstoformacloserbondwithherfamily."Theft"marriagesarecommon.Theterm"theft"meansthatshehasagreedtobetakenwithoutnegotiations.Suchelope-mentisonewaytoavoidthehighcost of abride-price.Thewomeninthesemarriagesareconsideredasweaksubjects,laborresources,andchildbearers.FortheLimbustheseun-desirablemarriages,especiallytheft of marriedwomen,areusuallyinitiatedatdances.Familiesrelated"bythebone"makeuppatrilineallineagesandclans.Death of amemberbringspollutiononthelocalagnaticdescentgroup.Duringthistimeadultsrefrainfromeat-ingmealscookedwithsaltandoil.Wiveswhohavetakentheirhusband'sfamilynamealsotaketheirimpuritiesbyeatingleft-oversfromtheirmeals.Lineageandclangroupsareexogamous,somenandwomenwiththesameclannameareforbiddentomarryorhavesexualrelations.Today,lineagesdonothaveagreatinfluenceonmarriage,thoughpaymentsaremadetothechief of theclan.IngeneralLimbufamiliesareeconomicallyandrituallyindependent of eachother.ReligionandExpressiveCultureOnearea of differencebetweenLimbusandBrahmansisreli-gious.LimbusrecognizeandparticipateinmanypopularHindufestivalsbutalsohaveanumber of theirownpracti-tioners.Theyworshipbymeans of bloodsacrifice.Theybe-lievethatlineagedivinitiesarenottransmittedpatrilineally.Lakher145LinguisticAffiliation.TheLakherspeakMaraChin(BurmicFamily,Tibeto-BurmanStock),alanguagebelong-ingtotheSino-TibetanPhylum.HistoryandCulturalRelationsTheseparategroupsthatmakeuptheLakherareallbelievedtohaveoriginatedsomewherenorth of theirpresentlocation,intheChinHills.Theadvancement of thesepeoplescanbetracedwithsomedegree of certainty,andtheoriginalhome-land of atleastthree of thesegroups(Tlongsai,Hawthai,andSabeu)canbeposited.TheTlongsaimigrationbeganinLeisai(betweenLeitakandZaphai).Theoriginalhomeland of theHawthaiisbelievedtohavebeenChira(inHaka).TheSabeuarefoundinChapi,butitisbelievedthattheymigratedtothatlocationfromThiatla,whichisnearHaka.Beforetheadvent of Britishimperialdomination,intervillageconflictwastheLakhernorm.IndividualLakhervillagesfoughtagainstoneanotherandagainstneighboringpeoples(e.g.,theKhumis ... careforjhumfieldsandgirlsaretaughthowtoweave.Magicoreligiousritesare,forthemostpart,masteredbymeans of observation.ThesoleexceptiontothisnormistheKhazangpinachant(whichac-Limbu149orNepalidishes.Riceisthemostpopularstaple of theLepchadiet;wheat,maize,andbuckwheatarealsoeatenbutarenotnearlyaspopular.Milletisgrownforfermentingasanalcoholicbeverage;thisgrainisnevereatenbypeople.TheLepchadietisroundedoutwithfreshfruitsandvegetables;fishisoccasionallycaughtbutnotoften.Thetraditionalspartannature of Lepchalifedoesnotlenditselftosecularartorpainting,which(exceptforspe-ciallytrainedlamas)arecompletelyalientothem.Theyare,however,outstandingcarpenters,andmanydofindemploy-mentinthistrade;theyarealsonotedfortheirweavingandspinningabilities.TheMarwari,anIndianmerchantcaste,arechieflyresponsibleforsettingupshopsandactingasmoneylenderstotheLepcha.Theprinciplecashcrop of theLepchaiscardamom,theirmainexport.Thereisnorigiddivision of laborbasedonsex;women,however,arestrictlyforbiddentokillanyanimals.Groups of womenandmenworksidebysideinthefields,andalthoughmengenerallyweavethebasketsandmats,andwomenspinyam,ifone of thesexesweretotryoneortheotheractivity,nostigmawouldbeattachedtoit.Kinship,Marriage,andFamilyTheLepchasaredividedintogroupsbasedonbirthandmar-riage;thesearethepatrilinealclanandtheimmediatenuclearandextendedfamily.TheLepchascountdescentforninegenerationsonthefather'ssideandaminimum of fouronthemother's.Theyhaveaverysmallnumber of kinshiptermsandexcludethewholecategory of cousins;and,exceptforthemother'sbrothers,theymakenodistinctionbetweenthepa-ternalandmaternallines.Forpeopleyoungerthanthespeaker,theydonotmakeanydistinctionbasedongender.Onlychildren'sspouseshavedifferenttermsforson-in-lawanddaughter-in-law.Anysexualconnectionwithbloodrelationsforninegen-erationsonthefather'ssideandfouronthemother'ssideisconsideredincestuous.Lepchatraditionallymarryveryyoung,girlsusuallybeforeage14andboysbyage16.TherearetwostagesinLepchamarriage:betrothalandbringinghomethebride.Thebetrothalphaseisavalidatingceremonyatwhichthefamily of thegroompresentsthebride'sfamilywithgifts,called"theprice of thebride,"andoncetheseareacceptedthemarriageiscompletedandthegroommayhavefullaccesstohisbride.SociopoliticalOrganizationEachLepchavillageistraditionallyheadedbyavillageleader,whoisresponsibleforkeepingorderandcollectingtaxes.CrimeisaveryrareoccurrenceinaLepchavillage;murderisalmostunheard of, althoughtherehavebeenaccusations of poisoning.TheftishighlyunusualbecausetheLepchaecon-omyisfoundedonthebeliefthatpeopledonotsteal,andwhenthisdoeshappenitisverydisquieting.Anyoutbreak of aquarrelishandledimmediatelybyneutralpersons.TheLepchaattitudetowardaggressionisthatitisnotnaturalandthatitisdestructivetothecommunityatlarge.ReligionTheLepchapracticetwomutuallycontradictoryreligionssi-multaneously,withoutanyambivalentfeeling.TheolderMunreligion,namedafterthetitle of thepriests,involvesaspecialrelationshipwithafamilyspirit.Thisspiritisappeasedbyanimalsacrificesandbydirectcommunication,aspart of anefforttowardoffevilspiritswhocauseillnessanddisaster.Itisinterestingtonotethat,amongthemanymythsandleg-ends of theLepcha,therearemanyaccounts of theAbomina-bleSnowman(Yeti)intheglacialregions of theHimalayas,andheisworshipedasthegod of thehunt,theowner of allmountaingame,andthelord of allforestcreatures.TibetanLamaismwasintroducedintheseventeenthcenturyandisrootedinapriesthoodandinsanctitygainedbylearning,notbyinspiration;thesacrifice of animalsisconsideredaterriblesinbymembers of thisreligion.SeealsoSikkimeseBibliographyGorer,Geoffrey(1938).HimalayanVillage:AnAccount of theLepchas of Sikkim.London:MichaelJoseph.2nded.NewYork:BasicBooks,1967.Hooker,JosephD.(1891).HimalayanJournals.London:Ward,Lock,Bowden&Co.[Numerousearliereditions.]Jest,Corneille(1960).'ReligiousBeliefs of theLepchasintheKalimpongDistrict(WestBengal)."Journal of theRoyalAsiaticSociety1960:12 4-1 34.Morris,John(1938).LivingwithLepchas:ABookabouttheSikkimHimalayas.London:WilliamHeinemann.Siiger,Halfdan,andJorgenRischel(1967).TheLepchas:CultureandReligion of aHimalayanPeople.EthnographicalSeries2.Copenhagen:NationalMuseum of Denmark.Tobias,Michael(1967).MountainPeople.Norman:Univer-sity of OklahomaPress.2nded.1986.NewYork:BasicBooks.JAYDiMAGGIOLimbuETHNONYMS:noneOrientationTheLimbu,one of thelargesttribalaggregatesinNepal,liveinthemosteasterlypart of NepalbetweentheArunRiverandtheborder of SikkimDistrict,India.TheLimbuare of MongoliandescentandspeakaTibeto-Burmandialect.In1970,thepopulationwasestimatedat245,000.HistoryandCulturalRelationsInthelatterpart of theeighteenthcenturyNepalwasformedbyunitingvariousethnicgroupsandnumerousprincipalitiesunderahigh-casteHindudynasty.Thisconquestresultedinanumber of migrations of high-casteHindugroupsintoeast-152Lingayattionisaporchwitharaisedplatform,usuallyopenbutsome-timesclosed,whichisusedforvisitorsandresting.Athresh-oldandadoorframewithcarvedfigures of Basavaleadtothesecondsection,whichconsists of unitsusedforhousingthecattleandfordomesticpurposes,includingakitchen,astore-room,andapuja(worship)room.Thethirdsection of thehouse,thebackyard,isusedforstoringhay,fuel,etc.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Theeconomy of aLingayatvillage,whichispredominantlyagricultural,re-flectstheLingayatculture.Theirsocialstructureispopulistic,withbirthandoccupationintertwined.Lingayatsareengagedinanentirerange of occupationalactivities-agriculture,commerceandtrade,teachingandscholarship,blacksmith-ing,carpentry,weaving,oilpressing,hairdressing,etc.Tradi-tionally,Lingayatfarmersproducedpartlyforlocalconsump-tionandpartlyforamarketeconomy,andplowedtheirlandwithmetal-shodwoodenplowspoweredbypairs of bullocks.Much of economiclifewasregulatedbytheayasystem,inwhichexchange of goodsandservicestookplace.Thelocalartisangroupsandlabordependeduponthefarmersfortheirsurvival.Withindependencein1947andthelaunching of five-yearplansandcommunitydevelopmentprojects,thetra-ditionalmode of cultivationisbeinggraduallymodernizedbytheuse of chemicals,fertilizers,liftpumps,irrigation,etc.Rurallife,oncecharacterizedbyexchangerelationships,isgivingwaytocompetitiveinterestsrevolvingaroundtheeco-nomicrealities of supplyanddemand.Forexample,thearti-sancommunityinthevillagehasnearlycloseditsdoorstolocalcustomers,asitnowseeksnewopportunitiesinthenearbycitymarketinitstraditionalspecialities.Andthevil-lagewasherman'sfamilyalsoisinvolvedinthecityelectriclaunderingestablishment,thecobblerinitsshoestores,theblacksmithintool-makingjobs,andthegoldsmithinthejew-elrystore.Sotraditionalworkisbecomingmodemwork,andtraditionalskillsarebecomingmodernizedintheprocess.Thevillagefarmers,whoonceproducedprimarilyfordomes-ticandlocalpurposes,nowprefercashcropssuchassugar-cane,cotton,chilies,fruits,andvegetablesforexport.Butsuchconcernsdonotseemtohaveerodedtraditionalvaluesasindicatedbytheincreasingnumber of cooperativesocietiesinLingayatvillages.UrbanLingayatsarefoundequallyinalloccupationsanddominatesmalltrade,commerce,andthetextileindustryinKarnataka.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.Thekinshipuniverse of theLingayatscanbedescribedinterms of twocategories:effec-tiveandnoneffective.Relationshipsamongeffectivekinareclose,intimate,obligatory,andreciprocal,whereasthoseamongnoneffectivekinarelessintimateandfunctionallyin-significant.Effectivekinarethosecloselyrelatedbydescentandmarriage,andmateselectionamongsuchkinispreferen-tial.Noneffectivekinareremotelyrelatedandrarelyremem-bered,andmeaningfulinteractionbetweenthemisabsent.Ideally,Lingayatkinshipemphasizesthepatrimonialprinci-ple,butinrealitymatrilinealorientationsprevailbothinsen-timentsandobligations.KingroupsamongruralLingayatsmaintainandreinforcetheirkinshiprelationsthroughuncle-niece,cross-cousin,andexchangemarriages.Affinalrelation-shipsarerecognizedonlyiftheyareinvolvedinpreferentialmarriages.KinshipTerminology.Lingayatkinshipmaybedescribedasmultilateralwithpartlydescriptiveandpartlygenerickinterms.Father'sbrothersandsisters,forexample,arede-scribedas"big"or"little""fathers"and"mothers"dependingonrelativeage;termsforpaternalandmaternalgrandfathersandgrandmothersaretreatedinthesameway.MarriageandFamilyMarriage.AcommonpracticeamongLingayatparentsistoarrangetheirchildren'smarriages.Aboutfivedecadesago,abrideandbridegroomcouldseeeachother'sfaceonlyatthemarriagepedestal,butincreasingeducationandwidespreadurbanizationhavecreptintothevillagesandslowlyaffectedtheways of traditionalmatchmaking.Thesedays'love"mar-riagesareheard of eveninthecountryside.IneducatedLingayatfamilies,youngergenerationsenjoysomefreedominthechoice of partners,apracticeunheard of halfacenturyago.Theuse of horoscopesisconspicuouslyabsentamongthe_Lingayats.Divorceandseparationareuncommonandmaritalbreakdownsarefrownedupon.Precautionsagainstpossibledisintegrationaretakenbyarranginginterkinmar-riages,whichhelptostrengthenthemaritalbonds.Intheevent of abreakdown,however,Lingayatattitudestowarddi-vorce,especiallyincomparisonwithsomeotherreligiousgroups,areliberalandtolerant.Theyareequallyliberalinen-couragingwidowremarriages,whicharecondemnedbytheHindu-Brahmanicsociety.ResidenceispatrilocalamongruralLingayats.Uponmarriage,thebridegoestolivewiththegroom'shousehold.Amongurbanitestheyareexpectedtoliveindependently.ForaneducatedLingayatcouple,neo-localresidenceisthenorm.DomesticUnit.TheextendedfamilyisregardedastheidealarrangementamongruralLingayats,althoughthenu-clearfamilyisactuallymorecommonandthereareocca-sionalinstances of conjugalfamilyarrangements.Nuclearorconjugal,thefamilydoesnotliveinisolation,asitisalwaysembeddedinthelargerkingroup.Sincethecollectivesolidar-ity of thekingroupistheprimevalueinthecommunity,fam-ilyautonomyandprivacyareneveritsconcerns.Allrelatedfamiliesareheldtogetherbyasense of mutualityandcomple-mentarity.Suchinterdependenceisseenonoccasions of births,weddings,fairs,andfestivals.TheurbanLingayatfam-ilyisprimarilynuclearbutittoomaintainsitstieswithitsruralkinbyprovidingshelter,hospitality,andemploymentopportunities,whenneeded.Inheritance.Traditionally,legalrightsfavoredthepatri-lineage.Uponmarriage,agirltookherhusband'ssurnameandallthelegalclaimsthatwentwithit.Herloss of ashareinherparentalfamilyproperty,however,wasmetthroughade-quategifts of jewelryandgoldduringhermarriageandonsuccessivevisitstothenatalfamily.Herparentsandsiblingsfulfilledtheirmoralobligationstoher,especiallyintimes of crisis.Suchcustomsandconventionsgenerallycreatedanen-vironmentinwhichbrother-sisterrelationscontinuedevenaftertheparents'deaths.TheSuccessionAct of 1956thatgaveguaranteedequalrightstosurvivingchildren of deceasedparentsalteredthebondsthatonceunitedtheconjugalandnatalfamiliesandbrother-sisterrelationships.Itisnotun-150Limbu.emNepal,causinganethnicandculturalsplitwiththeLimbus.Limbusareconsideredthefirstsettlers of eastNepalandarethoughttobedescendants of theKiratis.Limbusbe-cameknowntohistoryintheeighteenthcentury,atatimewhenanumber of smallchiefdomsinLimbuanwereundertheauthority of thekingdom of Bijayapur.TheLimbuswereexpectedtograntlandtotheimmigrantsfortheirsupport.TheNepalesegovernmentbroughtalltriballands(withtheexception of certainLimbus)underraikar,"asystem of land-lordismunderwhichtherights of anindividualtoutilizationandtransfer of thelandarerecognizedbythestateaslongastaxesarepaid."BeforethissystemwasenforcedallLimbugroupsheldlandunderthesystem of kipat,inwhich"anindi-vidualobtainsrightstolandbyvirtue of hismembershipinaseries of nestingkingroups."Thischange of landtenurecausedLimbustoloselandstotheHinduimmigrants,whoweremostly of Brahmancaste.Thereweretworeasonsforthischange.First,ashortage of landswasbeginningtobefelt,andthereforethegovernmentdissolvedalltheLimbuanrightstotheirkipatlands.Asecondfactorwastheabsence of ownershipdocuments,whichledtolegalconflictsoverown-ershipandrent.Surrenderedkipatlandshelpedtofinancerevenuesettlements,postalservices,andthearmy.TheLimbuswereleftonlywiththelandtheywerelivingonandcultivating.TheBrahmanshadsomeadvantagesoverLim-bus:theywereskilledandhadlaborresourcesthattheLimbuslackedandneeded.Theywerealsoabletoreadandwrite,whichqualifiedthemforadministrativejobsandforcedtheabolition of thekipatsystem.Intheeyes of theLimbus,Brahmanswere"ungratefulservants"whoweretrustedwiththeirlandbut"stole"itinstead.TheLimbusarenowdeter-minedtosalvagetheirlandunderthekipatsystemandrefrainfrompassingitontomembers of othergroups.Brahmans,atacosttotheLimbus,havebecomethemostauthoritarianethnicgroupineastNepal.ResentmentisalsofeltbytheBrahmanstowardtheLimbus;BrahmansregardtheLimbusas"simple"and"concernedonlyforthepresent."BrahmansfeelthatifLimbushadlookedtothefuture,theywouldnothavegrantedtheirlands.TheLimbuanstruggleforlandisanongoingprocessthatcontinuestoaffectsocialandpoliticalconditionsintheregion.EconomyAgricultureisthemainsource of income.Theabundance of landhasmadethecultivation of newagriculturallandspossi-ble,butinsufficientknowledge of technologyhaslimitedtheirproductivity.Limbugrowwheat,rice,andmaize,andtheytradesome of thecropsforgoodsthatcannotbegrownormadeintheirregion.Asexualdivision of laboroccursinagriculture.Menplowthefields,womenplanttheseeds,andattheharvestingperiodbothsexesjointocompletethejob.Duringcultivationfamiliesbringfriendstohelpwiththefields.Thesegroups of peoplesharelaborwithoneanotherduringespeciallybusytimes.Anothersource of incomeforLimbusismilitaryservice.EconomichardshiphasmadeitworthwhiletojointhearmybothinNepalandinIndiainre-turnforasmallamount of cash.Associatedwithmilitaryserviceisrespectandhonor,especiallyforthose of highermil-itaryrank.Kinship,Marriage,andFamilyMarriageisdefinedasalegitimateunionbetweenamanandawomansothattheymayproducelegitimatechildren.Inthepast,marriageswerearrangedbyfamilieswithneitherthebridenorthegroomhavingmuchcommentonthemarriagepaymentsorceremonies.Aftertheweddingthegirlwouldgiveupherlastnameforherhusband's,inreturnforabride-price.Modemtimeshavechangedthisandnowbothpartieshaveachancetochooseanddecideonthematter.Thegiftgivingcontinuesaftertheweddingandmarriagepaymentsex-tendovermanyyears.Womenplayagreatandveryactivepartinthemarriage,inpartbecauseinmanyhouseholdsthemanservesinthearmyformanyyearsandthewomanisthedecisionmakerconcerningthehouse,children,marriage,andbusiness.Womenalsoinfluencethestability of amarriage.Themother-in-lawphobiaisstronglyfelt,andinmostcasesthemother-in-lawistheprimereasonforabride'sdeparture.Languageisalsoabarrierifthebrideisfromadifferentre-gion.TheLimbus,likemanyNepalese,arehesitanttoad-dressoneanotherdirectly.Callingoutanameinpublicistabooandcreatesembarrassment;thereforethenewbrideiscalled"you"or"thewife of so-and-so"(teknonymy)andshedoesnothavefullstatusasawomanuntilshebearsachild.Untilfullacceptancebythemother-in-law,themarriageisuncertain,asthewifecanreturntohernatalhomeifsheismadetofeeluncomfortable.Polygamyisnotwidelyprac-ticed;itispracticedonlyifthewifeisbarrenorhasfailedtoproducesons.Kinshipisveryimportantinamarriage.Aunionwithkinisconsideredsuccessfulandideal.FortheLimbustherearethreetypes of marriages:adultery,arrange-ment,and"theft."Allthreearelegal.Incase of adulterousmarriageabride-priceisnotrequired.Somecompensationispaidtotheformerhusbandbythenewhusband.Also,ifthewomanissingle,thenewhusbandvisitsthewoman'snatalhomewithofferingstoformacloserbondwithherfamily."Theft"marriagesarecommon.Theterm"theft"meansthatshehasagreedtobetakenwithoutnegotiations.Suchelope-mentisonewaytoavoidthehighcost of abride-price.Thewomeninthesemarriagesareconsideredasweaksubjects,laborresources,andchildbearers.FortheLimbustheseun-desirablemarriages,especiallytheft of marriedwomen,areusuallyinitiatedatdances.Familiesrelated"bythebone"makeuppatrilineallineagesandclans.Death of amemberbringspollutiononthelocalagnaticdescentgroup.Duringthistimeadultsrefrainfromeat-ingmealscookedwithsaltandoil.Wiveswhohavetakentheirhusband'sfamilynamealsotaketheirimpuritiesbyeatingleft-oversfromtheirmeals.Lineageandclangroupsareexogamous,somenandwomenwiththesameclannameareforbiddentomarryorhavesexualrelations.Today,lineagesdonothaveagreatinfluenceonmarriage,thoughpaymentsaremadetothechief of theclan.IngeneralLimbufamiliesareeconomicallyandrituallyindependent of eachother.ReligionandExpressiveCultureOnearea of differencebetweenLimbusandBrahmansisreli-gious.LimbusrecognizeandparticipateinmanypopularHindufestivalsbutalsohaveanumber of theirownpracti-tioners.Theyworshipbymeans of bloodsacrifice.Theybe-lievethatlineagedivinitiesarenottransmittedpatrilineally.Lakher145LinguisticAffiliation.TheLakherspeakMaraChin(BurmicFamily,Tibeto-BurmanStock),alanguagebelong-ingtotheSino-TibetanPhylum.HistoryandCulturalRelationsTheseparategroupsthatmakeuptheLakherareallbelievedtohaveoriginatedsomewherenorth of theirpresentlocation,intheChinHills.Theadvancement of thesepeoplescanbetracedwithsomedegree of certainty,andtheoriginalhome-land of atleastthree of thesegroups(Tlongsai,Hawthai,andSabeu)canbeposited.TheTlongsaimigrationbeganinLeisai(betweenLeitakandZaphai).Theoriginalhomeland of theHawthaiisbelievedtohavebeenChira(inHaka).TheSabeuarefoundinChapi,butitisbelievedthattheymigratedtothatlocationfromThiatla,whichisnearHaka.Beforetheadvent of Britishimperialdomination,intervillageconflictwastheLakhernorm.IndividualLakhervillagesfoughtagainstoneanotherandagainstneighboringpeoples(e.g.,theKhumis ... careforjhumfieldsandgirlsaretaughthowtoweave.Magicoreligiousritesare,forthemostpart,masteredbymeans of observation.ThesoleexceptiontothisnormistheKhazangpinachant(whichac-Limbu149orNepalidishes.Riceisthemostpopularstaple of theLepchadiet;wheat,maize,andbuckwheatarealsoeatenbutarenotnearlyaspopular.Milletisgrownforfermentingasanalcoholicbeverage;thisgrainisnevereatenbypeople.TheLepchadietisroundedoutwithfreshfruitsandvegetables;fishisoccasionallycaughtbutnotoften.Thetraditionalspartannature of Lepchalifedoesnotlenditselftosecularartorpainting,which(exceptforspe-ciallytrainedlamas)arecompletelyalientothem.Theyare,however,outstandingcarpenters,andmanydofindemploy-mentinthistrade;theyarealsonotedfortheirweavingandspinningabilities.TheMarwari,anIndianmerchantcaste,arechieflyresponsibleforsettingupshopsandactingasmoneylenderstotheLepcha.Theprinciplecashcrop of theLepchaiscardamom,theirmainexport.Thereisnorigiddivision of laborbasedonsex;women,however,arestrictlyforbiddentokillanyanimals.Groups of womenandmenworksidebysideinthefields,andalthoughmengenerallyweavethebasketsandmats,andwomenspinyam,ifone of thesexesweretotryoneortheotheractivity,nostigmawouldbeattachedtoit.Kinship,Marriage,andFamilyTheLepchasaredividedintogroupsbasedonbirthandmar-riage;thesearethepatrilinealclanandtheimmediatenuclearandextendedfamily.TheLepchascountdescentforninegenerationsonthefather'ssideandaminimum of fouronthemother's.Theyhaveaverysmallnumber of kinshiptermsandexcludethewholecategory of cousins;and,exceptforthemother'sbrothers,theymakenodistinctionbetweenthepa-ternalandmaternallines.Forpeopleyoungerthanthespeaker,theydonotmakeanydistinctionbasedongender.Onlychildren'sspouseshavedifferenttermsforson-in-lawanddaughter-in-law.Anysexualconnectionwithbloodrelationsforninegen-erationsonthefather'ssideandfouronthemother'ssideisconsideredincestuous.Lepchatraditionallymarryveryyoung,girlsusuallybeforeage14andboysbyage16.TherearetwostagesinLepchamarriage:betrothalandbringinghomethebride.Thebetrothalphaseisavalidatingceremonyatwhichthefamily of thegroompresentsthebride'sfamilywithgifts,called"theprice of thebride,"andoncetheseareacceptedthemarriageiscompletedandthegroommayhavefullaccesstohisbride.SociopoliticalOrganizationEachLepchavillageistraditionallyheadedbyavillageleader,whoisresponsibleforkeepingorderandcollectingtaxes.CrimeisaveryrareoccurrenceinaLepchavillage;murderisalmostunheard of, althoughtherehavebeenaccusations of poisoning.TheftishighlyunusualbecausetheLepchaecon-omyisfoundedonthebeliefthatpeopledonotsteal,andwhenthisdoeshappenitisverydisquieting.Anyoutbreak of aquarrelishandledimmediatelybyneutralpersons.TheLepchaattitudetowardaggressionisthatitisnotnaturalandthatitisdestructivetothecommunityatlarge.ReligionTheLepchapracticetwomutuallycontradictoryreligionssi-multaneously,withoutanyambivalentfeeling.TheolderMunreligion,namedafterthetitle of thepriests,involvesaspecialrelationshipwithafamilyspirit.Thisspiritisappeasedbyanimalsacrificesandbydirectcommunication,aspart of anefforttowardoffevilspiritswhocauseillnessanddisaster.Itisinterestingtonotethat,amongthemanymythsandleg-ends of theLepcha,therearemanyaccounts of theAbomina-bleSnowman(Yeti)intheglacialregions of theHimalayas,andheisworshipedasthegod of thehunt,theowner of allmountaingame,andthelord of allforestcreatures.TibetanLamaismwasintroducedintheseventeenthcenturyandisrootedinapriesthoodandinsanctitygainedbylearning,notbyinspiration;thesacrifice of animalsisconsideredaterriblesinbymembers of thisreligion.SeealsoSikkimeseBibliographyGorer,Geoffrey(1938).HimalayanVillage:AnAccount of theLepchas of Sikkim.London:MichaelJoseph.2nded.NewYork:BasicBooks,1967.Hooker,JosephD.(1891).HimalayanJournals.London:Ward,Lock,Bowden&Co.[Numerousearliereditions.]Jest,Corneille(1960).'ReligiousBeliefs of theLepchasintheKalimpongDistrict(WestBengal)."Journal of theRoyalAsiaticSociety1960:12 4-1 34.Morris,John(1938).LivingwithLepchas:ABookabouttheSikkimHimalayas.London:WilliamHeinemann.Siiger,Halfdan,andJorgenRischel(1967).TheLepchas:CultureandReligion of aHimalayanPeople.EthnographicalSeries2.Copenhagen:NationalMuseum of Denmark.Tobias,Michael(1967).MountainPeople.Norman:Univer-sity of OklahomaPress.2nded.1986.NewYork:BasicBooks.JAYDiMAGGIOLimbuETHNONYMS:noneOrientationTheLimbu,one of thelargesttribalaggregatesinNepal,liveinthemosteasterlypart of NepalbetweentheArunRiverandtheborder of SikkimDistrict,India.TheLimbuare of MongoliandescentandspeakaTibeto-Burmandialect.In1970,thepopulationwasestimatedat245,000.HistoryandCulturalRelationsInthelatterpart of theeighteenthcenturyNepalwasformedbyunitingvariousethnicgroupsandnumerousprincipalitiesunderahigh-casteHindudynasty.Thisconquestresultedinanumber of migrations of high-casteHindugroupsintoeast-152Lingayattionisaporchwitharaisedplatform,usuallyopenbutsome-timesclosed,whichisusedforvisitorsandresting.Athresh-oldandadoorframewithcarvedfigures of Basavaleadtothesecondsection,whichconsists of unitsusedforhousingthecattleandfordomesticpurposes,includingakitchen,astore-room,andapuja(worship)room.Thethirdsection of thehouse,thebackyard,isusedforstoringhay,fuel,etc.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Theeconomy of aLingayatvillage,whichispredominantlyagricultural,re-flectstheLingayatculture.Theirsocialstructureispopulistic,withbirthandoccupationintertwined.Lingayatsareengagedinanentirerange of occupationalactivities-agriculture,commerceandtrade,teachingandscholarship,blacksmith-ing,carpentry,weaving,oilpressing,hairdressing,etc.Tradi-tionally,Lingayatfarmersproducedpartlyforlocalconsump-tionandpartlyforamarketeconomy,andplowedtheirlandwithmetal-shodwoodenplowspoweredbypairs of bullocks.Much of economiclifewasregulatedbytheayasystem,inwhichexchange of goodsandservicestookplace.Thelocalartisangroupsandlabordependeduponthefarmersfortheirsurvival.Withindependencein1947andthelaunching of five-yearplansandcommunitydevelopmentprojects,thetra-ditionalmode of cultivationisbeinggraduallymodernizedbytheuse of chemicals,fertilizers,liftpumps,irrigation,etc.Rurallife,oncecharacterizedbyexchangerelationships,isgivingwaytocompetitiveinterestsrevolvingaroundtheeco-nomicrealities of supplyanddemand.Forexample,thearti-sancommunityinthevillagehasnearlycloseditsdoorstolocalcustomers,asitnowseeksnewopportunitiesinthenearbycitymarketinitstraditionalspecialities.Andthevil-lagewasherman'sfamilyalsoisinvolvedinthecityelectriclaunderingestablishment,thecobblerinitsshoestores,theblacksmithintool-makingjobs,andthegoldsmithinthejew-elrystore.Sotraditionalworkisbecomingmodemwork,andtraditionalskillsarebecomingmodernizedintheprocess.Thevillagefarmers,whoonceproducedprimarilyfordomes-ticandlocalpurposes,nowprefercashcropssuchassugar-cane,cotton,chilies,fruits,andvegetablesforexport.Butsuchconcernsdonotseemtohaveerodedtraditionalvaluesasindicatedbytheincreasingnumber of cooperativesocietiesinLingayatvillages.UrbanLingayatsarefoundequallyinalloccupationsanddominatesmalltrade,commerce,andthetextileindustryinKarnataka.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.Thekinshipuniverse of theLingayatscanbedescribedinterms of twocategories:effec-tiveandnoneffective.Relationshipsamongeffectivekinareclose,intimate,obligatory,andreciprocal,whereasthoseamongnoneffectivekinarelessintimateandfunctionallyin-significant.Effectivekinarethosecloselyrelatedbydescentandmarriage,andmateselectionamongsuchkinispreferen-tial.Noneffectivekinareremotelyrelatedandrarelyremem-bered,andmeaningfulinteractionbetweenthemisabsent.Ideally,Lingayatkinshipemphasizesthepatrimonialprinci-ple,butinrealitymatrilinealorientationsprevailbothinsen-timentsandobligations.KingroupsamongruralLingayatsmaintainandreinforcetheirkinshiprelationsthroughuncle-niece,cross-cousin,andexchangemarriages.Affinalrelation-shipsarerecognizedonlyiftheyareinvolvedinpreferentialmarriages.KinshipTerminology.Lingayatkinshipmaybedescribedasmultilateralwithpartlydescriptiveandpartlygenerickinterms.Father'sbrothersandsisters,forexample,arede-scribedas"big"or"little""fathers"and"mothers"dependingonrelativeage;termsforpaternalandmaternalgrandfathersandgrandmothersaretreatedinthesameway.MarriageandFamilyMarriage.AcommonpracticeamongLingayatparentsistoarrangetheirchildren'smarriages.Aboutfivedecadesago,abrideandbridegroomcouldseeeachother'sfaceonlyatthemarriagepedestal,butincreasingeducationandwidespreadurbanizationhavecreptintothevillagesandslowlyaffectedtheways of traditionalmatchmaking.Thesedays'love"mar-riagesareheard of eveninthecountryside.IneducatedLingayatfamilies,youngergenerationsenjoysomefreedominthechoice of partners,apracticeunheard of halfacenturyago.Theuse of horoscopesisconspicuouslyabsentamongthe_Lingayats.Divorceandseparationareuncommonandmaritalbreakdownsarefrownedupon.Precautionsagainstpossibledisintegrationaretakenbyarranginginterkinmar-riages,whichhelptostrengthenthemaritalbonds.Intheevent of abreakdown,however,Lingayatattitudestowarddi-vorce,especiallyincomparisonwithsomeotherreligiousgroups,areliberalandtolerant.Theyareequallyliberalinen-couragingwidowremarriages,whicharecondemnedbytheHindu-Brahmanicsociety.ResidenceispatrilocalamongruralLingayats.Uponmarriage,thebridegoestolivewiththegroom'shousehold.Amongurbanitestheyareexpectedtoliveindependently.ForaneducatedLingayatcouple,neo-localresidenceisthenorm.DomesticUnit.TheextendedfamilyisregardedastheidealarrangementamongruralLingayats,althoughthenu-clearfamilyisactuallymorecommonandthereareocca-sionalinstances of conjugalfamilyarrangements.Nuclearorconjugal,thefamilydoesnotliveinisolation,asitisalwaysembeddedinthelargerkingroup.Sincethecollectivesolidar-ity of thekingroupistheprimevalueinthecommunity,fam-ilyautonomyandprivacyareneveritsconcerns.Allrelatedfamiliesareheldtogetherbyasense of mutualityandcomple-mentarity.Suchinterdependenceisseenonoccasions of births,weddings,fairs,andfestivals.TheurbanLingayatfam-ilyisprimarilynuclearbutittoomaintainsitstieswithitsruralkinbyprovidingshelter,hospitality,andemploymentopportunities,whenneeded.Inheritance.Traditionally,legalrightsfavoredthepatri-lineage.Uponmarriage,agirltookherhusband'ssurnameandallthelegalclaimsthatwentwithit.Herloss of ashareinherparentalfamilyproperty,however,wasmetthroughade-quategifts of jewelryandgoldduringhermarriageandonsuccessivevisitstothenatalfamily.Herparentsandsiblingsfulfilledtheirmoralobligationstoher,especiallyintimes of crisis.Suchcustomsandconventionsgenerallycreatedanen-vironmentinwhichbrother-sisterrelationscontinuedevenaftertheparents'deaths.TheSuccessionAct of 1956thatgaveguaranteedequalrightstosurvivingchildren of deceasedparentsalteredthebondsthatonceunitedtheconjugalandnatalfamiliesandbrother-sisterrelationships.Itisnotun-150Limbu.emNepal,causinganethnicandculturalsplitwiththeLimbus.Limbusareconsideredthefirstsettlers of eastNepalandarethoughttobedescendants of theKiratis.Limbusbe-cameknowntohistoryintheeighteenthcentury,atatimewhenanumber of smallchiefdomsinLimbuanwereundertheauthority of thekingdom of Bijayapur.TheLimbuswereexpectedtograntlandtotheimmigrantsfortheirsupport.TheNepalesegovernmentbroughtalltriballands(withtheexception of certainLimbus)underraikar,"asystem of land-lordismunderwhichtherights of anindividualtoutilizationandtransfer of thelandarerecognizedbythestateaslongastaxesarepaid."BeforethissystemwasenforcedallLimbugroupsheldlandunderthesystem of kipat,inwhich"anindi-vidualobtainsrightstolandbyvirtue of hismembershipinaseries of nestingkingroups."Thischange of landtenurecausedLimbustoloselandstotheHinduimmigrants,whoweremostly of Brahmancaste.Thereweretworeasonsforthischange.First,ashortage of landswasbeginningtobefelt,andthereforethegovernmentdissolvedalltheLimbuanrightstotheirkipatlands.Asecondfactorwastheabsence of ownershipdocuments,whichledtolegalconflictsoverown-ershipandrent.Surrenderedkipatlandshelpedtofinancerevenuesettlements,postalservices,andthearmy.TheLimbuswereleftonlywiththelandtheywerelivingonandcultivating.TheBrahmanshadsomeadvantagesoverLim-bus:theywereskilledandhadlaborresourcesthattheLimbuslackedandneeded.Theywerealsoabletoreadandwrite,whichqualifiedthemforadministrativejobsandforcedtheabolition of thekipatsystem.Intheeyes of theLimbus,Brahmanswere"ungratefulservants"whoweretrustedwiththeirlandbut"stole"itinstead.TheLimbusarenowdeter-minedtosalvagetheirlandunderthekipatsystemandrefrainfrompassingitontomembers of othergroups.Brahmans,atacosttotheLimbus,havebecomethemostauthoritarianethnicgroupineastNepal.ResentmentisalsofeltbytheBrahmanstowardtheLimbus;BrahmansregardtheLimbusas"simple"and"concernedonlyforthepresent."BrahmansfeelthatifLimbushadlookedtothefuture,theywouldnothavegrantedtheirlands.TheLimbuanstruggleforlandisanongoingprocessthatcontinuestoaffectsocialandpoliticalconditionsintheregion.EconomyAgricultureisthemainsource of income.Theabundance of landhasmadethecultivation of newagriculturallandspossi-ble,butinsufficientknowledge of technologyhaslimitedtheirproductivity.Limbugrowwheat,rice,andmaize,andtheytradesome of thecropsforgoodsthatcannotbegrownormadeintheirregion.Asexualdivision of laboroccursinagriculture.Menplowthefields,womenplanttheseeds,andattheharvestingperiodbothsexesjointocompletethejob.Duringcultivationfamiliesbringfriendstohelpwiththefields.Thesegroups of peoplesharelaborwithoneanotherduringespeciallybusytimes.Anothersource of incomeforLimbusismilitaryservice.EconomichardshiphasmadeitworthwhiletojointhearmybothinNepalandinIndiainre-turnforasmallamount of cash.Associatedwithmilitaryserviceisrespectandhonor,especiallyforthose of highermil-itaryrank.Kinship,Marriage,andFamilyMarriageisdefinedasalegitimateunionbetweenamanandawomansothattheymayproducelegitimatechildren.Inthepast,marriageswerearrangedbyfamilieswithneitherthebridenorthegroomhavingmuchcommentonthemarriagepaymentsorceremonies.Aftertheweddingthegirlwouldgiveupherlastnameforherhusband's,inreturnforabride-price.Modemtimeshavechangedthisandnowbothpartieshaveachancetochooseanddecideonthematter.Thegiftgivingcontinuesaftertheweddingandmarriagepaymentsex-tendovermanyyears.Womenplayagreatandveryactivepartinthemarriage,inpartbecauseinmanyhouseholdsthemanservesinthearmyformanyyearsandthewomanisthedecisionmakerconcerningthehouse,children,marriage,andbusiness.Womenalsoinfluencethestability of amarriage.Themother-in-lawphobiaisstronglyfelt,andinmostcasesthemother-in-lawistheprimereasonforabride'sdeparture.Languageisalsoabarrierifthebrideisfromadifferentre-gion.TheLimbus,likemanyNepalese,arehesitanttoad-dressoneanotherdirectly.Callingoutanameinpublicistabooandcreatesembarrassment;thereforethenewbrideiscalled"you"or"thewife of so-and-so"(teknonymy)andshedoesnothavefullstatusasawomanuntilshebearsachild.Untilfullacceptancebythemother-in-law,themarriageisuncertain,asthewifecanreturntohernatalhomeifsheismadetofeeluncomfortable.Polygamyisnotwidelyprac-ticed;itispracticedonlyifthewifeisbarrenorhasfailedtoproducesons.Kinshipisveryimportantinamarriage.Aunionwithkinisconsideredsuccessfulandideal.FortheLimbustherearethreetypes of marriages:adultery,arrange-ment,and"theft."Allthreearelegal.Incase of adulterousmarriageabride-priceisnotrequired.Somecompensationispaidtotheformerhusbandbythenewhusband.Also,ifthewomanissingle,thenewhusbandvisitsthewoman'snatalhomewithofferingstoformacloserbondwithherfamily."Theft"marriagesarecommon.Theterm"theft"meansthatshehasagreedtobetakenwithoutnegotiations.Suchelope-mentisonewaytoavoidthehighcost of abride-price.Thewomeninthesemarriagesareconsideredasweaksubjects,laborresources,andchildbearers.FortheLimbustheseun-desirablemarriages,especiallytheft of marriedwomen,areusuallyinitiatedatdances.Familiesrelated"bythebone"makeuppatrilineallineagesandclans.Death of amemberbringspollutiononthelocalagnaticdescentgroup.Duringthistimeadultsrefrainfromeat-ingmealscookedwithsaltandoil.Wiveswhohavetakentheirhusband'sfamilynamealsotaketheirimpuritiesbyeatingleft-oversfromtheirmeals.Lineageandclangroupsareexogamous,somenandwomenwiththesameclannameareforbiddentomarryorhavesexualrelations.Today,lineagesdonothaveagreatinfluenceonmarriage,thoughpaymentsaremadetothechief of theclan.IngeneralLimbufamiliesareeconomicallyandrituallyindependent of eachother.ReligionandExpressiveCultureOnearea of differencebetweenLimbusandBrahmansisreli-gious.LimbusrecognizeandparticipateinmanypopularHindufestivalsbutalsohaveanumber of theirownpracti-tioners.Theyworshipbymeans of bloodsacrifice.Theybe-lievethatlineagedivinitiesarenottransmittedpatrilineally.Lakher145LinguisticAffiliation.TheLakherspeakMaraChin(BurmicFamily,Tibeto-BurmanStock),alanguagebelong-ingtotheSino-TibetanPhylum.HistoryandCulturalRelationsTheseparategroupsthatmakeuptheLakherareallbelievedtohaveoriginatedsomewherenorth of theirpresentlocation,intheChinHills.Theadvancement of thesepeoplescanbetracedwithsomedegree of certainty,andtheoriginalhome-land of atleastthree of thesegroups(Tlongsai,Hawthai,andSabeu)canbeposited.TheTlongsaimigrationbeganinLeisai(betweenLeitakandZaphai).Theoriginalhomeland of theHawthaiisbelievedtohavebeenChira(inHaka).TheSabeuarefoundinChapi,butitisbelievedthattheymigratedtothatlocationfromThiatla,whichisnearHaka.Beforetheadvent of Britishimperialdomination,intervillageconflictwastheLakhernorm.IndividualLakhervillagesfoughtagainstoneanotherandagainstneighboringpeoples(e.g.,theKhumis...

... Tamil279ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefs.VillageHinduismisvibrant,asaretheimposing,large,andancienttemplesinthecenter of alltheoldtowns.Villagebeliefsarefocusedonalargenumber of de-ities,withmostcastesorsocialgroupsclaimingaspecialdeity.Femaledeitiesaremorenumerousandareworshipedfortheirpowertointerveneinhealing,fertility,andotherlifesituations.Maledeitiesareprotectorsanddominatetheland-scape,especiallyMurugan,whoseimagestandsonmanystonehillocksandespeciallyonPalaniHill,wherepeoplemakespecialpilgrimagestohimasprotector of TamilNadu.Bytheprocess of Sanskritizationovermanycenturies,mostlocaldeitiesacquiredlinkagewithSanskriticorBrahmanicdeities.AmongBrahmancastesthedistinctionsbetweenthesects of ShivaandVishnuaremaintained,butnotalwaysinvillagereligion.Itisverycommonthatapersonneedingassistance of thepower of thedeitytosolvesomeprobleminlifewillmakeavowtobendthewill of thedeity;forexample,onemaypromisethatifone'ssonpasseshisexamination,ifadiseaseiscured,orifaninfertilewomangivesbirth,onewillundertakesomepilgrimageormakesomegifttothedeity.TamilCatholicsmakesimilarvows.Thereisastrongstream of devotionalism(bhakti)inHinduliteratureandintheprac-tice of modemHindus,Christians,andMuslims.Ceremonies.Amongthemostimportantreligiouseventsinvillagesarethebirthdays of thespecialdeities,whicharecelebratedwithprocessionsinwhichthedeityistakenfromthetempleandcarriedaroundthevillageandwithnighten-tertainmentperformances.Festivaldays of thedeities of majortemples,as of MaduraiorPalani,areregionalTamilfestivalsinwhichhundreds of thousands of pilgrimsthrongthoseplaces.PongalisadistinctiveTamilfestival,inwhichkingroupsboilriceinfront of theirspecialtempleandeatitcommunally.ThisoccursinJanuary,alongwithMittuPongal,inwhichoxenarehonored,theirhornspaintedredandgreen,andgarlanded.NorthIndianfestivalssuchasHoliandDassaraarefarlessimportant,thoughTamilscelebrateDipavali(Diwali),thefestival of lights.TheTamilNewYeariswidelycelebrated,inmid-April.Arts. South Indianmusic,dance,andarchitecturewereenhancedinTamilNaduinlatemedievalcenturiesbyroyalpatronage,whilenorthIndiawasundertheMoguls.ThereisnoquestionthatBharatanityamdance,preservedinthetem-ples,alongwith south Indianclassicalinstrumentalandvocalmusic,areamongthehighestclassicalartformsanywhere;theyarefartoocomplextodiscusshere.Tamiltemples,im.mediatelydistinguishablebythesoaringtowers(g6puram)abovethegateways,areimposinglivinginstitutions.Largetempleshavetanks,thousand-pillaredhalls of stone,passagesforcircumambulatingthedeity,andaninfinitenumber of sculptedimagesandfigures,alldoneaccordingtoancientar-chitecturalrulebooks.Invillagestoday,troupesarecommis-sionedtoperformall-nightmusicalnarrations of epicssuchastheTamilversion of theRamayana,itinerantdramatroupesarepopular,andtheremaybemagicianentertainers,transvestitedancers,andfortune-tellers.Medicine.Themedicalsystemsare:Ayurveda,basedonSanskrittexts;Siddha,a south Indiansystemusingstrongchemicalsandherbs;Unani,theMuslimsystem;andMantiraviti,theuse of magicalphrases(mantras)andherbalmedicinethatarefoundinvillageseverywhere,whosepracti-tionersalsoprepareamuletsmanypeopleusetowardoffdis-ease.Allopathic(scientific)medicineisavailableintownsingovernmenthospitalsandprivateclinics.Diseaseetiologymaybeanalyzedasmultiple,withproximateandultimatecauses.Therearemultiplepossiblecuresincludingherbs,medicines,mantras,diet,psychologicalchange,anddivineintervention.Tamilsbelievethatbodilyqualitiesshouldbeinbalance,andtheyclassifyfoodsas"hot"or"cold."Vegetari-anismiswidelypracticedbyupperandmiddlecastesongrounds of bothreligionandhealth.DeadtandAfterlife.Thedoctrine of rebirthisnotac-tivelyheldbythemajority of Tamils,thoughthosewhotendtoorthodoxyarelikelytoassertthatthedoctrineistaught.Butaccordingtoanoldbelieforlonging,achildwhodieshasasoulthatwillbereborninthesamehousehold,andthere-foreondeathburialmaybeunderornearthehome.ManyTamilcastesburytheirdead,butthoseinfluencedbyBrah-manictraditioncrematethem.Ataburialinamiddle-rankcaste,thecorpseiswrappedinaclothandloweredintothegrave,whereuponthemalerelativescarryingpots of watercir-cumambulatethegravecounterclockwise(aninauspiciousdirection),thenbreaktheirclaypotsinthegrave,whilethewomenstandbywatching.Deathpollutionlastsforanumber of daysthatvariesbycaste;afterthatthehouseiscleansedandthereisspecialfood.Foranimportantman,abrickstruc-turemaymarkthegrave,andthereisanannualceremony of offeringfoodonthedeathanniversary.SeealsoLabbai;Tamil of SriLanka;VellalaBibliographyClothey,Fred(1978).TheManyFaces of Murukan:TheHis-toryandMeaning of a South IndianGod.TheHague:Mouton.Daniel,E.Valentine(1987).FluidSigns:BeingaPersontheTamilWay.Berkeley:University of CaliforniaPress.Dumont,Louis(1983).AffinityasValue:MarriageAlliancein South India,withComparativeEssaysonAustralia.Chi-cago:University of ChicagoPress.Dumont,Louis(1986).A South IndianSubcaste.Delhi:Ox-fordUniversityPress.Trautmann,ThomasR.(1981).DravidianKinship.Cam-bridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.Trawick,Margaret(1990).NotesonLoveinaTamilFamily.Berkeley:University of CaliforniaPress.Wadley,Susan,ed.(1980).ThePowers of TamilWomen. South AsianSeries,no.6.Syracuse,N.Y.:SyracuseUniversity.CLARENCEMALONEYTamil of SriLanka281(exceptthose of lowcaste)turnedawayfromagriculture-whichbecamefarlesslucrativeasthenineteenthcenturyad-vanced-andtowardgovernmentemploymentintherapidlyexpandingBritishcolonialempire.Inthisadaptationtofor.eignrule,anaccommodative,utilitarianculturearosethatstressedrigorousstudyinprofessionalfields,suchasmedi-cine,law,andengineering,togetherwithstaunchadherencetoHindutradition.Familysupport of educationalachieve-mentledtoextraordinarysuccessintheBritishmeritocracybuttodisasterlater.afterSriLanka'sindependencein1948,manySinhalesecametofeelthatTamilsweredisproportion-atelypresentinSriLanka'sesteemedcivilservice,profes-sions,judiciary,andbusinessaffairs.In1956,S.W.R.D.BandaranaikewonamassiveelectoralvictorybyappealingtothesesentimentsandpromisingtoimplementSinhalaasthesoleofficiallanguage of governmentaffairs.Tensionsoverthelanguageactledtotheappalling1958riots,inwhichSin-halesemobsattackedTamilslivinginSinhaleseareas.Thesubsequentimposition of universityandemploymentquotasradicalizedTamilyouths;thefirstTamilyouthorganizationsincludedmanyunemployedgraduates.In1974,theTamilpoliticalpartiesunifiedandcalledforthepeacefulcreation,thoughnegotiation, of aseparateTamilstateintheNorthernandEasternprovinces,butlargelybecausetheColombogov-ernmentmadefewconcessionsandpoliticalmoderatesseemedcontenttowaitthesituationout,Tamilyouthsre-jectedtheirelders'politicsandbeganawave of violentassas-sinations,mainlyaimedatTamilswhoweresuspected of col-laboratingwithSinh~aleseorganizations.In1981,SinhalesesecurityforceswentonabrutalrampageinJaffna,burningdownJaffna'slibraryandterrorizingthepopulation,whichcametotheconclusionthatonlytheyouthgroupscouldpro-tectthem.The1983Colomboriots,whichappearedtohavetheunofficialguidanceandsupport of somesections of thegovernment,effectivelyeliminatedtheTamilbusinesspres-enceinColomboandthroughouttheSinhalesesections of theisland,whichfurtherradicalizedtheTamilpeople.Afteralmostadecade of violence,theColombogovernmenthasyettomakegenuineconcessionstotheTamilcommunityandapparentlybelievestheTamilmilitantscanbedefeatedbyforce.Inthemeantime,manyTamilshavebecomerefu-gees,hundreds of templesandschoolshavebeendestroyed,theTamilmiddledlassandintelligentsiahavefledabroad,andtens of thousands of innocentshavedied,ofteninmassa-cres of unspeakablebrutality.SettlementsSriLankanTamilregionsarepredominantlyrural;eventhetownsseemlikeovergrownvillages.Therural-urbanbalancehasnotchangedsignificantlyinthiscentury,thankstoSriLanka'svigorousruralsocialserviceprogramandtoanal-mostcompletelack of industrialdevelopment.Traditionalvillagesarenonnucleatedandareinternallydifferentiatedbyhamlets,inwhichmembers of asinglecastereside.Theonlyobviouscenter of thevillageisthetemple of thevillagegod-dess.Laneswanderchaoticallythroughthevillage,andhomesarehiddenbehindstout,livingfences(trees),whichprovidecopiousgreenmanureforgardens.Landistradition-allydividedintothreecategories:houseland,gardenland,andpaddyland.Traditionalhousesaremade of mudandthatch;wealthiervillagersconstructstuccohousesroofedwithceramictiles.Housesaresituatedwithinaprivate,fenced,almostsecretivecompound,whichisusuallyplantedwithmangoes,coconutpalms,andpalmyras.EconomySubsistenceandAgriculturalActivities.Subsistenceag-riculture,supplementedbymarginalemployment,character-izestheeconomiclife of mostruralSriLankanTamils.Asig-nificantsource of incomeformanyfamiliestodayisforeignremittances.Saveintheeasterncoastalregion,whereirriga-tionproduceshighriceyields,riceagricultureinTamilareasisextensivebutrainfall-dependentandonlymarginallyeco-nomicatbest.UnderimportrestrictionsfollowingSriLanka'sindependence,Jaffnabecameamajorsource of gar-dencrops,includingtomatoes,chilies,onions,tobacco,gourds,pumpkins,okra,brinjal(eggplants),betel,potatoes,manioc,andavariety of gramsandpulses.Traditionalagri-culturalpracticesmakeintensiveuse of greenandanimalma-nures,althoughtheuse of chemicalfertilizersandpesticidesisincreasinglycommon.Incoastalregionswithlimestonebedrock(andparticularlyinJaffna),groundwaterisinten-sivelyusedtosupplementrainfall;irrigationisrare,saveintheeasterncoastalregion.Domesticanimalsincludecattleandchickens.Significantfoods of lastrecourseincludeman-iocandtheubiquitouspalmyra,whichsuppliesstarchfromseedlings,molasses,jam,andamildlyalcoholicbeveragecalledtoddy.Rapidgrowthintheservicesection(especiallyretailing,transport,communications,banking,publicadmin-istration,education,healthservices,repair,andconstruc-tion)hascreatedsignificantnewemploymentopportunities.IndustrialArts.Somemembers of theartisancastes(goldsmiths,blacksmiths,carpenters,potters,andtemplebuilders)stillcreatetraditionalgoods,suchasjewelry,oxcarts,hoes,andcookingpots,althoughsuchgoodsfacestiffcompetitionfromindustriallymanufacturedplasticandalu-minumgoods,sothattraditionalgoodsareincreasinglyusedonlyforceremonialpurposes.VeryfewindustrialenterprisesarelocatedinTamilregions,withtheexception of thestate-ownedcementfactoryatKankesanthuraialongthenortherncoast,thechemicalfactoryatParanthan,andapaperfactoryatValaicheneiintheeast.Private-sectorventuresincludemanufacturingorassembly of garments,toys,candies,bot-tledjuices,andsoap.Butindigenousgoodsareregardedasshoddyandreceivestiffcompetitionfromimportsandram-pantsmuggling.Trade.Theruraleconomyisthoroughlycash-based.Vil-lageboutiqueownersandwealthyvillagersoftenengageothermoreimpecuniousvillagersinwhateventuallybecomesdebtservitude.Shopsintownsellneededconsumeritems,andweeklyvillagemarketsprovidemarginaleconomicnichesforitineranttradersandvillagecash-cropagriculturalists.Trans-portisprovidedbybullockcarts,tractorspullingflatbedtrail-ers,oldautomobiles,lighttrucks,andtheubiquitousCeylonTransitBoard(CTB),thenation'sbusservice.Division of Labor.TraditionalSriLankanTamilsocietyismale-dominatedandpatriarchal,withastrongdivision of laborbysex,arrangedmarriages,andatendencytodemeanfemaleroles.Femaleseclusionisaconcomitant of familysta-tus,thusdiscouragingwomenfromtravelorworkwithoutaconstantchaperone.However,significantnewemploymentThadou287trine.Thespecifics of religiouscustomsvarywidelyfromonelocalitytoanotherandevenbetweendifferentcastesinthesamevillage.Amongthemajortypes of ritualarefamilycere-monies,casteceremonies,andvillageceremonies.Inadditiontherange of deitiesworshipedvariesbetweenlocalities.Manydeitiesareassociatedwithparticularplacesorspecializedpowersorseasons.Butaunifyingthemeisasystem of wor-shipcalledpujainwhichofferingsarepresentedtoadeityinreturnforprotectionandhelp.Theofferingsimplyasubordi-nationbytheworshipersandincludethereceivingback of part of theitemsoffered-aftertheirspiritualessencehasbeenpartaken of bythedeity.Overarchingthehost of spe-cificdeitiesisatranscendentdivinity,bhagavanordevudu,re-sponsibleforcosmicorder.Peopleconceive of thisdeityinpersonifiedformssuchasVishnuandhisassociatedcircle of gods-includinghistenincarnations,amongwhomareRamaandKrishna,andtheirvariousfemaleconsorts,suchasLakshmi,Sita,andRukmini.ShivaandgodsassociatedwithhimincludehissonsGanapatiandSubrahmaniamandhiswifeParvati.Settlements,villagesortowns,haveatradition of female"villagedeities"(gramadevatas)whoprotecttheirlocalitiesaslongastheyareproperlypropitiatedbutcauseill-nessesiftheyarenot.Ghosts of deceasedhumans,especiallythose of peoplewhodieduntimelydeaths,canhoveraboutandinterferewithpeople,ascanothermalevolentforcessuchasinauspiciousstarsandevilspirits.Thesethwartpeople'splansorrendertheirchildrenill.ReligousPractitioners.Apersonactingastheofficiantinatemple,conductingorassistingtheworship,isknownasapujari,orpriest.Brahmansserveaspriestsintemplestodei-tiesassociatedwiththescripturaldeitiesknownthroughoutIndia,suchasRama,Shiva,orKrishna.Butmembers of manyothercastes,some of quitelowsocialrank,actaspriestsforawiderange of lesserdeities.Ceremonies.Thereislittleuniformityinthecelebration of festivalsacrosstheTelugucountry.Eachregionpresentsakaleidoscopicvariation of interpretationsandemphasesoncommonthemes.Inthenortheast,MakaraSankrantiistheprincipalharvestfestival.Itfeaturescastesworshipingthetools of theirtradesandaperiod of fairsfeaturingelaboratenight-longoperaticdramaperformances.Inthenorthwest,DasaraandChautiarethefestivalsduringwhichcasteswor-shiptheirimplements.Farther south, neartheKrishnaRiver,Ugadiisatimewhenartisansworshiptheirtools.AllregionshavefestivalsthathonorRama,Krishna,Shiva,andGanapati.Villagegoddessfestivals,celebratedondatesuniquetoindividualsettlements,arealsoamongthemostelaboratecel-ebrations of theyear.Theserituals-entailingtheoffering of chickens,goats,orsheep-mobilizeextensiveintercasteco-operationtoensurethehealth of thewholecommunity.Alsoimportantintheworship of villagegoddessesisthepractice of makingvowstoachievespecificpersonalbenefits,suchasthecuring of ailmentsorfinding of lostobjects.Periodicallywhenemergenciesarise-intheform of epidemics,aspate of fires,orsuddendeaths-thesegoddessesarebelievedtore-quirepropitiation.Life-cycleritualsvarygreatlybetweencastesandregions.Allservetodefinesocialstatuses,markingthetransitionsbe-tweenimmaturityandadult(married)status,aswellasbe-tweenlifeanddeath.Theyalsoservetodefinecircles of inter-dependentrelativesandcastes.Weddingsstandoutasthemostelaborateandsignificantlife-cyclerites.Theyarehighlycomplex,involvehugeexpenditures,lastseveraldays,anden-tailtheinvitationandfeeding of largenumbers of guests.Fu-neraryritesarealsohighlysignificant,definingthelinealrela-tiveswhoshareritualpollutioncausedbythedeath of amember.Inaddition,theymarksocialstatusesbytreatingthebody of amandifferentlyfromthat of awoman(crematingitfaceuporfacedown,respectively)andbydisposing of thebody of animmaturechilddifferentlyfromthat of amarriedadult(byburialorcremation,respectively).SeealsoReddiBibliographyDube,S.C.(1967).IndianVillage.NewYork:Harper&Row.Hiebert,PaulG.(1971).Konduru:StructureandIntegrationina South IndianVillage.Minneapolis:University of Minne-sotaPress.Tapper,BruceElliot(1987).RivalryandTribute:SocietyandRitualinaTeluguVillagein South India.Delhi:HindustanPublishingCorp.BRUCEELLIOTTAPPERThadouETHNONYM:Thadu,NewKuki(in19thcentury)OrientationTheThadouareaKukipeoplelocatedchieflyinthehillcountryadjacenttotheImphalValleyinthenortheasternIn-dianstate of Manipur.Thisareaencompassessome26,000squarekilometers.TheThadousharemanyculturalaffinitieswiththeKoms,Aimols,Khotlhangs,Lusheis,Chins,Pois,Suktes,Paites,andGangtes.In1983therewere125,100ThadoulivinginIndiaand26,200livinginMyanmar(Burma).TheThadoulanguagebelongstotheTibeto-BurmanFamily of theSino-TibetanPhylum.ItsharesmanyelementswithMetei,Kachin,Garo,Lushei,andotherOldKukidialects.HistoryandCulturalRelationsThadoutraditionlinkstheiroriginwithanarea south of theircurrenthabitat.Intertribalconflictandtheneedforcultiva-blelandaretwo of thereasonscitedaspossiblecausesforthenortherlymigration of theThadou.However,Shawbelievesthattheyoriginatedinthenorth.ItishiscontentionthattheymoveddowntheImphalorGunRiver,thenproceededdowntheTuihat(Chindwin)Riveruntiltheyreachedthesea.Sincetheywereunabletotraversethisobstacle,theyre-treateduptheTuihatuntiltheyreachedthatpointwhereitmergedwiththeTeo(Tyao)River.Theretreatcontinueduntiltheyreachedtheirpresentlocation.TheThadoufeelTamil275whocontinuetolearnAyurveda,theIndiantraditionalmedi-cinethatisstillwidespreadinKerala.DeathandAfterlife.Manypeopleprefertobringtheircriticallyillrelativestotheirfamilyhomeswhereapriestwilladministerthelastritesandlastcommunion.Afterdeath,thebodyisrituallywashed,dressedup,andlaidonabedinalargeroomwithlightedcandlesbehindthehead of thede-parted.AllcloserelativesattendandsinghymnsandreadpassagesfromtheBible.Thefuneraltakesplacewithintwenty-fourhours.Thebodyistakentothechurchwhilepeo-plesinghymns.Aftertheburial,closerelativesandfriendscometothehouse of thedeceasedforasimplevegetarianmeal.Inthecase of olderpeoplelikeparents,therewillbeamemorialchurchserviceonthefortiethdayafterdeathandalsoanelaboratevegetarianlunchtowhichallrelativesandpeopleinthecommunityareinvited.SeealsoIndianChristians;MalayaliBibliographyBrown,L.W.(1956).TheIndianChristians of St.Thomas.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.TamangETHNONYMS:Dhamang,Lama,MurmiEapen,K.V.(1985).ChurchMissionarySocietyandEduca-tioninKerala.Kerala:KollettPublication.Kurian,George(1961).TheIndianFamilyinTransition-ACaseStudy of KeralaSyrianChristians.TheHague:Mouton.Menon,SreedharaA.(1978).CulturalHeritage of Kerala:AnIntroduction.Cochin:East-WestPublications.Miller,Peter(1988)."India'sUnpredictableKerala,Jewel of theMalabarCoast."NationalGeographic173:59 2-6 17.Podipara,PlacidJ.(1970).TheThomasChristians.London:Darton,Longman&Todd.Potham,S.G.(1963).TheSyrianChristians of Kerala.Bom-bay: Asia PublishingHouse.Thomas,P.(1954).ChristiansandChristianityinIndiaandPakistan.London:Allen&Unwin.Woodcock,George(1967).Kerala:APortrait of theMalabarCoast.London:Faber&Faber.GEORGEKURIANBibliographyFiirer-Haimendorf,Christophvon(1956)."EthnographicNotesontheTamangs of Nepal."EasternAnthropologist9:16 6-1 77.TheTamang,numberingsome500,000in1985,occupymountainousregionsandthehillssurroundingtheKath-manduValleyinmidwesternNepal.TheTamangarecom-posed of patrilinealexogamousclansthatareclassifiedintotwoendogamousstatusgroups:thosewhosemembershaveintermarriedonlywithTamangsorSherpasandthosewhosemembershaveintermarriedwithMagars,Gurungs,orNewars.InthemountainswheretheTamangarethemajorethnicgroup,theyliveinsettledagriculturalvillagesoftensubdividedintolineage-basedhamlets.Intheseareas,eachclancontrolstracts of commonlyownedland(kipat).Theclanalsoappointsavillageheadmanortaxcollectorwhoar-bitratesdisputesandmanagestheland.Eachvillagealsohasoneormoreshamans(sometimesoneforeachclan)whoconductriteshonoringancestorsandtheannualagriculturalrite.TheTamanghavelamastoo,withendogamousmarriagetodaughters of lamaspreferredbutnotalwayspracticed.LargervillagesoftenhaveaBuddhisttempleandperhapsamonastery.InthehillsaroundtheKathmanduValley,theTamangarebestdescribedasalowercastewhoworkasten-antfarmers,porters,anddaylaborersforthePahariandNewarwhileretainingtheirBuddhistbeliefsandpractices.SeealsoNepali;NyinbaTamilETHNONYMS:Tamilar,TamilianOrientationIdentification.IndianTamilsarethosewhospeakTamil.TheirhomelandinIndiafromancienttimeswasknownas"TamilNadu"(land)or"Tamilakam"(home),nowlargelycoterminouswiththestate of TamilNaduplusthesmallter-ritory of Pondicherry.TamilsarealsofoundinSriLanka,Ma-laysia,Fiji,Britain,andNorthAmerica.ILocation.TamilNaduisthesouthwesternmoststate of India,extendingfromMadrascitytothesoutherncape,be-tweenabout8°and130Nand76°and80°E.Thestateis130,058squarekilometersinareaandwasformedalongwithotherlinguisticstatesaftertheindependence of India.ItismostlyasunnyplaindrainingeastwardwiththeKaveriRiverbasininitscenter.TheWesternGhatsaremountainssepa-ratingTamilNadufromKerala;theseriseto2,400metersinTharu293predominanteconomicandpoliticalpowertheresincetheconquest of thevillageandtheregionbytheirancestorsinthesixteenthcentury.TheThakurs of todaytracetheirances-trytoGaneshRai,whosucceededinconqueringatractaroundMadhopurthatisnowcalledDobhiTaluka.Thereseemtobetwoschools of thoughtondressamongthetwoseparategroups of Thakurs(KaandMa).TheKawomennormallydonotwearabodicewiththeirsaris,sotheyleavetheirbreastsbare.UnliketheKa,theMawomenwearbodices,buttheytoountilafewyearsagousedtoleavetheirbreastsbare.Aftermarriage,Kawomenleavetheirleftbut-tockuncoveredasit ... of spe-cificdeitiesisatranscendentdivinity,bhagavanordevudu,re-sponsibleforcosmicorder.Peopleconceive of thisdeityinpersonifiedformssuchasVishnuandhisassociatedcircle of gods-includinghistenincarnations,amongwhomareRamaandKrishna,andtheirvariousfemaleconsorts,suchasLakshmi,Sita,andRukmini.ShivaandgodsassociatedwithhimincludehissonsGanapatiandSubrahmaniamandhiswifeParvati.Settlements,villagesortowns,haveatradition of female"villagedeities"(gramadevatas)whoprotecttheirlocalitiesaslongastheyareproperlypropitiatedbutcauseill-nessesiftheyarenot.Ghosts of deceasedhumans,especiallythose of peoplewhodieduntimelydeaths,canhoveraboutandinterferewithpeople,ascanothermalevolentforcessuchasinauspiciousstarsandevilspirits.Thesethwartpeople'splansorrendertheirchildrenill.ReligousPractitioners.Apersonactingastheofficiantinatemple,conductingorassistingtheworship,isknownasapujari,orpriest.Brahmansserveaspriestsintemplestodei-tiesassociatedwiththescripturaldeitiesknownthroughoutIndia,suchasRama,Shiva,orKrishna.Butmembers of manyothercastes,some of quitelowsocialrank,actaspriestsforawiderange of lesserdeities.Ceremonies.Thereislittleuniformityinthecelebration of festivalsacrosstheTelugucountry.Eachregionpresentsakaleidoscopicvariation of interpretationsandemphasesoncommonthemes.Inthenortheast,MakaraSankrantiistheprincipalharvestfestival.Itfeaturescastesworshipingthetools of theirtradesandaperiod of fairsfeaturingelaboratenight-longoperaticdramaperformances.Inthenorthwest,DasaraandChautiarethefestivalsduringwhichcasteswor-shiptheirimplements.Farther south, neartheKrishnaRiver,Ugadiisatimewhenartisansworshiptheirtools.AllregionshavefestivalsthathonorRama,Krishna,Shiva,andGanapati.Villagegoddessfestivals,celebratedondatesuniquetoindividualsettlements,arealsoamongthemostelaboratecel-ebrations of theyear.Theserituals-entailingtheoffering of chickens,goats,orsheep-mobilizeextensiveintercasteco-operationtoensurethehealth of thewholecommunity.Alsoimportantintheworship of villagegoddessesisthepractice of makingvowstoachievespecificpersonalbenefits,suchasthecuring of ailmentsorfinding of lostobjects.Periodicallywhenemergenciesarise-intheform of epidemics,aspate of fires,orsuddendeaths-thesegoddessesarebelievedtore-quirepropitiation.Life-cycleritualsvarygreatlybetweencastesandregions.Allservetodefinesocialstatuses,markingthetransitionsbe-tweenimmaturityandadult(married)status,aswellasbe-tweenlifeanddeath.Theyalsoservetodefinecircles of inter-dependentrelativesandcastes.Weddingsstandoutasthemostelaborateandsignificantlife-cyclerites.Theyarehighlycomplex,involvehugeexpenditures,lastseveraldays,anden-tailtheinvitationandfeeding of largenumbers of guests.Fu-neraryritesarealsohighlysignificant,definingthelinealrela-tiveswhoshareritualpollutioncausedbythedeath of amember.Inaddition,theymarksocialstatusesbytreatingthebody of amandifferentlyfromthat of awoman(crematingitfaceuporfacedown,respectively)andbydisposing of thebody of animmaturechilddifferentlyfromthat of amarriedadult(byburialorcremation,respectively).SeealsoReddiBibliographyDube,S.C.(1967).IndianVillage.NewYork:Harper&Row.Hiebert,PaulG.(1971).Konduru:StructureandIntegrationina South IndianVillage.Minneapolis:University of Minne-sotaPress.Tapper,BruceElliot(1987).RivalryandTribute:SocietyandRitualinaTeluguVillagein South India.Delhi:HindustanPublishingCorp.BRUCEELLIOTTAPPERThadouETHNONYM:Thadu,NewKuki(in19thcentury)OrientationTheThadouareaKukipeoplelocatedchieflyinthehillcountryadjacenttotheImphalValleyinthenortheasternIn-dianstate of Manipur.Thisareaencompassessome26,000squarekilometers.TheThadousharemanyculturalaffinitieswiththeKoms,Aimols,Khotlhangs,Lusheis,Chins,Pois,Suktes,Paites,andGangtes.In1983therewere125,100ThadoulivinginIndiaand26,200livinginMyanmar(Burma).TheThadoulanguagebelongstotheTibeto-BurmanFamily of theSino-TibetanPhylum.ItsharesmanyelementswithMetei,Kachin,Garo,Lushei,andotherOldKukidialects.HistoryandCulturalRelationsThadoutraditionlinkstheiroriginwithanarea south of theircurrenthabitat.Intertribalconflictandtheneedforcultiva-blelandaretwo of thereasonscitedaspossiblecausesforthenortherlymigration of theThadou.However,Shawbelievesthattheyoriginatedinthenorth.ItishiscontentionthattheymoveddowntheImphalorGunRiver,thenproceededdowntheTuihat(Chindwin)Riveruntiltheyreachedthesea.Sincetheywereunabletotraversethisobstacle,theyre-treateduptheTuihatuntiltheyreachedthatpointwhereitmergedwiththeTeo(Tyao)River.Theretreatcontinueduntiltheyreachedtheirpresentlocation.TheThadoufeelTamil275whocontinuetolearnAyurveda,theIndiantraditionalmedi-cinethatisstillwidespreadinKerala.DeathandAfterlife.Manypeopleprefertobringtheircriticallyillrelativestotheirfamilyhomeswhereapriestwilladministerthelastritesandlastcommunion.Afterdeath,thebodyisrituallywashed,dressedup,andlaidonabedinalargeroomwithlightedcandlesbehindthehead of thede-parted.AllcloserelativesattendandsinghymnsandreadpassagesfromtheBible.Thefuneraltakesplacewithintwenty-fourhours.Thebodyistakentothechurchwhilepeo-plesinghymns.Aftertheburial,closerelativesandfriendscometothehouse of thedeceasedforasimplevegetarianmeal.Inthecase of olderpeoplelikeparents,therewillbeamemorialchurchserviceonthefortiethdayafterdeathandalsoanelaboratevegetarianlunchtowhichallrelativesandpeopleinthecommunityareinvited.SeealsoIndianChristians;MalayaliBibliographyBrown,L.W.(1956).TheIndianChristians of St.Thomas.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.TamangETHNONYMS:Dhamang,Lama,MurmiEapen,K.V.(1985).ChurchMissionarySocietyandEduca-tioninKerala.Kerala:KollettPublication.Kurian,George(1961).TheIndianFamilyinTransition-ACaseStudy of KeralaSyrianChristians.TheHague:Mouton.Menon,SreedharaA.(1978).CulturalHeritage of Kerala:AnIntroduction.Cochin:East-WestPublications.Miller,Peter(1988)."India'sUnpredictableKerala,Jewel of theMalabarCoast."NationalGeographic173:59 2-6 17.Podipara,PlacidJ.(1970).TheThomasChristians.London:Darton,Longman&Todd.Potham,S.G.(1963).TheSyrianChristians of Kerala.Bom-bay: Asia PublishingHouse.Thomas,P.(1954).ChristiansandChristianityinIndiaandPakistan.London:Allen&Unwin.Woodcock,George(1967).Kerala:APortrait of theMalabarCoast.London:Faber&Faber.GEORGEKURIANBibliographyFiirer-Haimendorf,Christophvon(1956)."EthnographicNotesontheTamangs of Nepal."EasternAnthropologist9:16 6-1 77.TheTamang,numberingsome500,000in1985,occupymountainousregionsandthehillssurroundingtheKath-manduValleyinmidwesternNepal.TheTamangarecom-posed of patrilinealexogamousclansthatareclassifiedintotwoendogamousstatusgroups:thosewhosemembershaveintermarriedonlywithTamangsorSherpasandthosewhosemembershaveintermarriedwithMagars,Gurungs,orNewars.InthemountainswheretheTamangarethemajorethnicgroup,theyliveinsettledagriculturalvillagesoftensubdividedintolineage-basedhamlets.Intheseareas,eachclancontrolstracts of commonlyownedland(kipat).Theclanalsoappointsavillageheadmanortaxcollectorwhoar-bitratesdisputesandmanagestheland.Eachvillagealsohasoneormoreshamans(sometimesoneforeachclan)whoconductriteshonoringancestorsandtheannualagriculturalrite.TheTamanghavelamastoo,withendogamousmarriagetodaughters of lamaspreferredbutnotalwayspracticed.LargervillagesoftenhaveaBuddhisttempleandperhapsamonastery.InthehillsaroundtheKathmanduValley,theTamangarebestdescribedasalowercastewhoworkasten-antfarmers,porters,anddaylaborersforthePahariandNewarwhileretainingtheirBuddhistbeliefsandpractices.SeealsoNepali;NyinbaTamilETHNONYMS:Tamilar,TamilianOrientationIdentification.IndianTamilsarethosewhospeakTamil.TheirhomelandinIndiafromancienttimeswasknownas"TamilNadu"(land)or"Tamilakam"(home),nowlargelycoterminouswiththestate of TamilNaduplusthesmallter-ritory of Pondicherry.TamilsarealsofoundinSriLanka,Ma-laysia,Fiji,Britain,andNorthAmerica.ILocation.TamilNaduisthesouthwesternmoststate of India,extendingfromMadrascitytothesoutherncape,be-tweenabout8°and130Nand76°and80°E.Thestateis130,058squarekilometersinareaandwasformedalongwithotherlinguisticstatesaftertheindependence of India.ItismostlyasunnyplaindrainingeastwardwiththeKaveriRiverbasininitscenter.TheWesternGhatsaremountainssepa-ratingTamilNadufromKerala;theseriseto2,400metersinTharu293predominanteconomicandpoliticalpowertheresincetheconquest of thevillageandtheregionbytheirancestorsinthesixteenthcentury.TheThakurs of todaytracetheirances-trytoGaneshRai,whosucceededinconqueringatractaroundMadhopurthatisnowcalledDobhiTaluka.Thereseemtobetwoschools of thoughtondressamongthetwoseparategroups of Thakurs(KaandMa).TheKawomennormallydonotwearabodicewiththeirsaris,sotheyleavetheirbreastsbare.UnliketheKa,theMawomenwearbodices,buttheytoountilafewyearsagousedtoleavetheirbreastsbare.Aftermarriage,Kawomenleavetheirleftbut-tockuncoveredasit ... of theparents of eitherbride,groom,orboth.Thebride-priceissettledatsomepointaftertheuniontakesplace.Postmaritalresidenceispatrilocal.Divorceisfrequentandpermissible.Inheritanceisexclusivelythroughthemaleline.Thadouwomenarethechiefagents of socialization.Childrenarepermittedagreatdegree of independenceoncetheyareabletowalk.Littlestructurededucationisprovidedbyparents,therebyleavingtheThadouchildtolearnthroughexperientialmeans.SociopoliticalOrganizationShawprovidedlittleinformationaboutthepoliticalstructure of thetraditionalThadouvillage.Fromwhathehasmen-tioned,theposition of chief/headmanwas of primaryimpor-tance.Thechiefwasusuallyinpossession of thelargestdomi-cileinavillage.Thegatheringpointforvillagemaleswasadjacenttothechief'shome.Thechiefalsohadtherighttoconfiscatestandingcropsandstoredgrainbelongingtoanymember of thevillagewhomigratedfromtherewithouthispermission.Further,inregionalintervillagecombat,itwascustomarytotakechiefshostageratherthantokillthem.Ithasbeensuggestedthatthiswasduetothebeliefthatallchiefswererelatedbyblood.Thechiefisowner of allvillagelandsandreceivesthebenefit of dues(e.g.,annualcultiva-tiondue,migrationdue,andtheduepaidbyanyonesellinggayals,buffalo,orothercattle)andrequiredservicesfromhissubjects(e.g.,eachvillagermustworkonedayeachmonthinthechief'sfields).Socialcontrolismaintainedbytheimposi-.Telugu285southernpart of theTelugucountrywasconqueredbyMus-linmsin1565.Europeantraders-Dutch,French,andEnglish-attractedbytextilesandspicesbeganarrivingonthesceneinthesixteenthcentury.TheBritishultimatelypre-vailedintheeighteenthcentury,acquiringcontrolfromtherulers of Golkondaoverextensivetractsinthenortheastcoastalbelt of theTelugucountry.Latertheseterritorieswerelinkedwiththosetheyacquiredinthe south andruledfromthecity of Madras.Thenorthwesternpart of theTelugu-speakinglandsremainedinwhatbecamethestate of theNizam of Hyderabad,whoseforeignaffairsanddefensecametobecontrolledbytheBritish.PoliticaltrendssinceIndianindependencein1947in-cludethreedecades of dominancebytheCongressparty.Thiswasfollowedbytheascent of theregionalTeluguDesam.party,spearheadedbyaformerTelugumovieidol,N.T.RamaRao.SettlementsTeluguvillagesrangeinsizefromseveralhundredinpopula-tiontomanythousand,withlargeronesresemblingsmalltowns.Frequentlyseveral"hamlets"areaffiliatedtogetherasasinglevillage.Insomecases,theconstituentsettlementshavebeendesignatedavillagebythegovernmentforpur-poses of taxation,economicdevelopment,andpoliticalrepre-sentation.Typicallythemainsettlement of thevillagehasthewidestvariety of castes(orjatis,endogamousgroupsoftenas-sociatedwithparticularoccupations),withatemple,smallshops,teaanddrinkstalls,aweeklymarket,apostoffice,andavillageschool.Quarters of formerUntouchablecastesaretraditionallysegregatedfromtheotherhouses of asettlement.Teluguhousetypesvaryconsiderablyevenwithinthesamevillage.Differencesinconstructionmaterialsusuallyin-dicatedifferingeconomicstatuses.Dwellingsrangefrommud-walled,single-familyhouseswithpalm-thatchedroofstohousesmade of brickandmortar-orstoneinsomeregions-withflat,cementroofs.Allhouseshaveatleastoneinnerroomwherethefamilyvaluablesarestored,ceremonialbrassvessels(dowry)aredisplayed,anddeitiesareworshipedatasmallshrine.Aroofedverandawithcookingnookliesoutsidethisinnerroom.Forthehighestcastes,forwhomitisimportantthatcookingtakeplacebeyondthepollutinggaze of outsiders,thecookingareaisadjacenttotheback of thedwellinginawalledcompound.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Thefoodgrainheldinhighestesteemisrice,cultivatedintensivelyintheKrishnaandGodavarideltasaswellasextensivelythrough-outotherparts of thecoastalzoneandinscatteredparts of theinterior.Awayfromstreamsirrigationisbyreservoirsknownastanks.Theseareformedwithearthendamsthatholdrainwaterinthewetseason.Otherfoodgrains,grownonnonirrigatedlands,arealsoimportant.Mungbeans,limabeans,andblack-eyedpeasarewidelycultivated,asareses-ameseedsandpeanutsforoil.Populargardenvegetables,grownforhomeuseandforsale,includetomatoes,eggplants,onions,garlic,chilies,bittergourds,pumpkins,okra,yams,ginger,andcorn.Widelygrownfruitsincludemangoes,tama-rinds,guavas,bananas,coconuts,custardapples,sapodillas,limes,toddy-palm(palmyra,Borassusflabellifer),cashews,andpineapples.Turmericrootisalsocultivated,asismus-tard,fenugreek,coriander,andfennel.Inadditiontorice,im-portantcommercialcropsaresugarcane,tobacco,andcot-ton.Chiliesarecultivatedthroughoutthestateforsale.Fishingisimportantalongthecoastaswellasininlandtanks.Cultivationismainlyunmechanized,exceptforgasoline-poweredpumpsusedbywealthierfarmerstoaidirrigation.Bullocksorwaterbuffaloareusedtopullwoodenplowsrein-forcedwithirontips.Cropsareharvestedbyhand.Inadditiontocattleandwaterbuffalo-whichareusednotformeatbutfordairyproducts-numerousotherdomes-ticanimalsareraised.Theseincludechickens,ducks,turkeys,goats,sheep,andpigs.Dogsarekeptbysomevillagersforhunting.IndustrialArts.TelugusocietywithitsHinducastesys-temhasahighlydevelopedtradition of familytransmission of manufacturingandfood-processingskills.Amongtheseareblacksmithing,carpentry,goldsmithing,cottonandsilkweav-ing,basketmaking,pottery,andoilpressing.Manyvillagersweavetheirownbaskets,maketheirownropefrompalmfiber,andthatchtheirownroofs.Trade.Villagemarketssellingfreshvegetables,meat,spices,cloth,andbanglesaretypicallyheldonedayeachweek.Generallyoneparticularlylargeweeklymarketonamainbusrouteservesasamagnetforanentireruralregion.Women of farmercastesoftenbringproducefromtheirfami-lies'farms,andtheirhusbandsengageinpettytrading,offer-ingchickensforsale.Pottersandsellers of banglesandcloth-ingalsooffertheirwares.Professionalmerchantcastesmaintainsmallprovisionstores,whichareopendailyinthevillages.Division of Labor.TOagreatextent,women'stimeistakenupwithchildrearingandfoodpreparation.However,amongthemiddleandlowercasteswomenengageinstrenu-ousphysicalagriculturallaborsuchastransplantingriceshootsandharvesting.Intowns,womenworkonconstruc-tionsites,carryingheavybasketswithcementorbricksorbreakingrocks.Butamongthehighercastestherearerestric-tionsonwomengoingout of theirhomesorevenappearinginpublicunescorted.InTelugusocietylaborismoststrikinglydividedbycaste.Castesareeconomicallyinterdependentendogamousgroupsoftenassociatedwithparticularoccupationsorcrafts-barbering,washing,andoilpressing,forinstance.LandTenure.Landisheldbyhouseholdsandpassespa-trilineallyalongthemaleline,inequalsharesbetweenbroth-ers.Landisnotownedbyallfamiliesbutratherheldmainlybymembers of fannercastes,aswellasbymembers of highercasteswhoemploylowercastestocultivateit.Foodistradi-tionallydistributedthroughouttheruralpopulationviaex-change of grainorcashforservices.Landlesslower-castemembers of societywhocannotsupportthemselvesinthevil-lageeconomyfrequentlymigratetourbanareastoworkforwages.Theythenusuallymaintaintieswiththeirhomevillage.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.Anindividualisamember of thefollowinggroups:(1)afamilyresidinginahousehold...

... ContentsProjectStaffviContributorsviiPrefacexiiiIntroductionxixMaps1. South Asia xxviii2.CulturalRegions of South Asia xxix3.MajorLanguages of South Asia xxx4.DominantReligiousGroups of South Asia xxxi5.CulturalGroups of South Asia xxxii Cultures of South Asia 1 Appendix: AdditionalCastes,CasteClusters,andTribes309Bibliography342EthnonymIndexto Appendix 349Glossary363Filmography367Index372Bibliography373Directory of Distributors373EthnonymIndex375Introductionxxipopulationin1990 ... features of ordinarylifeinthesubcontinent.Withoutclaiminganyfa-vorites,wewillsimplypointtothework of AhmadAli,MulkRajAnand,BankimChandraChatterjee,NiradC.Chaud-huri,AnitaDesai,RuthPrawerJhabvala,HanifKureishi,ManoharMalgonkar,KamalaMarkandaya,VedMehta,W.D.Merchant,RohintonMistry,RK.Narayan,RajaRao,SalmanRushdie,KushwantSingh,andRabindranathTagore(theirmanybooksarenotlistedinthefollowingbibliogra-phy). Of BritishliteraturedealingwiththeoldIndiathereisamassiveamount:mostoutstandingsurelyareRudyardKipling'sshortstories,E.M.Forster'sAPassagetoIndia(1924),andLeonardWoolf'sVillageintheJungle(1913).AfineintroductiontoIndianreligionsandphilosophywaseditedbydeBary(1958),anewedition of whichwasre-centlyprepared.Verysimilarinitscoverage of HinduismandBuddhism,andlikethepreceding volume featuringmanytranslationsfromtheclassics,isRadhakrishnanandMoore(1957).AnothersuccinctintroductiontoIndianphilosophyisBishop(1975).Aconcisedictionary of HinduismisStutleyandStutley(1977);Garrett(187 1-1 873),thoughold,mayalsoberecommended.Thenaturalhistory of thesubcontinenthasbeenstudiedinincredibledetail,andsothereare,forexample,excellenthandbooksontheflora of eachregion(most of themnowquiteold,however).Asuperbnewencyclopedicsurveythatcoversflora,fauna,geography,geology,andclimatologyinasingle volume iseditedbyHawkins(1986).Alsoveryusefulforitsbotanical,zoological,andhistoricalinformation(al-thoughnotforitsout -of- dateeconomicdata)isWatt(1908),whichisaone -volume abridgment of ADictionary of theEconomicProducts of Indiathathewrotein188 5-1 893.Amodem encyclopedia that ... IntroductionxxviiWilliams,L.F.Rushbrook,ed.(1975).AHandbookfo'rTravellersinIndia,Pakistan,Nepal,Bangladesh&SriLanka(Ceylon).22nded.London:JohnMurray.Yule,Henry,andA.C.Burnell(1903).Hobson-Jobson,AGlossary of ColoquialAnglo-IndianWordsandPhrases,and of KindredTerms,Etymological,Historical,Geographical,andDiscursive.Rev.ed.London:JohnMurray.Reprint.1968.NewYork.HumanitiesPress;numerousreissues.PAULHOCKINGSPrefacexviitheproject,andnotjustfortheirownvolumesbutalsofortheprojectasawhole.TimothyO'Leary,TerenceHays,andPaulHockingsdeservespecialthanksfortheircommentsonthisprefaceandtheglossary,asdoesMelvinEmber,presi-dent of theHumanRelationsAreaFiles.Members of the of- ficeandtechnicalstaffalsomustbethankedforsoquicklyandcarefullyattendingtothemanytasksaproject of thissizeinevitablygenerates.TheyareErlindaMaramba,AbrahamMaramba,VictoriaCrocco,NancyGratton,andDouglasBlack.AtMacmillanandG.K.Hall,the encyclopedia hasbenefitedfromthewiseandcarefuleditorialmanagement of EllyDickason,ElizabethKubik,andElizabethHolthaus,andtheeditorialandproductionmanagement of AraSalibian.Finally,IwouldliketothankMelvinEmberandtheboard of directors of theHumanRelationsAreaFilesfortheiradministrativeandintellectualsupportforthisproject.DAVIDLEVINSONReferencesMurdock,GeorgePeter(1967).EthnographicAtlas.Pitts-burgh,Penn.,University of PittsburghPress.Murdock,GeorgePeter(1983).Outline of World Cultures. 6threv.ed.NewHaven,Conn.,HumanRelationsAreaFiles. ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD CULTURES DavidLevinsonEditorinChiefNorthAmericaOceania South Asia Europe(Central,Western,andSoutheasternEurope)EastandSoutheast Asia SovietUnion(EasternEuropeandRussia)andChina South AmericaMiddleAmericaandtheCaribbeanAfricaandtheMiddleEastBibliographyThe Encyclopedia of World Cultures waspreparedundertheauspicesandwiththesupport of theHumanRelationsAreaFilesatYaleUniversity.HRAF,theforemostinternationalresearchorganizationinthefield of cul-turalanthropology,isanot-for-profitconsortium of twenty-threesponsor-ingmembersand300participatingmemberinstitutionsintwenty-fivecoun-tries.TheHRAFarchive,establishedin1949,containsnearlyonemillionpages of informationonthe cultures of the world. xContributorsTrilokiNathMadanInstitute of EconomicGrowthUniversity of DelhiDelhiIndiaL.K.MahapatraSambalpurUniversitySambalpur,OrissaIndiaClarenceMaloneyLouisBerger,International,Inc.NewDelhiIndiaJoanP.MencherDepartment of AnthropologyHerbertH.LehmanCollegeCityUniversity of NewYorkBronx,NewYorkUnitedStatesW.D.MerchantDepartment of SocialandBehavioralSciences South SuburbanCollege South Holland,IllinoisUnitedStatesPromodeKumarMisraDepartment of AnthropologyNorth-EasternHillUniversityShillong,MeghalayaIndiaBrianMorrisDepartment of SocialAnthropologyGoldsmiths'CollegeUniversity of LondonLondonUnitedKingdomNilsFinnMunch-PetersenLouisBerger,International,Inc.NewDelhiIndiaSerenaNandaDepartment of AnthropologyJohnJayCollege of CriminalJusticeCityUniversity of NewYorkNewYork,NewYorkUnitedStatesWilliamA.NobleDepartment of GeographyUniversity of MissouriColumbia,MissouriUnitedStatesPandit of KashmirOriyaDivehi;TamilNambudiriBrahman;NayarBania;Castes,Hindu;Maratha;ParsiPeripateticsHillPandaramDivehiHijraIruLaProjectStaffEditorialBoardResearchSaraJ.DickJayDiMaggioAlliyaS.ElahiSarwatS.ElahiNancyE.GrattonLeShonKimbleSaidehMoayed-SanandajiHughR.Page,Jr.AngelitoPalmaEditorialandProductionEllyDickasonEvaKitsosAbrahamMarambaVictoriaCroccoElizabethHolthausAraSalibianLindaA.BennettMemphisStateUniversityEuropeFernandoCamaraBarbachanoInstitutoNacionaldeAntropologiaeHistoria,MexicoCityMiddleAmericaandtheCaribbeanNormaJ.DiamondUniversity of MichiganChinaPaulFriedrichUniversity of ChicagoSovietUnionTerenceE.HaysRhodeIslandCollegeOceaniaCartographyRobertSullivanRhodeIslandCollegePaulHockingsUniversity of IllinoisatChicago South andSoutheast Asia RobertV.KemperSouthernMethodistUniversityMiddleAmericaandtheCaribbeanKazukoMatsuzawaNationalMuseum of Ethnology,OsakaEast Asia JohnH.MiddletonYaleUniversityAfricaTimothyJ.O'LearyHumanRelationsAreaFilesNorthAmericaAmalRassamQueensCollegeandtheGraduateCenter of theCityUniversity of NewYorkMiddleEastJohannesWilbertUniversity of CaliforniaatLosAngeles South AmericaviContributorsxiAlfredPach III Department of MedicalEducationUniversity of IllinoisatChicagoChicago,IllinoisUnitedStatesHughR.Page,Jr.Department of ReligiousStudiesCaliforniaStateUniversitySacramento,CaliforniaUnitedStatesVishvajitPandyaWestminsterCollegeFulton,MissouriUnitedStatesRobertParkinInstitutfurEthnologieFreieUniversititzuBerlinBerlinGermanyRobertPaulDepartment of AnthropologyEmoryUniversityAtlanta,GeorgiaUnitedStatesBryanPfaffenbergerDepartment of AnthropologyUniversity of VirginiaCharlottesville,VirginiaUnitedStatesMohammedHabiburRahmanDepartment of SociologyUniversity of DhakaDhakaBangladeshAparnaRaoInstitutfurV6lkerkundeUniversititzuKolnKolnGermanySankarKumarRoyDepartment of AnthropologyGauhatiUniversityGuwahati,AssamIndiaGhanshyamShahCentreforSocialStudies South GujaratUniversitySurat,GujaratIndiaNepaliAbor;Baiga;Bondo;Burusho;Khasi;Lakher;Nagas;Purum;SadhuAndamaneseMundaSherpaSinhalese;Tamil of SriLankaChakmaJatGaroGujaratiMEASUREMENTCONVERSIONS1992bytheHumanRelationsAreaFiles,Inc.Firstpublishedin1991byG.K.Hall&Co.1633Broadway,NewYork,NY10019,6785Allrightsreserved.Allrightsreserved.Nopart of thisbookmaybereproducedinanyformorbyanymeans,electronicormechanical,includingphotocopying,recording,orbyanyinformationstorageorretrievalsystemwithoutpermissioninwritingfromthepublisher.10Library of CongressCataloginginPublicationData(Revisedfor volume 3) Encyclopedia of world cultures. Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindexes.Filmography:v.1,p.40 7-4 15.Contents:v.1.NorthAmerica/TimothyJ.O'Leary,DavidLevinson, volume editors...

... thatlifecontinuesbe-yondthegrave,inalandwhereeach of theuyushasitsindi-vidualabode.Whenonedies,hisorhersoulistakentothedomain of theuyuwhowasthecause of death.Anindividualenjoysthesamestatusandlife-stylethatheorshehadwhilealive.Forthisreasonthedeceasedisprovidedwithfood,drink,possessions,andothertoolsandprovisionstoensurecomfortintheafterlife.BibliographyChowdhury,J.N.(1971).AComparativeStudy of AdiReli-gion.Shillong:North-EastFrontierAgency.Duff-Sutherland-Dunbar,G.(1905).AborandGalong.Memoirs of theRoyalAsiaticSociety of Bengal,5(extranumber).Calcutta.Ffirer-Haimendorf,Christophvon(1954)."ReligiousBeliefsandRitualPractices of theMinyongAbors of Assam,India."Anthropos49:58 8-6 04. Encyclopedia of World Cultures Volume III SOUTH AsiA AnavilBrahman7AhirETHNONYMS:Gahra,Gaolan,Gaoli,Gerala,Goala,Golkar,Mahakul,RawatTheAhirareacaste of cowherds,milkers,andcattlebreederswidelydispersedacrosstheGangeticPlain,espe-ciallyinthemoreeasternlypart(Bihar,Bengal,andeasternMadhyaPradesh).TheAhiirmustnumberwelloveramilliontoday:theynumbered750,000in ... thatlifecontinuesbe-yondthegrave,inalandwhereeach of theuyushasitsindi-vidualabode.Whenonedies,hisorhersoulistakentothedomain of theuyuwhowasthecause of death.Anindividualenjoysthesamestatusandlife-stylethatheorshehadwhilealive.Forthisreasonthedeceasedisprovidedwithfood,drink,possessions,andothertoolsandprovisionstoensurecomfortintheafterlife.BibliographyChowdhury,J.N.(1971).AComparativeStudy of AdiReli-gion.Shillong:North-EastFrontierAgency.Duff-Sutherland-Dunbar,G.(1905).AborandGalong.Memoirs of theRoyalAsiaticSociety of Bengal,5(extranumber).Calcutta.Ffirer-Haimendorf,Christophvon(1954)."ReligiousBeliefsandRitualPractices of theMinyongAbors of Assam,India."Anthropos49:58 8-6 04. Encyclopedia of World Cultures Volume III SOUTH AsiA AnavilBrahman7AhirETHNONYMS:Gahra,Gaolan,Gaoli,Gerala,Goala,Golkar,Mahakul,RawatTheAhirareacaste of cowherds,milkers,andcattlebreederswidelydispersedacrosstheGangeticPlain,espe-ciallyinthemoreeasternlypart(Bihar,Bengal,andeasternMadhyaPradesh).TheAhiirmustnumberwelloveramilliontoday:theynumbered750,000in ... Thus,"Abor"suggestsonewhodoesnotsubmitallegiance(i.e.,onewhoishostile,barbarous,orsavage).ThealternativeviewconnectsthewordwithAbo,theprimordialmaninAbormythology.Thefinal-ristakentobesimilartofinal-rrintribaldesignationssuchasAorr,Simirr,andYim-chungrr,whichmeans"man."Inthe1960s,theAborbegancallingthemselvesAdisbecause of thenegativeconnotations of theirformername(seeAdiinthe Appendix) .Location.AborcommunitiesinIndiaareconcentratedonthebanks of theSiangandYamnerivers.Theirterritory,totalingsome20,000squarekilometers,hastheIndia-Tibetborderasitsnorthernboundary,Pasighatasitssouthernboundary,andGallongcountryandtheSiyomriverasitswesternboundary.Theregion'sgeographiccoordinatesare28°and29°N,by95°and96"E.Demography.Accordingtothe1971censustherewere4,733Abor.AUnitedBibleSocietiessurveysuggestsatotalAdi-speakingpopulation of 84,026in1982.LinguisticAffiliation.TheAborspeakAdi(alsocalledMiri,Abor,Arbor,orMishing),alanguage of theTibeto-BurmanStockbelongingtotheSino-TibetanPhylum.HistoryandCulturalRelationsTheAborsimmigratedtotheirIndianhomelandfromthenorthcrossingtheHimalayasintotheAssamValley.Eventu-allytheyretreatedintothehighlandregionsthattheycur-rentlyoccupy.Thecause of thismigrationisunknown,al-thoughnaturalcausesandpoliticalupheavalhavebeensug.gestedaspossiblecatalysts.Itisalsonotknownwhethertheymigratedasasolidbodyatasinglepointinhistory,orinsmallersubgroupsoveraperiod of severalhundredyears.Be-tween1847and1862,theBritishgovernmenttriedunsuc-cessfullytoconquerall of Aborterritory.Followingthefailure of severalmilitaryendeavors,atreatywasreachedthatguar-anteedlimitedBritishhegemonyanduninhibitedtradeandcommunicationonthefrontier.Inspite of occasionaltreatyviolations,anuneasypeacewasmaintained.AfterthefinalBritishmilitaryactionagainsttheAbor(inresponsetothemurder of theassistantpoliticalofficerandacompanion)in1912,thehillsnorth of Assamweredividedintowestern,central,andeasternsectionsforadministrativepurposes.Thelast of thesewerecollectivelygiventhename of SadiyaFron-tierTract.In1948,theTirapFrontierTractwasdividedintotheMishmiHillsDistrictandtheAborHillsDistrict.Finally,in1954,thename of theAborHillsDistrictwaschangedtotheSiangFrontierDivision.Sincethistime,theAborhaveundergoneconsiderableacculturation,whichhasresultedinanumber of changesinthenature of villagelife,thelocaleconomy,socialstructure,andpoliticalorganization.SettlementsVillagesareusuallybuiltonhilltops(thoughintheplains,Abortendtofollowthelocalpractice of buildingvillagesonlevelland).Preferenceisgiventothoselocationsthataffordaccesstoariverbyaslopinginclineononesideandthepro-tection of averysteepdeclineontheotherside.Housesarebuiltonelevatedplatforms.Theyarearrangedinrowsex-tendingfromthetoptothebottom of thehill,andarecon-structedsothattherearside of thehousefacesthehillitself.Publicbuildingsinatypicalvillageincludethemoshup(bach-elors'dormitory),therasheng(singlefemales'dormitory),andgranaries.Inoldervillages,stonewallswithwoodenrein-forcementsarefound.Majorbuildingmaterialsarebamboo,wood,thatchinggrass,andcane.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Themajorsub-sistenceactivitiesarehunting,fishing,gathering,agriculture,andbarter of surpluscropsforbasicnecessitiesandluxuries.Slash-and-burn(orjhum)agricultureisthenorm.Forestandundergrowtharecut,dried,andburned,afterwhichseedsareplanted.Soilfertilityismaintainedforaperiod of onetothreeyearsusingthismethod.Agriculturallandisgradedac-cordingtolatentfertility,andcropsareassignedaccordingly.36AborFiirer-Haimendorf,Christophvon(1962).TheApaTanisandTheirNeighbours.London:Routledge&KeganPaul.Lal,Parmanand,andBimanKumarDasGupta(1979).LowerSiangPeople.Calcutta:Government of India.Roy,Sachin(1960).Aspects of Padam-MinyongCulture.Shillong:Notth-EastFrontierAgency.Simoons,FrederickJ.,andElizabethS.Simoons(1968).ACeremonialOx of India:TheMithaninNature,Culture,andHistory.Madison:University of WisconsinPress.Srivastava,L.R.N.(1962).TheGallongs.Shillong:North-EastFrontierAgency.HUGHRPAGE,JRAgariaETHNONYMS:Agariya,AghariaAlthoughtheAgariaarenotahomogeneousgroup,itisbelievedtheywereoriginallyaDravidian-speakingbranch of theGondtribe.Asaseparatecaste,however,theydodistin-guishthemselvesfromothersbytheirprofessionasironsmelters.Theirpopulationwas17,548in1971,andtheywerewidelydispersedacrosscentralIndiaontheMaikalrangeinMandla,Raipur,andBilaspurdistricts of MadhyaPradesh.Thereareothercastes of AgariasamongtheLoharsaswell.TheAgaria'snamecomesfromeithertheHindugod of fireAgni,ortheirtribaldemonwhowasborninflame,Agyasur.TheAgarialiveintheirownsection of avillageortown,orsometimestheyhavetheirownhamletoutside of atown.Sometravelfromtowntotownworkingtheirtradeaswell.Asalreadyindicated,thetraditionaloccupation of theAgariaisironsmelting.TheygettheirorefromtheMaikalrange,pre.ferringstones of adarkreddishcolor.Oreandcharcoalareplacedinfurnacesthatareblastedbyapair of bellowsworkedbythesmelters'feetandchanneledtothefurnacethroughbambootubes,aprocessthatiskeptupforhours.Theclayin-sulation of thekilnisbrokenupandthemoltenslagandcharcoalaretakenandhammered.Theyproduceplowshares,mattocks,axes,andsickles.Traditionallybothmenandwomen(inBilaspurmenonly)collecttheoreandmakethecharcoalforthefurnaces.Atduskthewomencleanandpreparethekilnsforthenextday'swork,bycleaningandbreakingupthepieces of oreandroastingtheminanordinaryfire;thetuyeres(cylindricalclayventsfordeliveringairtoafurnace)arerolledbyhandandmadebythewomenaswell.Duringsmeltingoperationsthewomenworkthebellows,andthemenhammerandfashiontheoreonanvils.Theconstruction of anewfurnaceisanim-portanteventinvolvingthewholefamily:themendigtheholesforthepostsanddotheheavywork,thewomenplasterthewalls,andthechildrenbringwaterandclayfromtheriver;uponcompletion,amantra(prayer)isrecitedoverthefur-nacetoensureitsproductiveness.TherearetwoendogamoussubcastesamongtheAgaria,thePathariaandtheKhuntias.Thesetwosubgroupsdonotevensharewaterwitheachother.TheexogamousdivisionsusuallyhavethesamenamesastheGonds,suchasSonureni,Dhurua,Tekam,Markam,Uika,Purtai,Marai,tonameafew.SomenamessuchasAhindwar,Ranchirai,andRattoriaare of HindioriginandareanindicationthatsomenorthernHinduspossiblyhavebeenincorporatedintothetribe.Indi-vidualsbelongingtoasectionarebelievedtoconstitutealineagewithacommonancestorandarethereforeexoga-mous.Descentistracedpatrilineally.Marriagesareusuallyar-rangedbythefather.Whenaboy'sfatherdecidestoarrangeamarriage,emissariesaresenttothegirl'sfatherandifac-ceptedpresentswillfollow.ContrarytoHindumarriagecus-toms,marriageispermittedduringthemonsoonswhenironsmeltingispostponedandthereisnowork.Abride-priceisgenerallypaidafewdaysbeforetheceremony.AswiththeGonds,firstcousinsarepermittedtomarry.Widowmarriageisacceptedandisexpectedwithone'slatehusband'syoungerbrother,particularlyifheisabachelor.Divorceisallowedforeitherpartyincases of adultery,extravagance,ormistreat-ment.Ifawomanleavesherhusbandwithoutbeingdivorced,theothermanbycustomisobligatedtopayapricetothehusband.Evenamongthewidelydispersedsubgroups of theAgariatheretraditionallyhasbeendiscrimination:amongtheAsur,marriagewassanctionedbycustomwiththeChokh,althoughbothgroupsrefusedtomarrywiththeHinduLoharsubgroup,owingtotheirlowerstatus.ThefamilygodisDulhaDeo,towhomofferings of goats,fowl,coconuts,andcakesaremade.TheyalsosharetheGonddeity of theforest,BuraDeo.Lohasur,theirondemon,istheirprofessionaldeity,whomtheybelieveinhabitsthesmeltingkilns.DuringPhagunandontheday of DasahiatheAgariamakeofferings of fowlasasign of devotiontotheirsmeltingimplements.Traditionally,villagesorcererswerere-cruitedduringtimes of sicknesstodeterminethedeitywhohadbeenoffended,towhomanatonementwouldthenbeoffered.BibliographyElwin,Verrier(1942).TheAgaria.Oxford:HumphreyMil-ford,OxfordUniversityPress.Russell,R.V.,andHiraLal(1916)."Agaria."InTheTribesandCastes of theCentralProvinces of India,byR.V.RussellandHiraLal.Vol.2, 3-8 .Nagpur:GovernmentPrintingPress.Reprint.1969.Oosterhout:AnthropologicalPublications.JAYDiMAGGIOAbor5SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.Theprimaryallegiance of anindivid-ualistohisorherfamily.Thecohesion of largergroupswithinthesociety,suchassubclans,clans,andmoieties,canalsobeoccasionedbydisputesandconflictsthatthreatenoneormore of theconstituentmembers of theselargergroups.AmongtheAbor'sprimaryinstitutionsmustbein-cludedjhumagriculture,thenuclearfamily,themoshup,andtherasheng.Theanticipatedsecondaryinstitutions(i.e.,corereligiousbeliefs,ritualcults,andfolklorecorpus)alsoobtainamongtheAbor.Traditionally,socialstatuswasachievedthroughtheaccumulation of wealth.Today,educationandoccupationarealsoviewedassigns of status.PoliticalOrganization.Eachvillageisanautonomousunitwhoseaffairsareadministeredbyacouncil(kebang).Councilmembershipconsists of clanrepresentativesandin-dividualvillagemembers.Everyaspect of villagelifeisgov-ernedbythekebang.Thisincludesthemediation of localdis-putes.Groups of villagesareorganizedintobangos,whicharegovernedbyabangocouncil.Disputesbetweenbangosaremediatedbyabogumbokang(atemporaryinterbangocouncilmadeup of bangoeldersfromthesamegroup).SocialControl.Sources of conflictwithinAborsocietyin-cludemaritalandfamilialdisputes,divorce,theft,assault,andinheritancedisputes.Theresolution of conflictandtheregulation of behaviorwithin...

... hemustlearntoreadtheclassicalArabiclanguage)caneventuallybecometheworshipleader(mullahorimam) of alocalmosqueifsochosenbythecongregation.Furtherstudy of theQuranand of Muslimlaw(thesharia)mayqualifyamantobeareligiousleaderwithawiderfollowing,greaterstature,andsometimessignificantpoliticalinfluence.Bengali29Roland,Joan(1989).JewsinBritishIndia.Waltham,Mass.:BrandeisUniversityPress.Strizower,Schifra(1971)."VerbalInteractionamongtheBeneIsrael."InternationalJournal of theSociology of Language13:7 1-8 5.Weil,ShalvaJ.(1988)."TheInfluence of CasteIdeologyinIsrael."InCulturalTransition,editedbyM.Gottesman,15 0- 161.Jerusalem:MagnesPress.SHALVAJ.WEILBengaliETHNONYMS:Bangali,Bangladeshi(formerlyBengalee,Baboo)OrientationIdentification.TheBengalipeoplespeaktheBengali(Bangla)languageandliveintheBengalregion of theIndiansubcontinentlocatedinnortheastern South Asia, andmostfolloweithertheHinduortheMuslimfaith.TheBengalre.gionisdividedpoliticallybetweenthenation of BangladeshandtheIndianstate of WestBengal.BengalisthemselvesrefertotheirregionasBangladesh,meaningsimply'theBen-galihomeland,"atermadoptedbythepeople of easternBengalwhentheywonsovereignindependenceforthenation of Bangladeshin1971.ThenativeethnictermforthemselvesisBangli -of which"Bengali"isananglicization.However,Bengaliswhoarecitizens of BangladeshwillalsomostreadilycallthemselvesBangladeshi.Location.Lyingatthenorth of theBay of Bengalandroughlybetween22"and26°Nand86°and93°E,theBengalregionconsistslargely of avastalluvial,deltaicplain,builtupbytheGangesRiverandwateredalsobytheBrahma-putraRiversystemoriginatingintheeasternHimalayaMountains.Asinmuch of South Asia, monsoonwindsbringarainyseasonthatcanlastfromApriltomid-November.Bengal'stotalareaisapproximately233,000squarekilo-meters, of whichabout38percent(justunder89,000squarekilometers)isinIndia,theremaining62percent(144,000squarekilometers)constitutingthenation of Bangladesh.Demography.Accordingtothelastavailable(1981)cen-suses,India'sWestBengalcontainedsome47millionpeople(35percent)andBangladesh86millionpeople(65percent)claimingtobeprimaryspeakers of theBengalilanguage,withthetotal of around133millionconstitutingthe"cope"ethnicBengalipopulation.Tothistotalmustbeaddedatleastan-other7millionBengalispeakerslivinginadjacentornearbystates of India-Assam,3million;Bihar,2million;Tripura,1.4million;Orissa,378,000;Meghalaya,120,000;andNaga-land,27,000-formingakind of "Bengalidiaspora"that,al-thoughconcentratedinnortheastern South Asia, isactuallyworldwide,withlargenumbers of Bengalislivingasimmi-grantsintheUnitedStates,UnitedKingdom,andCanada.Insum,Bengaliscomprisedapopulation of about140mil-lionin1981,onewhichcanbeexpectedtohavegrownbyatleast25percentbythetimedatafrom1991censusesbe-comesavailable.Bengalispeakersmakeup85percent of thepopulation of WestBengal,whichotherwiseishometoanadditional9millionnon-Bengalipeople.Most of thesearefromotherparts of India,livinginthemetropolis of Calcutta,thestatecapital,buttherearesignificantnumbers of non-Bengalipeoplelocallyclassedas'tribals"inruralWestBengalaswell.Bangladeshisfarmorehomogeneous;allbut1percent of itspeopleidentifythemselvesasBengali.Most of theremaining900,000consist of non-Bengaliethnicgroupsalsolocallydesignatedas"tribal,"andthemajority of thesearespeakers of Tibeto-Burmanandotherminoritylanguages,oftenlivinginborderareas of thecountry.Somespeakers of dialects of Hindi-UrduremaininBangladeshaswell.OverallpopulationdensitiesinWestBengalwererecordedat615peoplepersquarekilometerin1981,rangingfrom466insomeruralareasto56,462inurbanlocalities(especiallyCal-cutta).InBangladeshoveralldensitiesreached624personspersquarekilometerby1981,risingto2,179intheurbanareas(especiallyDhaka,thenation'scapital),butalsoregis-teringaquitehigh693personspersquarekilometerinpart of thecountryside.LinguisticAffiliation.Likemost of thelanguages of northern South Asia, BengalibelongstotheIndo-Iranian(sometimesalsocalledIndo-Aryan)Branch of theIndo-EuropeanFamily.DescendedfromancientSanskrit,Bengalicontainsforty-sevensounds:elevenvowels,twenty-fivecon-sonants,foursemivowels,andseven"breathsounds"(includ-ingsibilantsandaspirates).Itsscript,alsoSanskrit-derived,containsfifty-sevenlettersymbols.TheBengalilanguageisassociatedwithalongliterarytradition,prideinwhichisamajorfactorinBengaliethnicandnationalidentity.ABen-gali,RabindranathTagore,wasthefirstAsiantoreceivetheNobelPrizeforliterature(in1913).Theliterarylanguagewithwhicheducatedspeakersarefamiliaris,however,quitedistinctfromtheurbanandruralspeech of thelesswelledu-cated.Theeasterndialects of Bengali,notablythosespokenintheSylhetandChittagongdistricts of Bangladesh,differquitenoticeablyfromthoseheardinWestBengal.HistoryandCulturalRelationsBengalismentionedasadistinctregion of South Asia insome of theearliestHindutexts,andthroughoutthefirstmil-lenniumAD.itwasgovernedbyasuccession of BuddhistandHindurulers.Islamicarmiesarrivedintheregioninthelatetwelfthandearlythirteenthcenturies,andgradualMuslimconquest-culminatinginMughalruleafter1576-setthestageforwidespreadconversion of thelocalpopulationtoIslam,especiallyineasternBengal.Notlongthereafter,Euro-peancontactwith,andcompetitionforpoweron,theIndiansubcontinentbegan,andtheBritishperiod of India'shistoryisusuallydatedfromEngland'stakeover of theadministra-tion of Bengalin1757.Lastinguntil1947,BritishrulehadaprofoundimpactonBengalicultureandsociety,especiallywiththeintroduction of Englishasthemedium of highered-ucationafter1835.HindusrespondedmorerapidlythandidMuslimstoopportunitiesprovidedbyEnglisheducation,and56Burushoherhusbanddivorceher.Childrenremainwiththemother(untiltheyreachtheage of 10)ifadivorceisgranted.Duringthistime,thehusbandisrequiredtoprovidechildsupport.Widowsmustwaitthreemonthsandsevendaysafterthedeath of aspousebeforeremarrying.Thewaitforawidoweristwomonthsandsevendays.Polygynyisnotprohibited.DomesticUnit.Smallextendedfamilies(theprocreatedfamily of oneindividualintheseniorgenerationandthose of atleasttwointhenextgeneration)withlimitedpolygynyarethenorm.Inheritance.Thefather of afamilyownsall of thefamilyproperty.Hemaychoosetodividehispropertyamonghisoff-springbeforehisdeathoritmaybedividedafterhedies.Uponhisdeath,hisestateisdividedequallyamonghissons.Sonsmaychoosetoworkanylandinheritedtogether(i.e.,asagroup)ortheymaydivideitamongthemselves.Sonsbysec-ondwivesinheritagrandson'sshare.Theyoungestsoninher-itsthefamilydwelling.Provisionisusuallymadesothattheeldestsoninheritsthebestland.Adaughterisnotpermittedtoinheritproperty.Shemaybeallowedtheuse of certainpropertyduringherlifetime.Unmarrieddaughtersmustbecaredfor(includingtheprovision of adowry)bytheestate of adeceasedfather.Apricottrees(andtheirproduce)areoftenwilledtodaughters.Socialization.Thesocialization of childrenisaresponsi-bilitysharedbybothparents,withthebulk of itbeingas-sumedbythemother.Siblingsalsoshareinthistask.In1934,apublicschoolsystemwasdonatedandputintoplacebytheAgaKhan,thusplacingpart of theburdenforchildrearingonteachers.SociopoliticalOrganizationBurushosocietycontainsfiveclasses:theThamo(royalfam-ily);theUyongko/Akabirting(thosewhomayoccupyoffices of state);theBar/Bare/Sis(landcultivators);theShadarsho(servants);andtheBaldakuyo/Tsilgalasho(bearers of bur-densfortheThamoandUyongko).TheBericho(Indianblacksmithsandmusicians),whomaintaintheirowncus-tomsandspeaktheirownlanguage(Kumaki),arealsoanim-portantpart of Burushosocialstructure.AgeandgenderstratificationdonotobtainamongtheBurusho.Thehead of stateisthemir,whoseauthorityinallmat-tersisabsolute.Heisassistedinthedispatch of hisdutiesbyagrandvizier.Mirsareresponsibleforthedistribution of jus-ticeaswellasthemaintenance of localcustomsandtribalfes-tivals.Avillagearbob(chief)andchowkidar(sergeantatarms)areappointedforeachvillage.Khalifasareappointedbythemirtopresideatimportantoccasionsinthelife of theindividualandthecommunity.IthasbeennotedthatatonetimeretainerstocertainvillagerswerepaidbytheBritishgov-emmentforoccasionalservicesandthatcertainofficialswithinavillagewerechargedwiththecare of visitors.Thethreat of deportation(forthepurpose of engaginginpublicservicetothemirorforthecompletion of publicworks)andtheimposition of finesaretheprimarymeans of maintainingsocialcontrol.ExternalrelationsbetweentheBurushoandotherpeopleshavebeenstable.Intervillageri-valryischannelednonviolentlyintopolomatches.Althoughtheattitudes of theBurushotowardtheirneighborsinNagirarelessthanfriendly,armedconflictisfarfromnormal.BothHunzaandNagirsupportedthemilitaryactionthatledtotheannexation of theregiontoPakistan.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefsandPractices.TheBurushohavebeenMuslimformorethan300years.Theyareadherents of theIs-mailisect(headedbytheAgaKhan)andhavemadesuchmodificationsinreligiousbeliefandpracticeastorenderthissystem of Islamicbeliefpracticablewithintheirsocialanden-vironmentalsetting.NosystematizedeschatologicalsystemexistsamongtheBurusho.Itisgenerallybelievedthatatsomepointinthefuturethelivingandthedeadwillbere-united.Bitaiyo(maleandfemaleprognosticators)foretellthefuturebyinhalingthesmoke of burningjunipertwigs.NoprofessionalpriesthoodexistsamongtheBurusho.Themirappointsseveralliteratemenaskhalifastoofficiateatburials,weddings,andnamingceremonies.Theseindividualsdonotperformthesedutiesonafull-timebasis.Religiousceremonyplayslittlepartinthedailylife of theBurusho.Ritualprayerandfastingarepracticedbysome.Whilelittleisknown of pre-Islamicreligiouspractices,itisbelievedthatatonetimesacrificewasofferedtotheboyo(divinitiesthoughttooccupyaplaceabovethefortatHini).Thecommunalweddingcere-monyheldon21Decemberisalsoanimportantpart of theBurushoritualcycle.Arts.Embroideryandwoodcarvingmaybenotedasexam-ples of Burushovisualart.Dancingandmusic(bothbeingimportantcomponents of Burushoceremoniallife)areat-tested.Thesamecanbesaid of dramaticart,performancesbeingsponsoredoncertainspecialoccasions.Burushooralliteraturecontainsfolklore(indigenousandborrowed),anec-dotes,andsongs.Medicine.Avariety of naturalsubstances(roots,herbs,andberries)isusedformedicinalpurposes.Accesstoscientificmed-icineisalsoavailable.ThebeliefisstillheldbysomeBurushothatsupernaturalsplayamajorroleinthecause of humanill-ness.Indigenousmedicalpractitionersarelacking.BibliographyClark,J.(1963)."HunzaintheHimalayas:StoriedShangri-LaUndergoesScrutiny."NaturalHistory72:3 8-4 5.Lorimer,DavidL.(193 5-1 938).TheBurushaskiLanguage.3vols.InstituttetforSammenlignendeKulturforskning,SerieB:Skifter,29, 1-3 .Oslo:H.Aschehoug&Co.(W.Nygaard):Cambridge:HarvardUniversityPress.Lorimer,E.0.(1938)."TheBurusho of Hunza."Antiquity12: 5-1 5.Lorimer,E.0.(1939).LanguageHuntingintheKarakoram.London:GeorgeAllen&Unwin.O'Leary,TimothyJ.(1965)."BurushoCulturalSummary."NewHaven,Conn.:HumanRelationsAreaFiles.Tobe,JohnH.(1960).AdventuresinaLand of Paradise.Emmaus,Pa.:RodaleBooks.HUGHRPAGE,JRBengali31Trade.Asnotedabove,periodiclocalmarketsdottheBengalcountryside,andtheseinturnarelinkedtoperma-nent,dailymarketsinlargerprovincialtownsandultimatelytomajorurbancommercialcenters.Manypeasantsengageinpettymarketingtosupplementtheirprimaryoccupation,butlarge-scaleaccumulationandtransportation of majorcrops,especiallyriceandjute,andartisanproductsaretypicallycar-riedoutbywholesalerswhomovefrommarkettomarket.Aselsewherein South Asia, someHinducastegroupsspecializeincertainkinds of tradeandcommercialtransactions(e.g.,thoserelatedtogoldandotherjewelryorspecificconsump-tionitemsotherthanrice).BecauseBengalpossessesalaby-rinthinenetwork of rivers,providingboattransportationtoandbetweenriversidecentersisamajoractivityformany.Commerceisoverwhelminglymale-dominated,sinceadultwomenareusuallyrequiredtolimittheiractivitiestotheirhomesteadsandimmediatesurroundingsandthusarenotpermittedtoengageinsignificanttradingactivity.Division of Labor.Thedivision of laborbybothgenderandoccupationalspecializationishighlymarkedthroughout South Asia, includingBengal,particularlysointheruralareas.Regardless of aruralfamily'soccupationalspecialty,menengageinactivitiesthattakeplaceoutsidethehome,whilewomenarelimitedtothosethatcanbeperformedwithinitsconfines.Thus,forexample,inrice-farmingfami-liesmenperformalltheworkinthefields-plowing,plant-ing,weeding,andharvesting-andoncethecropisbroughtintothehomesteadwomentakeupthetasks of threshing,drying,andhuskingthecrop.Asimilarkind of intra-(versusextra-)homesteaddivision of laborbygenderoccursinfami-lieswithnonagriculturaloccupationalspecializations.Notsurprisingly,domesticandchild-rearingtasksfallwithinthewomen'sdomainaswell.Thedegreetowhichwomenareper-mittedtoworkoutsidethehomeis,however,relatedtotheeconomicandsocialstatus of thefamily.Apoororlandlessfarmer'swifemayspendpart of herdayprocessingagricul-turalgoodsinawealthierhousehold,forexample,tosupple-mentherfamily'smeagerincome,andamongthelower-rankedservicecastes(seebelow)thetabooonwomenworkingoutsidethehomeisconsiderablylessstrict.In ... areprominentingovernmentservice,financialserv-ices,andpolitics.IndustrialArts.AnyneedsthatBrahmansandChhetrisexperienceforcraftandindustrialproductsaremetbylower-rankedartisancastes,suchasblacksmiths,tailors,andleatherworkers.Trade.InruralareasBrahmansandChhetristypicallyrelyonothers,suchasNewarshopkeepers,fortheircommercialrequirements.Division of Labor.OnlyBrahmanmalesmayactaspriests,butmuch of thedailyhouseholdpuja(worship)isdonebywomen.Theday-to-dayagropastoralactivities of BrahmanandChhetrifamiliesaresharedbetweenmenandwomen.Bothsexesworkinthefields,butoverallwomenspendmorehoursperdayinagriculturalanddomesticlaborthanmen.Theyperformmost of thechildcare,preparationandcooking of food,andweedingandtending of crops.Mendotheplowingandmaintaintheterracewalls.Bothareactiveatharvesttime.LandTenure.BrahmansandChhetrisareoftenlandown.ers.Fieldsareoftenterracedandmostlyhavebeenfraction-atedintosmallplotsthroughinheritanceovergenerations.Large-scaleabsenteelandlordismisnotcommoninthehills of Nepal.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.BrahmansandChhetrisaremembers of twokinds of clans,thethaT(indicatedasasur-name)andthegotra;theformerisexogamousifarelationcanbetraced,butthelatterisstrictlyexogamous.Descentandinheritancefollowthemalelineexclusively.KinshipTerminology.Allfirstcousinsareaddressedbysiblingterms.Siblingsaredesignatedaseitherolderoryoungerbrothersorsisters:thereisnogenerictermforbrotherorsister.Unrelatedpersons,includingstrangers,arealsooftenaddressedbykinshipterms.MarriageandFamilyMarriage.Mostmarriagesaremonogamous,butpoly-gynousunionsweretraditionallyfrequentandarestillocca-sionallyfound.Secondandsubsequentwivesareoftenmem-bers of otherethnicgroups,suchastheGurungs,Magars,Tamangs,Sherpas,andNewars,butnotlow-casteartisangroups.Withtheexception of Thakuris,theself-proclaimedaristocratsamongtheChhetriswhopracticematrilateralcross-cousinmarriage,cousinmarriageisnotpracticed.Brah-mangirlstraditionallymarriedbytheage of 11,andChhetrigirlsafewyearslater,buteducatedurbandwellersnowmarryintheirlateteensorearlytwenties.Groomsarenormallyafewyearsolderthantheirbrides.Villageexogamyisusuallyobserved,andparentsarrangetheirchildren'smarriageswiththehelp of anintermediary.Anastrologeralsoisconsultedtoensurethatthecouplemakeagoodmatch.Theboy'sfamilypriest,inconsultationwiththebride'sfamily,setsanauspi-ciousdateandtime,basedonthelunarcalendar(severalmonths of theyearareinauspiciousformarriage).Theentireweddingceremonylastsafullday,fromthetimethemembers of thegroom'spartyarriveatthebride'shometilltheyleavethenextdaywiththebride.Themostimportantpart of the34BengaliCeremonies.TheBengaliHindureligiouscalendarisre-pletewithworshipceremonies(puja)devotedtothedeities of boththeGreatandLittleTraditions.Especiallyimportantistheannualfestival(orgajan) of theLordShiva,asarethose of hiscounterpartgoddesses,KaliandDurga.ThegoddessesLakshmi (of wealthandgoodfortune)andSaraswati (of learningandculture)alsohaveannualceremonies.Impor-tantfolkdeitiespropitiatedbyHindusandMuslimsalikein-cludethe"goddesses of thecalamities"-Sitala,goddess of smallpox;Olabibi,goddess of cholera;andManasa,goddess of snakes-all of whomhavetheirannualfestivals.BengaliMuslimscelebratethemajorfestivals of Islam:theIdal-Fitr,whichmarkstheend of theMuslimmonth of fasting(Rama-dan);theIdal-Adha,or"feast of thesacrifice,"coterminouswiththeannualpilgrimage(haj)toMeccaandcommemorat-ingthestory of theprophetIbrahim'swillingnesstosacrificehissonatGod'scommand.EventhoughBengaliMuslimsareSunnis,theyalsoobservethefestival of Muharram,usu-allyassociatedmoreprominentlywiththeShiadivision of Islam,inwhichthedeath of Hussain,grandson of theProphetMohammedandmartyr of thefaith,ismourned.Bengalisalsocelebratethewell-knownHindurite of springcalledHoli;formembers of allreligiousfaiths,theannualnewyearceremonyonthefirstday of theHindu(andBen-gali)month of Baisakh,comingbetweenAprilandMayandmarkingtheonset of spring,isajoyousoccasion.Arts.UrbanBengalieliteculturehasproducedone of South Asia& apos;sfinestliterarytraditions,includingnotonlythenovel,shortstory,andpoetrybutdramaandfilmaswell.Some of India'sbestclassicalmusiciansandgreatestexpo-nents of thedancehavebeenBengalis.BengalishavealsomademajorcontributionstoIndianand world cinema.RuralBengalhasanoldandwell-developedfolkliterature,includ-ingnarrativepoetry(puthi),drawnfromhistory,myth,andlegend,aswellasaverypopularitineranttheater(calledjatra).Thereisalsoastrongtradition of religiousfolkmusic,particularlyassociatedwiththemoredevotionalandmysticalpractices of popularHinduism(e.g.,worship of thegoddessKaliandtheLordKrishna)and of popularIslam(e.g.,thede-votionalgatherings of thevariousSufiorders).Terra-cottatempleandmosquearchitecturethroughoutBengalismuchadmired,andthereisafolktradition of painting,seeninHindureligiousscrollsandintheflowery,andoftenobscure,religioussymbols(alipana)commonlydaubedinwhitericepasteonthewallsandfloors of homesteadsbyHinduvillagewomen.Finally,despiteindustrializationandthespread of commerciallymanufacturedproductsthroughouttheregion,theBengaliruraleconomystilldependsontheservices of tra-ditionalcraftspeople-weavers,potters,carpenters,black-smiths,metalworkers,andthelike-whosewaresoftenrepre-sentahighquality of bothtechniqueandaestheticdesign.Medicine.AlthoughmodemscientificmedicinehaslongbeenknownandacceptedinBengal,thehomeopathic,allo-pathic,andtheHinduAyurvedicandMuslimUnanimedicaltraditionscontinuetoexistasalternatives.Therealsore-mainsahost of folkbeliefsandcuringpracticesamongboththeurbanimmigrantpoorandthepeasantryasawhole.Folkhealers(ojhaorfakir)arecommonlycalledupontotreateverythingfromtemporaryillnessesandchronicdiseasestobonefracturesandsnakebite,aswellastocounteractethno-psychiatricafflictionsresultingfromsorceryandghostpos-session.Folkcuringpracticesstresstheuse of magicalverses(mantras),oftencombinedwithindigenousmedicinalcon-coctions.Traditionalhealersalsoprovideamuletsforprotec-tionagainstdevilryandsorcery,thewearing of whichisubiq-uitousnotonlyamongthepeasantryandtheurbanpoorbutalsoamongtheBengalimiddleclassesaswell.DeathandAfterlife.BengaliHindus, of course,acceptthedoctrine of samsara,orthetransmigration of soulsfromoneearthlylifetoanother.Funerarycremations,practicedbynearlyallHinducastes,arethoughttoreleasetheindividual'sspiritualessenceorsoulfromitstransitoryphysicalbody.Bearingtheinfluence(karma) of alltheactions of itsjustter-minatedearthlyembodiment,thesoulthenisreincarnatedintoanewworldlyformandway of lifeshapedbythosepastactions.Normallyaman'seldestsoncarriesoutthefuneraryrites,lightingthefuneralpyreafterfirstplacingaburningstickinthemouth of thedeceased.Muslimbeliefsrequirethatatdeaththepersonberituallybathed,shrouded,andburiedinacoffinwiththeheadfacingtheholycity of Mecca,afterwhichtherefollowsafuneraryprayerceremonyideallyledbyeitherarelativeorarecognizedleader of thelocalMus-limcommunity.Thedeadarethoughttoenteranindefinitetransitionalstate-duringwhichthewickedbegintoexperi-encepunishmentandthevirtuousto ... theculturalheritage.Yetthevibrantchange(tambourine)dance of thevillagersinfront of thecommu-nityhallisverycommonaftertheday'stoilandparticularlyonfestiveoccasions.Medicine.People,crops,andcattlearebelievedtobepro-tectedfromdiseasesbythevillagetutelarydeity.Thepropiti-ation of otherdeitiesalsoisthoughttohelpprotectpeoplefromdiseases.Themenhavegreatinclinationforfolkdoctorsandtheirmedicine.Mostdiseasesareduetomalnutritionandunsanitaryconditions.Modernmethods of treatment,22BaigaComparativeNotesonthePlainsBhuiyas.Ranchi:ManinIndiaOffice.Russell,R.V.,andHiraLal(1916).'Baiga."TheTribesandCastes of theCentralProvinces of India.Vol.2,7 7-9 2.Lon-don:OxfordUniversityPress.Reprint.1969.Oosterhout:AnthropologicalPublications.HUGHR.PAGE,JRBaluchiETHNONYMS:Baloch,BaluchOrientationIdentification.TheBaluchiarepredominantlySunniMuslim,seminomadicpastoralists,whosehomelandsstrad-dletheIran-Pakistanborderaswellasincludingasmallpor-tion of southernAfghanistan.Location.Baluchistanisthename of thewesternmostprovince of Pakistan,aswellas of thetransnationalterritory of thetraditionalBaluchihomeland.Thislargerregionwascarvedupbytheimperialpowersconcernedmorewithease of administrationthanwithrecognition of theterritoriallimits of theinhabitants.ThetraditionalBaluchiterritoryextendsfromthesoutheasternportion of theIranianPlateauacrosstheKirmanDeserttothewesternborders of SindandthePunjab,andfromtheGumalRiverinthenortheasttotheArabianSeainthe south. Thisisalargelyinhospitableland,much of itbarrendesertorharshmountainousterrain.Ba-luchiterritoryliesoutsidethemonsoonbelt,andannualrain-fallisverylow,notexceeding16centimeters.Throughouttheregion,wintersareharshandcold,andsummersareveryhot.Inthemountains,therainscomeinOctoberandMarch,whileinthelowlandstheycomeinJulyandAugust.Demography.PopulationfiguresfortheBaluchiaresomewhatsuspect,inpartbecause of theunreliability of census-takingproceduresacrossthethreemajorpoliticalunitsthatnowcontrolBaluchiterritory,andpartlybecausethecriteriaforascribingBaluchiidentityarenottightlyde-fined.Onthestrength of linguisticcriteria,thereareanesti-mated5millionor...

... oldcultureiscomprised of threemainlayers:theTamil-Malayalamsubstratumwithitsmanysubtleroots;oldSinhalacultureandlanguage,whichisthedominantelement;andthephase of Arabicin-fluence.ButtheMaldivesweretouchedbyeveryculturalwindthatpassedovertheIndianOcean.SinceindependencetherehasagainbeeninfluencefromSriLanka,throughitsteachersbroughtovertosetupmodemeducationwithteach-ing of English.UnusuallyrapidchangehasoccurredinDivehicultureinthepasttwenty-fiveyears.SettlementsThe201inhabitedislandsarethelargerorbestfishingis-lands.Housesaremade of localvegetationandthatchorcoralstones,sometimeswithimportedironortileroofs.Peo-pledesirepleasanthouses,andtheyoftenarrangethemonstreetswiththeplotsmarkedbystickfences.Theislandisthesocialandadministrativeunit.Everybodyhasofficialregistra-tiononhisorherislandandcannotchangeittoanotheris-landwithouttwelveyears'residence.Eachislandcomprisesaninsularsocialcommunity,inwhichitsland,people,andproductsarepreferredtothose of otherislands.Theislandsaregroupedintonineteenadministrativeatolls.Maleistheonlycity,withsomemultistoriedbuildings of coralstoneneatlywhitewashedandmostlybuiltalongthestraightsandystreets.Ithasapiousair,withthirty-fivemosquesandmanytombs.Nearbyistheairportisland of Hulule,witharunwayextendingonthereef.Some60"uninhabited"islandsarenowbuiltupasprofitabletouristresorts,whichespeciallyat-tractEuropeansinwinter,butthegovernmenttriestomini-mizetheirculturalinfluence.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Themaintradi-tionaleconomicactivitiesaretradingandfishing.Bonitosandlargertunaareamainstay of theeconomy,caughtbypole-and-lineortrolling-linefromsailboatsormotorizedwoodenboats.ThefamousMaldivesfishispreparedbyboil-ing,drying,andsmoking.Amanmaximizeswealthbyacquir-ingfishingboatsbecausetheownergetsalargershare of fishthanthefishingcrew.Aboatownermightalsoobtaintherightfromthestatetoleaseuninhabitedislands,mainlyforcollectingcoconuts.Therearethreekinds of milletsgrownandtarointhe south. Somehomeshavebreadfruit,mango,papaya,andbananatrees,butfewvegetablesareeaten.Seatradehasalwaysbeenavitalsource of income,andnowthereisamodemshippingindustry;profitsfromitandtourismac-cruemostlytoafewprominentfamiliesinMale.Incomepercapitafromforeignaidisrelativelyhigh.IndustrialArts.Themoststrikingtraditionalcraftisbuildingwoodenboats,bothsmallandlargeoneswithlateensails,whichcanfishinthedeepseaandcarrygoodstothecontinents.Sailinglongdistanceswithoutbenefit of mapsandchartsisaremarkabletraditionalskill.Maldivesropetwistedfromcoconutcoirwasalwaysindemandbyforeignnavies.Theislandersalsomakefineproductssuchasmatswovenfromlocalreedsandlacquerworkonturnedwood.Cottonweaving,silverwork,stonecutting,andbrassworkhavemostlydiedout.Trade.FormanycenturiestheMaldiveswerefamousasthemainsource of cowrieshells,usedasmoneyinBengalandAfrica.Divehisareskilledinrapidcounting,necessaryforhandlingcowries,coconuts,orfish.Thetraditionalmethodwastocountbytwosto96andmarkeachunit of 192bylaying2coconutsontheside;theytherebycouldcountrap-idlytomanythousands.Thebasenumberwas12,whichClarenceMaloneyfindssignificantinMaldiveshistory.WhatismorepeculiaristhatIndo-Aryanwordsfor25,50,75,100,and1,000areappliedrespectivelyto24,48,72,96,and960,asthedecimalsystemhasbeenreplacingtheduodecimal.Weightsandmeasuresarebasedonmultiples of 4and12.Themainimportshavebeenrice,wheatflour,cottontextiles,kerosene,metalproducts,tobacco,salt,andcondiments.Nowthewholecountryisaduty-freeentrepot,contrastingwiththecontrolledeconomies of other South Asiancoun-tries,andthereismodembanking.Division of Labor.Menfish,whilewomenprepareanddrythefish.Mengrowmillets,whilewomencultivaterootcrops.Menconductinterislandandoverseastrade,climbcoconuttrees,andaretheartisansincotton,silver,lacquer,andstonework,whilewomenweavematsanddoembroidery.Womendothetediousjob of twistingcoirintosmallropes,whichmenthentwistintothickropesfortheirboats.How-ever,thesesexrolesarenotabsolutelyfixed;therearecases of theseactivitiesbeingdonebytheothersex.Womendomost of thehouseworkandchildcare,butmenmayalsodoit.Boatcrewsandleaders of Islamicritualandlaw,however,areallmales.LandTenure.Alllandbelongstothestate,whichleasesuninhabitedislandsorparts of islandstoprominentpeopleforcollection of produce,aspart of itssystem of control.AllhouseholdsintheMaldives,exceptonMale,canclaimtherighttoaplot of landforahouseandgardenintheirisland of registration.InFueMulakuinthe south, residentshavetherighttocultivateasmuchtarolandastheywish.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.TheDivehikinshipsysteminoriginisacombination of DravidianandArabwithelements of NorthIndiankinshipderivedfromSriLanka.Althoughthesethreesystemsaresharplyatvariance,theyareresolvedinDivehiculture.TheDravidiansystemisbasedonpreferredcross-cousinmarriage,andamaleclassifiesallfemalesasei-thersister(unmarriageable)orfemalecrosscousin(marriage-able).Thematrilinealvariant of theDravidiansystemoccursEuropeansin South Asia 79Maloney,Clarence(1984).-Divehi."InMuslimPeoples:A World EthnographicSurvey,Vol.1,23 2-2 36.Rev.ed.,editedbyRichardWeekes.Westport,Conn.:GreenwoodPress.Maloney,Clarence(1980).People of theMaldiveIslands.Ma-dras:OrientLongman.Ottovar,Annagrethe,andNilsFinnMunch-Petersen(1980).Maldiverneoet0samfundidetIndiskeOcean(TheMaldivianIslandcommunityintheIndianOcean).Copen-hagen:Kunstindustrimuseet.CLARENCEMALONEYANDNILSFINNMUNCH-PETERSENMunch-Petersen,NilsFinn(1982).'Maldives:History,DailyLife,andArtHandicraft."BulletinduC.E.M.O.I.(Brussels).1:7 4-1 03.Europeansin South Asia ETHNONYMS:Ferangi(fromMemsahib;child:ChhotaSahib"Franks"),Sahib(fem.:Whiletheimpact of Europeonthe South Asiansubcon-tinenthasbeenimmeasurableanddatesbacklongbeforeVascodaGama'sexploratoryvisitin1498,thenumber of Eu-ropeansresidentintheareanowismerelyafewtens of thou-sands.(Theymoveaboutsomuchthatacloseestimateisdif-ficult.)Butevenintheheyday of Britishimperialismtherewereonlyabout167,000Europeansinall of South Asia (1931census).LeavingasidefromthisdiscussiontheAnglo-IndiansandLuso-Indians of the South Asianmainland,andtheBurghers of SriLanka,whoareallinfactlocalpeople of part-Europeanancestry,wecanidentifythefollowingcategories of Europeansasbeingresidentin South Asia today.(1)Diplomatsandjournalists.Foundonlyinthecapitalcitiesandotherconsularposts.(2)Developmentworkers,etc.Technicalspecialistsfromthe World HealthOrganization,otherUnitedNationsagen-cies,theU.S.PeaceCorps,etc.areregularlyencounteredinmost South Asiancountries.Students of anthropology,lin-guistics,andsomeothersubjectsmaybefoundalmostany-where,thoughneveringreatnumbers.SometeaandcoffeeplantationsinIndiastillhaveEuropeanmanagersandindeedareownedbyBritishcompanies.(3)RetiredBritishresidents.Asmallnumber of veryeld-erlypeoplewhoretiredinIndiaorSriLankaataboutthetime of independencearestillthere.(Most,however,leftthesub-continenttoretireinBritain,theChannelIslands,Cyprus,orAustralia.)(4)Christianmissionaries.Whilethe South Asianchurchesareessentiallyself-governing,severalhundredEuro-peanandAmericanmissionariesandCatholicpriestsandnunsmaystillbeencounteredintheregion.Theyarestill of someimportanceineducation,aswellasinfunnelingWest-emaidtotheirparishioners.(5)Religiousseekers.Atanygiventimetherearesomethousands of Australian,European,orAmericanpeople,usu-allyfairlyyoung,whoarewanderingaroundIndia,Nepal,andelsewhereinsearch of religiousenlightenmentwithinthebroadtradition of Hinduspirituality.Some of thesepeoplehavebeenlooselyclassedas"hippies."Frenchpeoplearepar-ticularlyattractedtoPondicherryandthenearbyreligiouscenter of Auroville,whileothershavebeenespeciallyat-tractedtospecificashrams,toRishikeshandotherHima-layansites,ortotheTheosophicalCenterinMadrasCity.(6)Tourists.Theregionhasanenormoustouristpoten-tial,whichhasbeenslowlydevelopedsinceindependence,andin1991India,SriLanka,Nepal,andtheMaldiveshaveathrivingtouristindustry.Unlikethereligiousseekersmen-tionedabove,whomaystayformanymonths,ordinaryWest-erntouristsusuallyvisitforjusttwoorthreeweeks.Thegreatmajority of thesetouristsarefromwesternEuropeandAustralasia.(Many of India'stourists,ontheotherhand,arenon-Europeansfromother South Asiancountries.)80Europeansin South Asia TheBritishImpactTheculturalandpoliticalimpact of theBritishoverthepasttwocenturiesin South Asia hasbeenvastandextremelyper-vasive.Numeroushistories of the"Britishperiod"testifytothis,anditisaninfluencereferredtointheIntroductiontothis volume. Spacedoesnotpermitevenabriefreview of theadministrative,legal,religious,educational,publichealth,military,agricultural,industrial,sporting,andcommunica-tionaldevelopmentsthatoccurredduringtheperiod of Brit-ishadministration of most of thesubcontinent.Wemayinsteadhighlightthecontribution of EuropeansfromIndiatothearts.Bestknown of courseistheliterarycontribution of RudyardKipling(186 5-1 936),one of twoIndian-bomwriterstoreceivetheNobelPrizeforLiterature(theotherwasRabindranathTagore). Of numerousprofes-sionalartiststoworkinIndia,themostoutstandingwastheAnglo-GermanpainterJohnZoffany,whoworkedtherefrom1783to1790.Theartisticimpact of theBritishonIndianar-chitecturewasvast,andwelldocumented:witnessonlytheofficialbuildings of NewDelhi.Lessrecognizedduringthepresentcenturyhasbeentheimpact of thisrelativelysmallethnicgroupontheBritishfilmindustry.JulieChristie,VivienLeigh,MargaretLockwood,MerleOberon,andsev-eralotheractors,aswellasthedirectorLindsayAnderson,wereallbornandatleastpartlybroughtupinBritishIndia.Onemightwonderwhethertheubiquity of schoolplaysandamateurdramaticsocietiesinthaterahadsomethingtodowiththesecareers.SeealsoAnglo-Indian;French of India;IndianChristianBibliographyBallhatchet,Kenneth(1980).Race,SexandClassundertheRaj:ImperialAttitudesandPoliciesandTheirCritics,179 3- 1905.NewYork:St.Martin'sPress.Barr,Pat(1976).TheMemsahibs:TheWomen of VictorianIndia.London:Secker&Warburg.Hervey,H.J.A.(1913).TheEuropeaninIndia.London:StanleyPaul&Co.Hockings,Paul(1989).'BritishSocietyintheCompany,Crown,andCongressEras."BlueMountains:TheEthnogra-phyandBiogeography of a South IndianRegion,editedbyPaulEdwardHockings,33 4-3 59.NewDelhi:OxfordUniversityPress.Kincaid,Dennis(1938).BritishSocialLifeinIndia,160 8- 1937.London:GeorgeRoutledge&Sons.Moorhouse,Geoffrey(1983).IndiaBritannica.NewYork:Harper&Row.French of IndiaETHNONYMS:FrenchTamils,Pondicheriens,Pondicherry(name of townandterritory)Therewere12,864FrenchnationalsresidinginIndiain1988.NearlyallareintheUnionTerritory of PondicherryinsoutheasternIndia(11,726in1988),withmuchsmallernumbersinKaraikal(695individuals),Mahe(50),Yanam(46),and342elsewhereinIndia.(Thesewerecoastalpock-etsbelongingtotheformerFrenchEmpire.)Whilelegallystillcitizens of FranceandresidentaliensinIndia,theyareethnicallyIndian,about90percentbeingethnicTamils.Al-mostunaccountably,theyvoteintheFrenchconstituency of Nice.Theyformasmallminority,accountingforlessthan3percent of thepresentpopulation of Pondicherry.TheFrenchinIndiaareanartifact of theFrenchpres-encethere,whichbeganin1673withtheestablishment of FrenchIndiaandcontinueduntil1962whentheFrenchter-ritorywasformallytransferredtoIndia.TheFrenchpresencewasalwayssmallandminorcomparedwiththeBritishpres-enceandtheFrenchinIndiaweregenerallyignored.Today,themajority of theseFrenchareHindusorChristians of localormixedfamilyorigin,andlessthan50percent of themspeakFrench.Atthesametime,however,FrenchistaughtinschoolsattendedbyFrenchIndianchildrenandadultFrenchclassesarewellattended,reflectinganinterestinmaintainingtiesandanallegiancetoFranceorinfindingjobswithFrenchcompanies.TheFrenchIndiansarethewealthiestgroupinPondicherry(asidefromthoserunningtheAurobindoAshram),derivingmuch of theirincomefrompension(some20percentareretirees),socialsecurity,welfare,andotherprogramsoftheFrenchgovernment.TheyarealsoentitledtoemigratetoFrance,althoughfewdosoandtheFrenchgov-ernmentdoesnotencouragethepractice.SeealsoEuropeansin South Asia; TamilBibliographyGlachant,Roger(1965).Histoiredel'IndedesFranqais.Paris:LibrairiePlon.Miles,WilliamF.S.(1990)."CitizenswithoutSoil:TheFrench of India(Pondicherry)."EthnicandRacialStudies13:25 2-2 73.Ramasamy,A.(1987).History of Pondicherry.NewDelhi:SterlingPublishers.Scholberg,Henry,andEmmanuelDivien(1973).Biblio-graphiedesFrangaisdansl'Inde.Pondicherry:HistoricalSoci-ety of Pondicherry.Nilsson,Sten(1968).EuropeanArchitectureinIndia,175 0- 1850.London:FaberandFaber.Trevelyan,Raleigh(1987).TheGoldenOriole.NewYork:Vi-kingPenguin.PAULHOCKINGSDivehi75DardETHNONYMS:noneAlthoughthisnameappearsintheanthropologicalliter-ature,itseemsthatthereisnodiscreteculturalgroupidentifi-ableasDards.ItistruethatPlinyandPtolemyinancienttimesbothreferredtosuchapeopleinhabitingatract of theupperIndusValleyinwhatistodayPakistan,andinthatareapeoplelivingontheleftbank of theInduswerecalledDards.TheDards,basedondescriptions of theGilgitareaaround1870,aredescribedasahunting,herding,andfarmingpeoplewith:large,extendedfamiliesandsomepolygyny;sometrans-humance;noextensivecerealagriculture;villages of from400to1,000inhabitants;patrilocalpostmaritalresidence;andnolocalizedclansbutlineagesorsibsspreadingbeyondasinglecommunity.Whileall of thismayhavebeentrueforthein-habitants of Gilgit,thereisstillsomequestionastowhetherthoselabeledDardsare,infact,adistinctculturalentity.Itismoreappropriatetospeak of the'Dardicbranch,"atermusedbylinguiststodesignateasmallgroup of languages of theIndo-AryanSubfamilyspokeninandnearthenorth of Pakistan. Of these,Kashmiriisthemostimportant.ThereisalsoaterritorythereknownasDardistan,whichincludesGilgitValley,Hunza,Chitral,Yasin,Nagar,Panyal,Kohis-tan,theAstoreValley,andpart of theupperIndusValleybe-tweenBunjiandBatera.SeealsoKashmiri;KohistaniBibliographyBiddulph,John(1880).Tribes of theHindooKoosh.Calcutta:Superintendent of GovernmentPrinting.Leitner,GotliebWilliam(1877).TheLanguagesandRaces of Dardistan.Lahore:GovernmentCentralBookDepot.PAULHOCKINGSDivehiETHNONYMS:Divehin,Dives,MaldiviansOrientationIdentification.DivehisarethosewhospeakDivehi,thelanguage of theRepublic of theMaldives.TheyoccupyalltheMaldivesandalsotheisland of Maliku(Minicoyonthemaps)tothenorth,whichbelongstoIndia.ThepeoplecallthemselvesDivehi(fromdive-si,meaning"island-er"),andtheircountryisDivehiRAjje(kingdom).Thename'Mal-dives"isprobablyfrommdild-dfv("garland-islands"inIndianlanguages),referringtothedoublechain of atollsthatap-pearslikeagarlandornecklace.ThewordatolisDivehi,origi-nallyspelledwithone1.Thecountrywasanexus of IndianOceanshipping,andithasremainedmostlyindependentsinceancienttimes.Location.TheMaldivesstretchfrom002'Sto7°0'N,withMinicoyat8°2'.Longitudeisabout730E.Thereareabout1,200islands, of which201arepermanentlyinhabited.Theislandsarelowandflat,mostlylessthanakilometerlongwithonly9aslongas2kilometers,ringingcoralatolls.Totallandareaisonlyabout280squarekilometers,andnowhereisthelandmorethan2metersabovesealevel.TheMaldivesextendfor867kilometersnorthto south andclaimthesur-roundingoceanasnationalterritory.Malikuisthelargestis-land,16.5kilometerslongandlying140kilometersnorth of theMaldivesproper,butitispoliticallycutofffromotherparts of thearchipelago.Demography.As of 1991therewere228,000Divehis-220,000Maldiviansandroughly8,000onMaliku.Thefirstcensuswasin1911aspart of theCeyloncensus,anditshowed72,237Divehison217inhabitedislands.Populationwaspreviouslykeptincheckbyepidemics,faminebecause of stormsthatinterruptedimports of food,andcerebralmalaria,butduringrecentdecadesthepopulationhasbeenshootinguprapidly.The1990censusshowedacrudebirthrate of 43per1,000andagrowthrate of 3.5percentayear.Thegovern-menthastakenlittleinitiativeonfamilyplanningbecause of themomentum of Islamictradition.Malehas57,000people,aquarter of allDivehis,thoughitisonly1.6kilometerslongandthethingroundwaterlenshasbecomepolluted,sothegovernmenttriestocurbmigrationthere.Lifeexpectancyisabout62yearsformalesand60forfemales.LinguisticAffiliation.DivehiisderivedfromtheoldSinhala of SriLanka,andsoitisclassifiableasanIndo-Aryanlanguage,althoughattheveryend of ... oldcultureiscomprised of threemainlayers:theTamil-Malayalamsubstratumwithitsmanysubtleroots;oldSinhalacultureandlanguage,whichisthedominantelement;andthephase of Arabicin-fluence.ButtheMaldivesweretouchedbyeveryculturalwindthatpassedovertheIndianOcean.SinceindependencetherehasagainbeeninfluencefromSriLanka,throughitsteachersbroughtovertosetupmodemeducationwithteach-ing of English.UnusuallyrapidchangehasoccurredinDivehicultureinthepasttwenty-fiveyears.SettlementsThe201inhabitedislandsarethelargerorbestfishingis-lands.Housesaremade of localvegetationandthatchorcoralstones,sometimeswithimportedironortileroofs.Peo-pledesirepleasanthouses,andtheyoftenarrangethemonstreetswiththeplotsmarkedbystickfences.Theislandisthesocialandadministrativeunit.Everybodyhasofficialregistra-tiononhisorherislandandcannotchangeittoanotheris-landwithouttwelveyears'residence.Eachislandcomprisesaninsularsocialcommunity,inwhichitsland,people,andproductsarepreferredtothose of otherislands.Theislandsaregroupedintonineteenadministrativeatolls.Maleistheonlycity,withsomemultistoriedbuildings of coralstoneneatlywhitewashedandmostlybuiltalongthestraightsandystreets.Ithasapiousair,withthirty-fivemosquesandmanytombs.Nearbyistheairportisland of Hulule,witharunwayextendingonthereef.Some60"uninhabited"islandsarenowbuiltupasprofitabletouristresorts,whichespeciallyat-tractEuropeansinwinter,butthegovernmenttriestomini-mizetheirculturalinfluence.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Themaintradi-tionaleconomicactivitiesaretradingandfishing.Bonitosandlargertunaareamainstay of theeconomy,caughtbypole-and-lineortrolling-linefromsailboatsormotorizedwoodenboats.ThefamousMaldivesfishispreparedbyboil-ing,drying,andsmoking.Amanmaximizeswealthbyacquir-ingfishingboatsbecausetheownergetsalargershare of fishthanthefishingcrew.Aboatownermightalsoobtaintherightfromthestatetoleaseuninhabitedislands,mainlyforcollectingcoconuts.Therearethreekinds of milletsgrownandtarointhe south. Somehomeshavebreadfruit,mango,papaya,andbananatrees,butfewvegetablesareeaten.Seatradehasalwaysbeenavitalsource of income,andnowthereisamodemshippingindustry;profitsfromitandtourismac-cruemostlytoafewprominentfamiliesinMale.Incomepercapitafromforeignaidisrelativelyhigh.IndustrialArts.Themoststrikingtraditionalcraftisbuildingwoodenboats,bothsmallandlargeoneswithlateensails,whichcanfishinthedeepseaandcarrygoodstothecontinents.Sailinglongdistanceswithoutbenefit of mapsandchartsisaremarkabletraditionalskill.Maldivesropetwistedfromcoconutcoirwasalwaysindemandbyforeignnavies.Theislandersalsomakefineproductssuchasmatswovenfromlocalreedsandlacquerworkonturnedwood.Cottonweaving,silverwork,stonecutting,andbrassworkhavemostlydiedout.Trade.FormanycenturiestheMaldiveswerefamousasthemainsource of cowrieshells,usedasmoneyinBengalandAfrica.Divehisareskilledinrapidcounting,necessaryforhandlingcowries,coconuts,orfish.Thetraditionalmethodwastocountbytwosto96andmarkeachunit of 192bylaying2coconutsontheside;theytherebycouldcountrap-idlytomanythousands.Thebasenumberwas12,whichClarenceMaloneyfindssignificantinMaldiveshistory.WhatismorepeculiaristhatIndo-Aryanwordsfor25,50,75,100,and1,000areappliedrespectivelyto24,48,72,96,and960,asthedecimalsystemhasbeenreplacingtheduodecimal.Weightsandmeasuresarebasedonmultiples of 4and12.Themainimportshavebeenrice,wheatflour,cottontextiles,kerosene,metalproducts,tobacco,salt,andcondiments.Nowthewholecountryisaduty-freeentrepot,contrastingwiththecontrolledeconomies of other South Asiancoun-tries,andthereismodembanking.Division of Labor.Menfish,whilewomenprepareanddrythefish.Mengrowmillets,whilewomencultivaterootcrops.Menconductinterislandandoverseastrade,climbcoconuttrees,andaretheartisansincotton,silver,lacquer,andstonework,whilewomenweavematsanddoembroidery.Womendothetediousjob of twistingcoirintosmallropes,whichmenthentwistintothickropesfortheirboats.How-ever,thesesexrolesarenotabsolutelyfixed;therearecases of theseactivitiesbeingdonebytheothersex.Womendomost of thehouseworkandchildcare,butmenmayalsodoit.Boatcrewsandleaders of Islamicritualandlaw,however,areallmales.LandTenure.Alllandbelongstothestate,whichleasesuninhabitedislandsorparts of islandstoprominentpeopleforcollection of produce,aspart of itssystem of control.AllhouseholdsintheMaldives,exceptonMale,canclaimtherighttoaplot of landforahouseandgardenintheirisland of registration.InFueMulakuinthe south, residentshavetherighttocultivateasmuchtarolandastheywish.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.TheDivehikinshipsysteminoriginisacombination of DravidianandArabwithelements of NorthIndiankinshipderivedfromSriLanka.Althoughthesethreesystemsaresharplyatvariance,theyareresolvedinDivehiculture.TheDravidiansystemisbasedonpreferredcross-cousinmarriage,andamaleclassifiesallfemalesasei-thersister(unmarriageable)orfemalecrosscousin(marriage-able).Thematrilinealvariant of theDravidiansystemoccursEuropeansin South Asia 79Maloney,Clarence(1984).-Divehi."InMuslimPeoples:A World EthnographicSurvey,Vol.1,23 2-2 36.Rev.ed.,editedbyRichardWeekes.Westport,Conn.:GreenwoodPress.Maloney,Clarence(1980).People of theMaldiveIslands.Ma-dras:OrientLongman.Ottovar,Annagrethe,andNilsFinnMunch-Petersen(1980).Maldiverneoet0samfundidetIndiskeOcean(TheMaldivianIslandcommunityintheIndianOcean).Copen-hagen:Kunstindustrimuseet.CLARENCEMALONEYANDNILSFINNMUNCH-PETERSENMunch-Petersen,NilsFinn(1982).'Maldives:History,DailyLife,andArtHandicraft."BulletinduC.E.M.O.I.(Brussels).1:7 4-1 03.Europeansin South Asia ETHNONYMS:Ferangi(fromMemsahib;child:ChhotaSahib"Franks"),Sahib(fem.:Whiletheimpact of Europeonthe South Asiansubcon-tinenthasbeenimmeasurableanddatesbacklongbeforeVascodaGama'sexploratoryvisitin1498,thenumber of Eu-ropeansresidentintheareanowismerelyafewtens of thou-sands.(Theymoveaboutsomuchthatacloseestimateisdif-ficult.)Butevenintheheyday of Britishimperialismtherewereonlyabout167,000Europeansinall of South Asia (1931census).LeavingasidefromthisdiscussiontheAnglo-IndiansandLuso-Indians of the South Asianmainland,andtheBurghers of SriLanka,whoareallinfactlocalpeople of part-Europeanancestry,wecanidentifythefollowingcategories of Europeansasbeingresidentin South Asia today.(1)Diplomatsandjournalists.Foundonlyinthecapitalcitiesandotherconsularposts.(2)Developmentworkers,etc.Technicalspecialistsfromthe World HealthOrganization,otherUnitedNationsagen-cies,theU.S.PeaceCorps,etc.areregularlyencounteredinmost South Asiancountries.Students of anthropology,lin-guistics,andsomeothersubjectsmaybefoundalmostany-where,thoughneveringreatnumbers.SometeaandcoffeeplantationsinIndiastillhaveEuropeanmanagersandindeedareownedbyBritishcompanies.(3)RetiredBritishresidents.Asmallnumber of veryeld-erlypeoplewhoretiredinIndiaorSriLankaataboutthetime of independencearestillthere.(Most,however,leftthesub-continenttoretireinBritain,theChannelIslands,Cyprus,orAustralia.)(4)Christianmissionaries.Whilethe South Asianchurchesareessentiallyself-governing,severalhundredEuro-peanandAmericanmissionariesandCatholicpriestsandnunsmaystillbeencounteredintheregion.Theyarestill of someimportanceineducation,aswellasinfunnelingWest-emaidtotheirparishioners.(5)Religiousseekers.Atanygiventimetherearesomethousands of Australian,European,orAmericanpeople,usu-allyfairlyyoung,whoarewanderingaroundIndia,Nepal,andelsewhereinsearch of religiousenlightenmentwithinthebroadtradition of Hinduspirituality.Some of thesepeoplehavebeenlooselyclassedas"hippies."Frenchpeoplearepar-ticularlyattractedtoPondicherryandthenearbyreligiouscenter of Auroville,whileothershavebeenespeciallyat-tractedtospecificashrams,toRishikeshandotherHima-layansites,ortotheTheosophicalCenterinMadrasCity.(6)Tourists.Theregionhasanenormoustouristpoten-tial,whichhasbeenslowlydevelopedsinceindependence,andin1991India,SriLanka,Nepal,andtheMaldiveshaveathrivingtouristindustry.Unlikethereligiousseekersmen-tionedabove,whomaystayformanymonths,ordinaryWest-erntouristsusuallyvisitforjusttwoorthreeweeks.Thegreatmajority of thesetouristsarefromwesternEuropeandAustralasia.(Many of India'stourists,ontheotherhand,arenon-Europeansfromother South Asiancountries.)80Europeansin South Asia TheBritishImpactTheculturalandpoliticalimpact of theBritishoverthepasttwocenturiesin South Asia hasbeenvastandextremelyper-vasive.Numeroushistories of the"Britishperiod"testifytothis,anditisaninfluencereferredtointheIntroductiontothis volume. Spacedoesnotpermitevenabriefreview of theadministrative,legal,religious,educational,publichealth,military,agricultural,industrial,sporting,andcommunica-tionaldevelopmentsthatoccurredduringtheperiod of Brit-ishadministration of most of thesubcontinent.Wemayinsteadhighlightthecontribution of EuropeansfromIndiatothearts.Bestknown of courseistheliterarycontribution of RudyardKipling(186 5-1 936),one of twoIndian-bomwriterstoreceivetheNobelPrizeforLiterature(theotherwasRabindranathTagore). Of numerousprofes-sionalartiststoworkinIndia,themostoutstandingwastheAnglo-GermanpainterJohnZoffany,whoworkedtherefrom1783to1790.Theartisticimpact of theBritishonIndianar-chitecturewasvast,andwelldocumented:witnessonlytheofficialbuildings of NewDelhi.Lessrecognizedduringthepresentcenturyhasbeentheimpact of thisrelativelysmallethnicgroupontheBritishfilmindustry.JulieChristie,VivienLeigh,MargaretLockwood,MerleOberon,andsev-eralotheractors,aswellasthedirectorLindsayAnderson,wereallbornandatleastpartlybroughtupinBritishIndia.Onemightwonderwhethertheubiquity of schoolplaysandamateurdramaticsocietiesinthaterahadsomethingtodowiththesecareers.SeealsoAnglo-Indian;French of India;IndianChristianBibliographyBallhatchet,Kenneth(1980).Race,SexandClassundertheRaj:ImperialAttitudesandPoliciesandTheirCritics,179 3- 1905.NewYork:St.Martin'sPress.Barr,Pat(1976).TheMemsahibs:TheWomen of VictorianIndia.London:Secker&Warburg.Hervey,H.J.A.(1913).TheEuropeaninIndia.London:StanleyPaul&Co.Hockings,Paul(1989).'BritishSocietyintheCompany,Crown,andCongressEras."BlueMountains:TheEthnogra-phyandBiogeography of a South IndianRegion,editedbyPaulEdwardHockings,33 4-3 59.NewDelhi:OxfordUniversityPress.Kincaid,Dennis(1938).BritishSocialLifeinIndia,160 8- 1937.London:GeorgeRoutledge&Sons.Moorhouse,Geoffrey(1983).IndiaBritannica.NewYork:Harper&Row.French of IndiaETHNONYMS:FrenchTamils,Pondicheriens,Pondicherry(name of townandterritory)Therewere12,864FrenchnationalsresidinginIndiain1988.NearlyallareintheUnionTerritory of PondicherryinsoutheasternIndia(11,726in1988),withmuchsmallernumbersinKaraikal(695individuals),Mahe(50),Yanam(46),and342elsewhereinIndia.(Thesewerecoastalpock-etsbelongingtotheformerFrenchEmpire.)Whilelegallystillcitizens of FranceandresidentaliensinIndia,theyareethnicallyIndian,about90percentbeingethnicTamils.Al-mostunaccountably,theyvoteintheFrenchconstituency of Nice.Theyformasmallminority,accountingforlessthan3percent of thepresentpopulation of Pondicherry.TheFrenchinIndiaareanartifact of theFrenchpres-encethere,whichbeganin1673withtheestablishment of FrenchIndiaandcontinueduntil1962whentheFrenchter-ritorywasformallytransferredtoIndia.TheFrenchpresencewasalwayssmallandminorcomparedwiththeBritishpres-enceandtheFrenchinIndiaweregenerallyignored.Today,themajority of theseFrenchareHindusorChristians of localormixedfamilyorigin,andlessthan50percent of themspeakFrench.Atthesametime,however,FrenchistaughtinschoolsattendedbyFrenchIndianchildrenandadultFrenchclassesarewellattended,reflectinganinterestinmaintainingtiesandanallegiancetoFranceorinfindingjobswithFrenchcompanies.TheFrenchIndiansarethewealthiestgroupinPondicherry(asidefromthoserunningtheAurobindoAshram),derivingmuch of theirincomefrompension(some20percentareretirees),socialsecurity,welfare,andotherprogramsoftheFrenchgovernment.TheyarealsoentitledtoemigratetoFrance,althoughfewdosoandtheFrenchgov-ernmentdoesnotencouragethepractice.SeealsoEuropeansin South Asia; TamilBibliographyGlachant,Roger(1965).Histoiredel'IndedesFranqais.Paris:LibrairiePlon.Miles,WilliamF.S.(1990)."CitizenswithoutSoil:TheFrench of India(Pondicherry)."EthnicandRacialStudies13:25 2-2 73.Ramasamy,A.(1987).History of Pondicherry.NewDelhi:SterlingPublishers.Scholberg,Henry,andEmmanuelDivien(1973).Biblio-graphiedesFrangaisdansl'Inde.Pondicherry:HistoricalSoci-ety of Pondicherry.Nilsson,Sten(1968).EuropeanArchitectureinIndia,175 0- 1850.London:FaberandFaber.Trevelyan,Raleigh(1987).TheGoldenOriole.NewYork:Vi-kingPenguin.PAULHOCKINGSDivehi75DardETHNONYMS:noneAlthoughthisnameappearsintheanthropologicalliter-ature,itseemsthatthereisnodiscreteculturalgroupidentifi-ableasDards.ItistruethatPlinyandPtolemyinancienttimesbothreferredtosuchapeopleinhabitingatract of theupperIndusValleyinwhatistodayPakistan,andinthatareapeoplelivingontheleftbank of theInduswerecalledDards.TheDards,basedondescriptions of theGilgitareaaround1870,aredescribedasahunting,herding,andfarmingpeoplewith:large,extendedfamiliesandsomepolygyny;sometrans-humance;noextensivecerealagriculture;villages of from400to1,000inhabitants;patrilocalpostmaritalresidence;andnolocalizedclansbutlineagesorsibsspreadingbeyondasinglecommunity.Whileall of thismayhavebeentrueforthein-habitants of Gilgit,thereisstillsomequestionastowhetherthoselabeledDardsare,infact,adistinctculturalentity.Itismoreappropriatetospeak of the'Dardicbranch,"atermusedbylinguiststodesignateasmallgroup of languages of theIndo-AryanSubfamilyspokeninandnearthenorth of Pakistan. Of these,Kashmiriisthemostimportant.ThereisalsoaterritorythereknownasDardistan,whichincludesGilgitValley,Hunza,Chitral,Yasin,Nagar,Panyal,Kohis-tan,theAstoreValley,andpart of theupperIndusValleybe-tweenBunjiandBatera.SeealsoKashmiri;KohistaniBibliographyBiddulph,John(1880).Tribes of theHindooKoosh.Calcutta:Superintendent of GovernmentPrinting.Leitner,GotliebWilliam(1877).TheLanguagesandRaces of Dardistan.Lahore:GovernmentCentralBookDepot.PAULHOCKINGSDivehiETHNONYMS:Divehin,Dives,MaldiviansOrientationIdentification.DivehisarethosewhospeakDivehi,thelanguage of theRepublic of theMaldives.TheyoccupyalltheMaldivesandalsotheisland of Maliku(Minicoyonthemaps)tothenorth,whichbelongstoIndia.ThepeoplecallthemselvesDivehi(fromdive-si,meaning"island-er"),andtheircountryisDivehiRAjje(kingdom).Thename'Mal-dives"isprobablyfrommdild-dfv("garland-islands"inIndianlanguages),referringtothedoublechain of atollsthatap-pearslikeagarlandornecklace.ThewordatolisDivehi,origi-nallyspelledwithone1.Thecountrywasanexus of IndianOceanshipping,andithasremainedmostlyindependentsinceancienttimes.Location.TheMaldivesstretchfrom002'Sto7°0'N,withMinicoyat8°2'.Longitudeisabout730E.Thereareabout1,200islands, of which201arepermanentlyinhabited.Theislandsarelowandflat,mostlylessthanakilometerlongwithonly9aslongas2kilometers,ringingcoralatolls.Totallandareaisonlyabout280squarekilometers,andnowhereisthelandmorethan2metersabovesealevel.TheMaldivesextendfor867kilometersnorthto south andclaimthesur-roundingoceanasnationalterritory.Malikuisthelargestis-land,16.5kilometerslongandlying140kilometersnorth of theMaldivesproper,butitispoliticallycutofffromotherparts of thearchipelago.Demography.As of 1991therewere228,000Divehis-220,000Maldiviansandroughly8,000onMaliku.Thefirstcensuswasin1911aspart of theCeyloncensus,anditshowed72,237Divehison217inhabitedislands.Populationwaspreviouslykeptincheckbyepidemics,faminebecause of stormsthatinterruptedimports of food,andcerebralmalaria,butduringrecentdecadesthepopulationhasbeenshootinguprapidly.The1990censusshowedacrudebirthrate of 43per1,000andagrowthrate of 3.5percentayear.Thegovern-menthastakenlittleinitiativeonfamilyplanningbecause of themomentum of Islamictradition.Malehas57,000people,aquarter of allDivehis,thoughitisonly1.6kilometerslongandthethingroundwaterlenshasbecomepolluted,sothegovernmenttriestocurbmigrationthere.Lifeexpectancyisabout62yearsformalesand60forfemales.LinguisticAffiliation.DivehiisderivedfromtheoldSinhala of SriLanka,andsoitisclassifiableasanIndo-Aryanlanguage,althoughattheveryend of ... oldcultureiscomprised of threemainlayers:theTamil-Malayalamsubstratumwithitsmanysubtleroots;oldSinhalacultureandlanguage,whichisthedominantelement;andthephase of Arabicin-fluence.ButtheMaldivesweretouchedbyeveryculturalwindthatpassedovertheIndianOcean.SinceindependencetherehasagainbeeninfluencefromSriLanka,throughitsteachersbroughtovertosetupmodemeducationwithteach-ing of English.UnusuallyrapidchangehasoccurredinDivehicultureinthepasttwenty-fiveyears.SettlementsThe201inhabitedislandsarethelargerorbestfishingis-lands.Housesaremade of localvegetationandthatchorcoralstones,sometimeswithimportedironortileroofs.Peo-pledesirepleasanthouses,andtheyoftenarrangethemonstreetswiththeplotsmarkedbystickfences.Theislandisthesocialandadministrativeunit.Everybodyhasofficialregistra-tiononhisorherislandandcannotchangeittoanotheris-landwithouttwelveyears'residence.Eachislandcomprisesaninsularsocialcommunity,inwhichitsland,people,andproductsarepreferredtothose of otherislands.Theislandsaregroupedintonineteenadministrativeatolls.Maleistheonlycity,withsomemultistoriedbuildings of coralstoneneatlywhitewashedandmostlybuiltalongthestraightsandystreets.Ithasapiousair,withthirty-fivemosquesandmanytombs.Nearbyistheairportisland of Hulule,witharunwayextendingonthereef.Some60"uninhabited"islandsarenowbuiltupasprofitabletouristresorts,whichespeciallyat-tractEuropeansinwinter,butthegovernmenttriestomini-mizetheirculturalinfluence.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Themaintradi-tionaleconomicactivitiesaretradingandfishing.Bonitosandlargertunaareamainstay of theeconomy,caughtbypole-and-lineortrolling-linefromsailboatsormotorizedwoodenboats.ThefamousMaldivesfishispreparedbyboil-ing,drying,andsmoking.Amanmaximizeswealthbyacquir-ingfishingboatsbecausetheownergetsalargershare of fishthanthefishingcrew.Aboatownermightalsoobtaintherightfromthestatetoleaseuninhabitedislands,mainlyforcollectingcoconuts.Therearethreekinds of milletsgrownandtarointhe south. Somehomeshavebreadfruit,mango,papaya,andbananatrees,butfewvegetablesareeaten.Seatradehasalwaysbeenavitalsource of income,andnowthereisamodemshippingindustry;profitsfromitandtourismac-cruemostlytoafewprominentfamiliesinMale.Incomepercapitafromforeignaidisrelativelyhigh.IndustrialArts.Themoststrikingtraditionalcraftisbuildingwoodenboats,bothsmallandlargeoneswithlateensails,whichcanfishinthedeepseaandcarrygoodstothecontinents.Sailinglongdistanceswithoutbenefit of mapsandchartsisaremarkabletraditionalskill.Maldivesropetwistedfromcoconutcoirwasalwaysindemandbyforeignnavies.Theislandersalsomakefineproductssuchasmatswovenfromlocalreedsandlacquerworkonturnedwood.Cottonweaving,silverwork,stonecutting,andbrassworkhavemostlydiedout.Trade.FormanycenturiestheMaldiveswerefamousasthemainsource of cowrieshells,usedasmoneyinBengalandAfrica.Divehisareskilledinrapidcounting,necessaryforhandlingcowries,coconuts,orfish.Thetraditionalmethodwastocountbytwosto96andmarkeachunit of 192bylaying2coconutsontheside;theytherebycouldcountrap-idlytomanythousands.Thebasenumberwas12,whichClarenceMaloneyfindssignificantinMaldiveshistory.WhatismorepeculiaristhatIndo-Aryanwordsfor25,50,75,100,and1,000areappliedrespectivelyto24,48,72,96,and960,asthedecimalsystemhasbeenreplacingtheduodecimal.Weightsandmeasuresarebasedonmultiples of 4and12.Themainimportshavebeenrice,wheatflour,cottontextiles,kerosene,metalproducts,tobacco,salt,andcondiments.Nowthewholecountryisaduty-freeentrepot,contrastingwiththecontrolledeconomies of other South Asiancoun-tries,andthereismodembanking.Division of Labor.Menfish,whilewomenprepareanddrythefish.Mengrowmillets,whilewomencultivaterootcrops.Menconductinterislandandoverseastrade,climbcoconuttrees,andaretheartisansincotton,silver,lacquer,andstonework,whilewomenweavematsanddoembroidery.Womendothetediousjob of twistingcoirintosmallropes,whichmenthentwistintothickropesfortheirboats.How-ever,thesesexrolesarenotabsolutelyfixed;therearecases of theseactivitiesbeingdonebytheothersex.Womendomost of thehouseworkandchildcare,butmenmayalsodoit.Boatcrewsandleaders of Islamicritualandlaw,however,areallmales.LandTenure.Alllandbelongstothestate,whichleasesuninhabitedislandsorparts of islandstoprominentpeopleforcollection of produce,aspart of itssystem of control.AllhouseholdsintheMaldives,exceptonMale,canclaimtherighttoaplot of landforahouseandgardenintheirisland of registration.InFueMulakuinthe south, residentshavetherighttocultivateasmuchtarolandastheywish.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.TheDivehikinshipsysteminoriginisacombination of DravidianandArabwithelements of NorthIndiankinshipderivedfromSriLanka.Althoughthesethreesystemsaresharplyatvariance,theyareresolvedinDivehiculture.TheDravidiansystemisbasedonpreferredcross-cousinmarriage,andamaleclassifiesallfemalesasei-thersister(unmarriageable)orfemalecrosscousin(marriage-able).Thematrilinealvariant of theDravidiansystemoccursEuropeansin South Asia 79Maloney,Clarence(1984).-Divehi."InMuslimPeoples:A World EthnographicSurvey,Vol.1,23 2-2 36.Rev.ed.,editedbyRichardWeekes.Westport,Conn.:GreenwoodPress.Maloney,Clarence(1980).People of theMaldiveIslands.Ma-dras:OrientLongman.Ottovar,Annagrethe,andNilsFinnMunch-Petersen(1980).Maldiverneoet0samfundidetIndiskeOcean(TheMaldivianIslandcommunityintheIndianOcean).Copen-hagen:Kunstindustrimuseet.CLARENCEMALONEYANDNILSFINNMUNCH-PETERSENMunch-Petersen,NilsFinn(1982).'Maldives:History,DailyLife,andArtHandicraft."BulletinduC.E.M.O.I.(Brussels).1:7 4-1 03.Europeansin South Asia ETHNONYMS:Ferangi(fromMemsahib;child:ChhotaSahib"Franks"),Sahib(fem.:Whiletheimpact of Europeonthe South Asiansubcon-tinenthasbeenimmeasurableanddatesbacklongbeforeVascodaGama'sexploratoryvisitin1498,thenumber of Eu-ropeansresidentintheareanowismerelyafewtens of thou-sands.(Theymoveaboutsomuchthatacloseestimateisdif-ficult.)Butevenintheheyday of Britishimperialismtherewereonlyabout167,000Europeansinall of South Asia (1931census).LeavingasidefromthisdiscussiontheAnglo-IndiansandLuso-Indians of the South Asianmainland,andtheBurghers of SriLanka,whoareallinfactlocalpeople of part-Europeanancestry,wecanidentifythefollowingcategories of Europeansasbeingresidentin South Asia today.(1)Diplomatsandjournalists.Foundonlyinthecapitalcitiesandotherconsularposts.(2)Developmentworkers,etc.Technicalspecialistsfromthe World HealthOrganization,otherUnitedNationsagen-cies,theU.S.PeaceCorps,etc.areregularlyencounteredinmost South Asiancountries.Students of anthropology,lin-guistics,andsomeothersubjectsmaybefoundalmostany-where,thoughneveringreatnumbers.SometeaandcoffeeplantationsinIndiastillhaveEuropeanmanagersandindeedareownedbyBritishcompanies.(3)RetiredBritishresidents.Asmallnumber of veryeld-erlypeoplewhoretiredinIndiaorSriLankaataboutthetime of independencearestillthere.(Most,however,leftthesub-continenttoretireinBritain,theChannelIslands,Cyprus,orAustralia.)(4)Christianmissionaries.Whilethe South Asianchurchesareessentiallyself-governing,severalhundredEuro-peanandAmericanmissionariesandCatholicpriestsandnunsmaystillbeencounteredintheregion.Theyarestill of someimportanceineducation,aswellasinfunnelingWest-emaidtotheirparishioners.(5)Religiousseekers.Atanygiventimetherearesomethousands of Australian,European,orAmericanpeople,usu-allyfairlyyoung,whoarewanderingaroundIndia,Nepal,andelsewhereinsearch of religiousenlightenmentwithinthebroadtradition of Hinduspirituality.Some of thesepeoplehavebeenlooselyclassedas"hippies."Frenchpeoplearepar-ticularlyattractedtoPondicherryandthenearbyreligiouscenter of Auroville,whileothershavebeenespeciallyat-tractedtospecificashrams,toRishikeshandotherHima-layansites,ortotheTheosophicalCenterinMadrasCity.(6)Tourists.Theregionhasanenormoustouristpoten-tial,whichhasbeenslowlydevelopedsinceindependence,andin1991India,SriLanka,Nepal,andtheMaldiveshaveathrivingtouristindustry.Unlikethereligiousseekersmen-tionedabove,whomaystayformanymonths,ordinaryWest-erntouristsusuallyvisitforjusttwoorthreeweeks.Thegreatmajority of thesetouristsarefromwesternEuropeandAustralasia.(Many of India'stourists,ontheotherhand,arenon-Europeansfromother South Asiancountries.)80Europeansin South Asia TheBritishImpactTheculturalandpoliticalimpact of theBritishoverthepasttwocenturiesin South Asia hasbeenvastandextremelyper-vasive.Numeroushistories of the"Britishperiod"testifytothis,anditisaninfluencereferredtointheIntroductiontothis volume. Spacedoesnotpermitevenabriefreview of theadministrative,legal,religious,educational,publichealth,military,agricultural,industrial,sporting,andcommunica-tionaldevelopmentsthatoccurredduringtheperiod of Brit-ishadministration of most of thesubcontinent.Wemayinsteadhighlightthecontribution of EuropeansfromIndiatothearts.Bestknown of courseistheliterarycontribution of RudyardKipling(186 5-1 936),one of twoIndian-bomwriterstoreceivetheNobelPrizeforLiterature(theotherwasRabindranathTagore). Of numerousprofes-sionalartiststoworkinIndia,themostoutstandingwastheAnglo-GermanpainterJohnZoffany,whoworkedtherefrom1783to1790.Theartisticimpact of theBritishonIndianar-chitecturewasvast,andwelldocumented:witnessonlytheofficialbuildings of NewDelhi.Lessrecognizedduringthepresentcenturyhasbeentheimpact of thisrelativelysmallethnicgroupontheBritishfilmindustry.JulieChristie,VivienLeigh,MargaretLockwood,MerleOberon,andsev-eralotheractors,aswellasthedirectorLindsayAnderson,wereallbornandatleastpartlybroughtupinBritishIndia.Onemightwonderwhethertheubiquity of schoolplaysandamateurdramaticsocietiesinthaterahadsomethingtodowiththesecareers.SeealsoAnglo-Indian;French of India;IndianChristianBibliographyBallhatchet,Kenneth(1980).Race,SexandClassundertheRaj:ImperialAttitudesandPoliciesandTheirCritics,179 3- 1905.NewYork:St.Martin'sPress.Barr,Pat(1976).TheMemsahibs:TheWomen of VictorianIndia.London:Secker&Warburg.Hervey,H.J.A.(1913).TheEuropeaninIndia.London:StanleyPaul&Co.Hockings,Paul(1989).'BritishSocietyintheCompany,Crown,andCongressEras."BlueMountains:TheEthnogra-phyandBiogeography of a South IndianRegion,editedbyPaulEdwardHockings,33 4-3 59.NewDelhi:OxfordUniversityPress.Kincaid,Dennis(1938).BritishSocialLifeinIndia,160 8- 1937.London:GeorgeRoutledge&Sons.Moorhouse,Geoffrey(1983).IndiaBritannica.NewYork:Harper&Row.French of IndiaETHNONYMS:FrenchTamils,Pondicheriens,Pondicherry(name of townandterritory)Therewere12,864FrenchnationalsresidinginIndiain1988.NearlyallareintheUnionTerritory of PondicherryinsoutheasternIndia(11,726in1988),withmuchsmallernumbersinKaraikal(695individuals),Mahe(50),Yanam(46),and342elsewhereinIndia.(Thesewerecoastalpock-etsbelongingtotheformerFrenchEmpire.)Whilelegallystillcitizens of FranceandresidentaliensinIndia,theyareethnicallyIndian,about90percentbeingethnicTamils.Al-mostunaccountably,theyvoteintheFrenchconstituency of Nice.Theyformasmallminority,accountingforlessthan3percent of thepresentpopulation of Pondicherry.TheFrenchinIndiaareanartifact of theFrenchpres-encethere,whichbeganin1673withtheestablishment of FrenchIndiaandcontinueduntil1962whentheFrenchter-ritorywasformallytransferredtoIndia.TheFrenchpresencewasalwayssmallandminorcomparedwiththeBritishpres-enceandtheFrenchinIndiaweregenerallyignored.Today,themajority of theseFrenchareHindusorChristians of localormixedfamilyorigin,andlessthan50percent of themspeakFrench.Atthesametime,however,FrenchistaughtinschoolsattendedbyFrenchIndianchildrenandadultFrenchclassesarewellattended,reflectinganinterestinmaintainingtiesandanallegiancetoFranceorinfindingjobswithFrenchcompanies.TheFrenchIndiansarethewealthiestgroupinPondicherry(asidefromthoserunningtheAurobindoAshram),derivingmuch of theirincomefrompension(some20percentareretirees),socialsecurity,welfare,andotherprogramsoftheFrenchgovernment.TheyarealsoentitledtoemigratetoFrance,althoughfewdosoandtheFrenchgov-ernmentdoesnotencouragethepractice.SeealsoEuropeansin South Asia; TamilBibliographyGlachant,Roger(1965).Histoiredel'IndedesFranqais.Paris:LibrairiePlon.Miles,WilliamF.S.(1990)."CitizenswithoutSoil:TheFrench of India(Pondicherry)."EthnicandRacialStudies13:25 2-2 73.Ramasamy,A.(1987).History of Pondicherry.NewDelhi:SterlingPublishers.Scholberg,Henry,andEmmanuelDivien(1973).Biblio-graphiedesFrangaisdansl'Inde.Pondicherry:HistoricalSoci-ety of Pondicherry.Nilsson,Sten(1968).EuropeanArchitectureinIndia,175 0- 1850.London:FaberandFaber.Trevelyan,Raleigh(1987).TheGoldenOriole.NewYork:Vi-kingPenguin.PAULHOCKINGSDivehi75DardETHNONYMS:noneAlthoughthisnameappearsintheanthropologicalliter-ature,itseemsthatthereisnodiscreteculturalgroupidentifi-ableasDards.ItistruethatPlinyandPtolemyinancienttimesbothreferredtosuchapeopleinhabitingatract of theupperIndusValleyinwhatistodayPakistan,andinthatareapeoplelivingontheleftbank of theInduswerecalledDards.TheDards,basedondescriptions of theGilgitareaaround1870,aredescribedasahunting,herding,andfarmingpeoplewith:large,extendedfamiliesandsomepolygyny;sometrans-humance;noextensivecerealagriculture;villages of from400to1,000inhabitants;patrilocalpostmaritalresidence;andnolocalizedclansbutlineagesorsibsspreadingbeyondasinglecommunity.Whileall of thismayhavebeentrueforthein-habitants of Gilgit,thereisstillsomequestionastowhetherthoselabeledDardsare,infact,adistinctculturalentity.Itismoreappropriatetospeak of the'Dardicbranch,"atermusedbylinguiststodesignateasmallgroup of languages of theIndo-AryanSubfamilyspokeninandnearthenorth of Pakistan. Of these,Kashmiriisthemostimportant.ThereisalsoaterritorythereknownasDardistan,whichincludesGilgitValley,Hunza,Chitral,Yasin,Nagar,Panyal,Kohis-tan,theAstoreValley,andpart of theupperIndusValleybe-tweenBunjiandBatera.SeealsoKashmiri;KohistaniBibliographyBiddulph,John(1880).Tribes of theHindooKoosh.Calcutta:Superintendent of GovernmentPrinting.Leitner,GotliebWilliam(1877).TheLanguagesandRaces of Dardistan.Lahore:GovernmentCentralBookDepot.PAULHOCKINGSDivehiETHNONYMS:Divehin,Dives,MaldiviansOrientationIdentification.DivehisarethosewhospeakDivehi,thelanguage of theRepublic of theMaldives.TheyoccupyalltheMaldivesandalsotheisland of Maliku(Minicoyonthemaps)tothenorth,whichbelongstoIndia.ThepeoplecallthemselvesDivehi(fromdive-si,meaning"island-er"),andtheircountryisDivehiRAjje(kingdom).Thename'Mal-dives"isprobablyfrommdild-dfv("garland-islands"inIndianlanguages),referringtothedoublechain of atollsthatap-pearslikeagarlandornecklace.ThewordatolisDivehi,origi-nallyspelledwithone1.Thecountrywasanexus of IndianOceanshipping,andithasremainedmostlyindependentsinceancienttimes.Location.TheMaldivesstretchfrom002'Sto7°0'N,withMinicoyat8°2'.Longitudeisabout730E.Thereareabout1,200islands, of which201arepermanentlyinhabited.Theislandsarelowandflat,mostlylessthanakilometerlongwithonly9aslongas2kilometers,ringingcoralatolls.Totallandareaisonlyabout280squarekilometers,andnowhereisthelandmorethan2metersabovesealevel.TheMaldivesextendfor867kilometersnorthto south andclaimthesur-roundingoceanasnationalterritory.Malikuisthelargestis-land,16.5kilometerslongandlying140kilometersnorth of theMaldivesproper,butitispoliticallycutofffromotherparts of thearchipelago.Demography.As of 1991therewere228,000Divehis-220,000Maldiviansandroughly8,000onMaliku.Thefirstcensuswasin1911aspart of theCeyloncensus,anditshowed72,237Divehison217inhabitedislands.Populationwaspreviouslykeptincheckbyepidemics,faminebecause of stormsthatinterruptedimports of food,andcerebralmalaria,butduringrecentdecadesthepopulationhasbeenshootinguprapidly.The1990censusshowedacrudebirthrate of 43per1,000andagrowthrate of 3.5percentayear.Thegovern-menthastakenlittleinitiativeonfamilyplanningbecause of themomentum of Islamictradition.Malehas57,000people,aquarter of allDivehis,thoughitisonly1.6kilometerslongandthethingroundwaterlenshasbecomepolluted,sothegovernmenttriestocurbmigrationthere.Lifeexpectancyisabout62yearsformalesand60forfemales.LinguisticAffiliation.DivehiisderivedfromtheoldSinhala of SriLanka,andsoitisclassifiableasanIndo-Aryanlanguage,althoughattheveryendof...

... Muslimsepts,withthelatterbeingSunniconvertsretainingsome of theirHindupractices.Mostkeepcopies of theQuranintheirhomes;however,likeHindustheyworshipafamilydeity.Brahmanpriestsareconsultedtodeterminealuckytimeforthefirstbathforthemotherafterababyisborn.Id-al-Zuha(Id-al-Adha)andId-al-Fitraretheirtwomostimportantfes-tivals.GujarMuslimsobservesome of theHindufestivals,suchasHoliandNazPanchmi.Theyburytheirdeadaccord-ingtoMuslimcustom;however,theymakefireofferingsandupturnapitcher of waternearthegraveasHindustradition-allydo.GujarsmakeofferingstothedeadonFridays, ... acrop(duringagriculturalseasons)fromdamagebywildanimals,thepeoplebuildtemporarywatchtowers(borang)intreesinthefield.Men'sdormitoriesexistinsomevillages.Theyactasplacesformeetingandrec-reationforthebachelors.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Traditionally,theGaroslivinginthehillssubsistbyslash-and-bumcultiva-tion.Theironhoe,chopper,andwoodendiggingstickarees-sentialappliances.Humanhandscontinuetobetheprincipaltool.Veryofteninsomeareasaplotallottedtoafamilyre.mainsunderusedbecause of aninsufficientnumber of work-ersandthelowlevel of technology.Tosurvivetheerraticna-ture of themonsoons,mixedcrops-bothwetanddryvarieties-areplanted.Ashiftingcultivatorplantsawideas-sortment of cropsconsisting of rice(mainlydryvarieties),millet,maize,andmanyrootcrops,vegetables,etc.Inaddi-tiontothesecotton,ginger,andchilipeppersarecommonlyraisedascashcrops.AllcropsareharvestedinOctober.Atpresenttheavailablestrips of lowandflatlandlyingbetweenthehillocksorhillsareusedforpermanentwetcultivation.Thevariety of cropscultivatedislikethat of theneighboringplainspeoples.Suchlandsareownedindividually.Additionalproductionfromsuchplotsplacesthevillagersinabettereconomiccondition.Theexpansion of themodemeconomyandthesteadyincrease of populationarecausingconstantpressureontraditionallyownedplots.Thesameplotisusedalmostcontinuouslyinsomeareas,thusleadingtoadeclineinannualproduction.Thistrendisevidentfromthe1981censusreport,whichestimatedthatabout50percent of theGaropeoplearenowsolelydependentonshiftingcultivationandtherestuseapart of ajhumplotpermanentlyforgrowingarecanuts,oranges,tea(onasmallscale),pineapples,etc.Inthischangingsituationaproducermaynotalwaysbeacon-sumer;andreciprocityandcooperationdonotexistasdomi-nantforcesinthesocioeconomiclife of thispopulation.IndustrialArts.Eachfamilyinatraditionalcontextactsasaself-containedeconomicunit.Modernizationhasbroughtsomechangesinthesocioeconomicsphere of thispopulation.TheGarosresidinginthehillsdidnotweaveclothafewdecadesback;theyusedtoprocurethickclothknownaskanchafromtheplainsGaros.Nowthattheloomhasbeenintroducedinthehillareas,theyweavedokmande(akind of cloth)forcommercialpurposesaswellasfortheirper-sonaluse.Previouslyeachfamilyusedtomakepotteryforitsowndomesticuse,butnowadaystheartisconfinedtoafewfamiliesonlywhoeithersellitorbarterit.Trade.AfewcenturiesagotheGaroswerefamousforheadhunting.Thatpracticeconstrainedtheneighboringpop-ulation of theplainsfromenteringthehills.Butpeoplemustexchangetheirproducetomeettheirrequirements,andbothhillandplainsGarosneededsuchtrade.Hencesometradestartedatborderpointsonaverylimitedscale.Overtime,thesecontactsgrewintoorganizedhutta(weeklymarkets)undertheinitiative of theZamindars,whoweresubjects of theMuslimruler.Initiallycottonwassoldoutrightorex-changedforpigs,cattle,goats,tobacco,andmetallictools.In94Gurungmarriageisstronglydisapproved of, friendlysocialintercoursewithmembers of otherethnicgroupsisusual,andbonds of ritualfriendship(nyel)areforgedbetweenGurungsandmembers of equal-statusethnicgroups.SettlementsGurungvillagesarebuilthighonridgesandconsist of closelyclusteredgroups of whitewashedhouseswithslateroofs.Houses of lineagememberstendtobebuiltalongsideonean-other.WhilemostGurungsremaininruralvillages,sincethemid-1970smanymoreprosperousGurungfamilieshavecho-sentomovetoPokhara,thenearesturbancenter,because of thegreatercomfort of urbanlivingandimprovedaccesstoeducationalfacilitiesandmedicalcare.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Themainoccu-pation of Gurungsissubsistenceagriculture.Millet,wheat,barley,maize,potatoes,soybeans,andricearegrown.Somehouseholdsalsomaintainvegetablegardens.Goats,chick-ens,waterbuffalo,andoxenarekeptwithinthevillages.Sheepandwaterbuffaloarestillgrazedonhigh-altitudepas-tures,butdeforestationhascausedareduction of fodderandthusinthelastfiftyyearspastoralismhasbecomealesssig-nificanteconomicactivity.TheruggedterrainonwhichGurungsfarmdoesnotallowmuchagriculturalsurplus.Themostimportantsource of cashincomeforGurungsisserviceintheGurkharegiments of theBritishandIndianarmies.IndustrialArts.Weavingisacommonactivityduringtheslackagriculturalseason.Womenweavecarryingclothsandwoolenblankets,andmenweavecarryingbaskets,winnowingbaskets,andstoragebaskets.Trade.Beginninginthelatenineteenthcentury,GurungsplayedanimportantpartinthesalttradewithTibet.Thisre-lationshipwasdiscontinuedforpoliticalreasonsinthemid-twentiethcentury.Atpresent,someurbanGurungsengageintradewithIndiaandothersareprominentincontractingandtransportationbusinessesaroundPokhara.Division of Labor.Thereislittleformaldivision of laboramongGurungs.Menmaynotweaveclothandwomenmaynotweavebambooorplow.Womengenerallylookafterthehouse,cook,andcareforthephysicalneeds of children.Menandwomenengageinmostagriculturalactivities,aswellaschoppingwoodforfuelandgatheringfodderforlivestock.Livestockinhigh-altitudepasturesismostoftentendedbymen.Metalwork,tailoring,andcarpentryareperformedbynon-GurungservicecasteswholiveinhamletsattachedtoGurungvillages.LandTenure.Whileforestandgrazinglandarecommu-nallyowned,agriculturallandisheldprivately.Rightstolandareequallydistributedamongsons.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.LineagesinGurungsocietyin-volvelocalizedagnaticgroupslinkedbyaknownancestor.Eachlineageispart of aclan.Clanaffiliationcutsacrosslo-calityandacts ... herdeceasedhusband.Socialization.Theambition of everyGondwomanistobearason.Barrennessinawomanisconsideredacurse.Preg-nancyandbirtharesurroundedwithprotectiveritesagainstmagicspellsandevilinfluences.Childrenaregenerallywel-comeandtreatedwithaffection.Althoughsonsarepreferred,daughtersarewelcometoo.Childrengrowupwithoutmuchrestriction,butthecommunityteachesthemcorrectbehav-ior.Childrenareearlyinvitedtotakeoversometasks,firstplayfully,theninearnest.Boysspontaneouslyseemtoprefermalecompany,whilegirlsseemtogravitatenaturallytowardotherfemales.Thechangetoadulthoodisgradual;thereisnoinitiationceremony.Thefirstmenstruation of agirlisnotspeciallycelebrated,butshedoeslearninadvancewhatpro-hibitionsshehastoobserve.OnlythreeGondsectionsinthe south haveyouthdormitories,andonlytheMuriasusethedormitoryfortheeducation of youthinmarriedandciviclife.TheotherGondsectionshavenodormitorysystem.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.SincetheGondsarespreadoverawidearea,therearemanylocalsubsectionsthathavenoso-cialcontactwitheachother.ThemoreSanskritizedthesesec-tionsare,thehigheristhesocialranktheyclaim.Butthehighestrankisgiventothedescendants of theGondrajasandtheirretainers,theRaj-GondsandKatholias.Amongthesetwosectionswefindthegreatestnumber of Gondswithsubstantiallandholdings.OtherGondsectionsoutside of GondavanaaretheKisans,inthe south of Biharandintheneighboringdistricts of Orissa.TheGondsreachedeventhehillsalongthesouthernbank of theGanges.TheretheyareknownasMajwarsorMajhis(headmen).AkintotheGondsareanumber of othertribes,suchastheBhattras,Koyas,KondaKapus,KondaDeras,andHalbas.TheKhonds of Orissa,anotherimportanttribe,alsomayoriginallyhavebeenGonds.PoliticalOrganization.TheentireGondtribewasneverapoliticalunit.Tribalsolidaritydoesnotextendbeyondtheconfines of asubsection.ThebasicpoliticalunitistheGondvillagecommunity.Itisademocraticorganizationinwhichtheheadmanandotherofficialsarechosenbythevillagers.Eachvillagehasitscouncil,withofficialsliketheheadman,thepriest,thevillagewatchman,andfourorfiveelders.Moreimportantaffairsarediscussedanddecideduponbyallthemen of thecommunity.Avillagehasalsoitsservantcastes,suchastheAhir(cowherds),Agaria(blacksmiths),Dhulia(drummers),andPardhan(bardsandsingers).Atthetowns of Garha-Mandla,Kharla,Deogarh,andChanda,theleadingheadmenmanagedtorisetotherank of rulers(rajas)andtoestablishdynastiesthatlastedforcenturies.ButtheveryfactthattheserajassurroundedthemselveswithHinduofficialsandeagerlyadoptedHinduorMogulmethods of administra-tionprovesthatroyaltywasalientotribaldemocracy.InthepresentpoliticalsituationtheGondsare,despitetheirnum-bers,politicallypowerless,whichispartlybecause of thistri-baldisunitybutalsobecause of theircomparativelack of edu-cationanddrive,andtheirgreatpoverty.ThosefewGondswhoaremembers of thelegislativeassembliesoreventhena-tionalparliament(LokSabha)areeitheralienatedfromtheirtribalcultureoreasilymanipulatedbyotherpoliticians.ConflictandSocialControl.Insettlingdisputesthecourt of firstinstanceisthevillagecouncil(panch),whichispre-sidedoverbytheheadman.Usuallyitstrivestorestorehar-monybetweenthelitigantsratherthantoimplementcus-tomarylaw.Asettlementcommonlyinvolvesafine,orex-communicationinvaryingdegrees.Thosewhooffendagainsttherule of clanexogamyincursupernaturalsanctions.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefs.Thereligion of theGondsdoesnotdif-fermuchfromthat of thenumerousothertribesincentralIndia.Likethem,theGondsbelieveinahighgodwhomtheycalleitherbyhisHinduname,"Bhagwan,"orbyhistribalname,"BaraDeo,"the"GreatGod."Butheisanotiosedeityandisrarelyworshiped,thoughhisnameisofteninvoked.Heisapersonalgod-eternal,just,merciful,maker of thefertileearthand of man-thoughtheuniverseisconceivedascoex-istingwithhim.IntheGondbeliefsystem,besidesthishighgodtherealsoexistagreatnumber of maleandfemaledeitiesandspiritsthatpersonifyvariousnaturalfeatures.Everyhill,river,lake,tree,androckisinhabitedbyaspirit.Theearth,water,andairareruledbydeitiesthatmustbeveneratedandappeasedwithsacrificesandofferings.Thesedeitiesandspir-itsmaybebenevolent,butoftentheyarecapricious,malevo-lent,andpronetoharminghumanbeings,especiallyindivid-ualswhohavemadethemselvesvulnerablebybreakingarule of thetribalcode.Thedeitiesandspirits,especiallytheances-torspirits,watchoverthestrictobservance of thetribalrulesandpunishoffenders.ReligiousPractitioners.Gondsdistinguishbetweenpriestsandmagicians.Thevillagepriestisappointedbythevillagecouncil;however,hisappointmentisoftenhereditary.Hisresponsibilityistoperformallthesacrificesheldatcer-tainfeastsforthevillagecommunityforwhichhereceivesaspecialremuneration.Sacrificesandreligiousceremoniesonfamilyoccasionsareusuallyperformedbythehead of thefamily.Thedivinersandmagicians,ontheotherhand,areunofficialcharismaticintermediariesbetweenthesupernat-ural world andhumanbeings.TheGonds,liketheothertri-bals of centralIndia,believethatmostdiseasesandmisfor-tunesarecausedbythemachinations of evilspiritsandoffendeddeities.Itisthetask of thesoothsayersanddivinerstofindoutwhichsupernaturalagencieshavecausedthepres-entsicknessormisfortuneandhowtheycanbeappeased.Ifsoothsayersanddivinerscannothelp,magiciansandsha-mansmustbeemployed.Magiciansbelievethatbymagicfor-mulasanddevicestheycanforceaparticulardeityorspirittocarryouttheircommands.Shamansarepersonswhoeasilyfallintotrancesandarethenbelievedtobepossessedbydei-tiesorspiritsthatprophesythroughtheirmouths.Thesefre-quentecstasiesdonotseemtohaveanydetrimentalmentalorphysicaleffectsontheshamans,whomaybemaleorfe-male.Magicmaybe"white"or"black":itiswhiteifitcoun-teractsblackmagicoreffectsacurewhenasicknesshasbeenGaro83thebeginningsilentbarterwaspossiblebecauseeachpartyunderstoodfromlonginvolvementtherespectivevalues of theirgoods.Thisprocesshascontinuedtothepresent,withincreasinginvolvement of tradersfromneighboringareas,andhasnowbecomefullymonetized.Cotton,ginger,anddriedchiliesproducedbytheGarosaresoldtothetraders.TheGarosinturnpurchasepottery,metallictools,andotherindustrialgoodssuchasclothfromthetraders.Division of Labor.Thedivision of laborbetweenmembers of thehouseholdisasfollows:themalesareresponsibleforclearingjungleandsettingfiretothedebrisforshiftingculti-vation,whilewomenareresponsibleforplanting,weeding,andharvesting.Duringthepeak of theagriculturalopera-tionsthemensometimeshelpthewomen.Constructionandrepair of thehousearemaleduties.Menmakebaskets,whilewomencarrycropsfromthefieldandfirewoodfromjungle.Womenlookafterthekitchenandpreparebeer,andmenservethebeertoguests.Womenrearthechildrenandkeepthedomesticanimals.Bothmenandwomensellfirewoodandvegetablesinthemarket.LandTenure.Landforshiftingcultivationisownedbytheclan.Eachvillagehasatraditionallydemarcatedarea of itsowntermedadok.Thisareaissubdividedintoplotsthatareusedforcultivationinacyclicorder.Theplotsaredistrib-utedtothefamilies.Allotment of thegeneralplotsisdonebycommonconsensus of thevillageelders,buttheflatareaforpermanentwetcultivationisownedbyindividuals.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.TheGarosreckontheirkinshipthroughthemother.Individualsmeasurethedegree of theirrelationshiptooneanotherbythedistance of theirmatrilin-eages.Formen,children of theirsistersorsisters'daughtersareveryimportantkin.Forwomen,children of theirsisters'daughtersareequivalenttothose of theirowndaughters.KinshipTerminology.ThekinshiptermsusedbytheGarosformaset,whichisbroadenoughsothateachGarocanbeassignedaterm.Thetermsarearrangedinasystemthatclassifiesthekin.Thisclassificationisbasedonnineprinciples,asfollows:(1)sex,(2)generation,(3)relativeage,(4)moietymembership,(5)collaterality,(6)inheritance,(7)type of wife,(8)intimacy of relationship,(9)speaker'ssex.MarriageandFamilyMarriage.Descentismatrilineal,residenceuxorilocal.Themother'sbrother'sdaughtertype of cross-cousinmar-riageisthemostwidelyacceptedandprevalentamongthepeople.Itisarigidcustomthatamanmustmarryawomanfromtheoppositechatchi(moiety).Therule of chatchiexogamystipulatesthataman'smother'sfatherwillbeintheoppositechatchiandaman'swife'spotentialhusbandswillbeinhisownchatchi.Aftermarriageamankeepsuphisrela-tionwithhismachong(clan).Hisrelationwithreferencetohiswife'smachongisdesignatedasgachi.Marriageestab-lishesapermanentrelationbetweentwomachong,knownasakim.Aftermarriage,amalemovestotheresidence of hiswife.Inthecase of anokrom(husband of theheiress of prop-erty),marriagedoesnotcreateanewhouseholdbutratheraddsanewleaseonlifetoanoldhousehold.Evenafterthedeathordivorce of aspousetheakimrelationcontinues.Itistheresponsibility of thedeceased'smachongtoprovideare-placementspousetothesurvivingpartner.DomesticUnit.Thehouseholdistheprimaryproductionandconsumptionunit.AGarohouseholdcomprisesparents,unmarriedsonsanddaughters,amarrieddaughter(heiress),andherhusbandandtheirchildren.Inprincipleamarriedgranddaughterandherchildrenshouldbeincluded,butinre.alitygrandparentsrarelysurvivetoseetheirgrandchildrenmarried.Somehouseholdsmay-forshortperiodsonly-includedistantrelativesornonrelatedpersonsforvariousreasons.Inheritance.PropertyamongtheGarosisinheritedinthefemaleline.One of thedaughtersisselectedbytheparentstobetheheiress.Ifthecouplehavenofemalechild,agirlbe-longingtothemachong of thewife(preferablythedaughter of hersister,whetherrealorclassificatory)isadoptedtobeanheiress.Sheisnotconsideredtobetheabsoluteowner of theproperty.Decisionaboutthedisposal of propertyistakenbyherhusband,whoisconsideredtobethehouseholdauthority(nokniskotong).Afterthedeath of thefather-in-lawresponsi-bilitytransferstotheson-in-law.Ifadeadmanissurvivedbyawidow,shestaysinthefamily of herdaughterandissome-timesreferredtoasanadditionalwife(Uk) of herdaughter'shusband.Socialization.Childrenstarthelpingtheirmothertolookaftertheinfantswhentheirmotherisbusywithwork.Todaytherearedifferenteducationalinstitutions-namely,themis-sionschoolsandotherIndianestablishments-thatactasmajoragents of education.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.InGarosocietythemostimportantsocialgroupisthemachong(clan).Amachongisanexoga-mousmatrilinealdescentgroupwhereinaGaroisautomati-callyassignedbybirthtotheunilinealgroup of hismother.Achatchi(moiety)isdividedintomanymachong.Eachmar-riedcouplechoosesonedaughter-or,iftheyhavenone,theyadoptacloserelative of themother-tobeheiress(noknadongipikamechik) of thefamily.Herhusbandtradi-tionallyisselectedfromthelineagegroup of thefatherandisacceptedasthenokrom of thehouse.Heresideswithhiswifeinherparents'house.Hehastotakeontheresponsibility of lookingafterhisparents-in-lawduringtheiroldage,andhiswifeinheritstheproperty.PoliticalOrganization.Traditionally,theGaroswerenotapoliticallyorganizedsociety,andeventodaythereexistsnoclear-cutpoliticalstructure.Chieftainshipinvolvesreligiousfunctionsonly.SocialControl.Thekinshipsystem,thekinshipbond,andtherelatedvaluesystemactasaneffectivemeans of socialcontrol.Formerlythebachelors'dormitorieswereimportantagents of socialcontrol.Conflict.AmongtheGarosmostdisputesariseovertheis-sues of property,inheritance,anddomesticquarrelswithinthefamily.Suchproblemsaretoalargeextentsettledbythemahari(lineage) of theoffendedandtheoffender.Anewsit-uationdevelopswhensomeone'scattlecausedamagetoan-other'scrops.Insuchasituationthenokma(villagehead-man)actsasanintermediaryonly.IfhefailstosettletheGurung95PoliticalOrganization.Until1962theGurungvillagesweregovernedbyhereditaryclanleadersandvillagehead-men.In1962thenationalgovernmentinstitutedanelectoralsystemwherebyvillagesaregroupedtogetherinunits of five,calledpanchayats,anddividedintoneighborhoodsorwardsfromwhichlocalcouncillorsareelected.Theelectoratealsochoosesapradhanpancheanduperpradhan(likeamayorandvicemayor,respectively)toleadthepanchayat.SocialControl.Gossipandfear of witchattackarecom-monmeans of socialcontrol.Thelocalcouncilisabletolevyfinesagainstpanchayatresidents,andforseriouscrimesgov-ernmentpolicemaybecalledin.Conflict.Disputesareoftenresolvedbyelderstrustedbythepartiesinvolved.Ifthisdoesnotprovideasolutionthentheymaybebroughtbeforethevillagecouncilor,asalastre-sort,tothedistrictcourt.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefs.TheGurungspracticeaform of TibetanBuddhismstronglyinfluencedbythepre-Buddhistreligion of Tibet,andtheyalsoobservemajorHindufestivals,suchasDasain.Theybelieveinsometenets of BuddhismandHindu-ism,suchaskarma,yettheyhaveaset of beliefsaboutanaf-terlifeintheLand of theAncestorsandinlocaldeitiesthatarepeculiarlyGurung.Gurungsbelievetheirlocaletobein-habitedbysupernaturalforestcreaturesandbyavariety of formlesswraithsandspirits.Some of theseexistinand of themselves,whileothersarebelievedtobethespirits of hu-manswhohavediedviolentdeaths.GurungsbelieveinthemajorHindudeitiesandintheBuddhaandbodhisattvas.Particularvillageshavetheirowndeities,whicharefelttobeespeciallypowerfulintheirimmediatesurroundings.ReligiousPractitioners.Practitioners of thepre-BuddhistGurungreligion,calledpanjuandklihbri,areactiveintheperformance of exorcismsandmortuaryrites.Buddhistlamasarealsoimportantinfuneraryrituals,aswellasperformingpurificationritesforinfantsandsomeseasonalagriculturalrituals.WealthierGurungsoccasionallycalllamasintoper-formhouse-blessingceremonies.Brahmanpriestsaresum-monedtocasthoroscopesandperformdivinationsattimes of misfortune.Dammisfromthelocalservicecastesarebelievedtobeparticularlypotentexorcistsandareoftencalledincases of illness.Arts.Gurungsmakenothingthattheywouldidentifyasart.Thegoodsthattheyproduce,suchasbasketsandblan-kets,areusefulandtendtobe of aconventionalplaindesign.Theartistry of Gurungsisexpressedintheirfolkmusicanddanceandespeciallyintheevanescentform of songex-changesbetweenyoungmenandwomen.Medicine.Gurungsoftenemployexorcistsaswellassci-entificdrugswhensufferingfromanillness.Scientificmedi-cineishighlyvalued,butitiscostlyandisnoteasilyavailableinruralareas.Herbsandplantsarealsousedintreatingill-nessandinjury.DeathandAfterlife.Deathis of centralsymbolicimpor-tanceforGurungs.Thefuneraryritual(pae)isthemaincere-monialoccasioninGurungsociety,involvingtwonightsandthreedays of ritualactivity.Itisattendedbykin,villagers,andalargenumber of peoplewhocomefortheconvivialityandspectacle.Buddhistlamasandthepanjuandklihbripriests of thepre-Buddhistreligionmayofficiateatthepae.Deathisbelievedtoinvolvethedissolution of elementsthatmakeupthebody,sothattheearthelementreturnstoearth,airtoair,firetofire,andwatertowater.Thisprocessleavestheplahorsouls(nineformenandsevenforwomen),whichmustbesentthroughtheperformance of thepaetotheLand of theAncestors.Therelifecontinuesmuchasitdoesinthepresent world, andfromtherethespiritcantakeotherrebirths.SeealsoGurkha;NepaliBibliographyMacfarlane,Alan(1976).ResourcesandPopulation:AStudy of theGurungs of Nepal.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.Messerschmidt,DonaldA.(1976).TheGurungs of Nepal.Warminister:Aris&Phillips.Pignede,Bernard(1966).LesGurungs:UnePopulationhinalayenneduNepal.TheHague:Mouton.ERNESTINEL.McHUGH82GaroHajong,theKoch,theRabha,theDalau,andtheBanaiswhoresideontheadjacentplains of theneighboringdistrict.Thereremainsanobscurityabouttheorigin of theword"Garo."Theyareknownas"Garos"tooutsiders;buttheGarosalwaysdesignatethemselvesas"Achik"(hillmen).TheGarosaredividedintoninesubtribes:theAwe,Chisak,Matchi-Dual,Matabeng,Ambeng,Ruga-Chibox,Gara-Gan.ching,Atong,andtheMegam.Thesearegeographicsub-tribes,buttheyarealsodialectalandsubculturalgroups.Ac-cordingtotheirbeliefsandreligion,theGarosaredividedintothe"Songsarek"(thosewhofollowindigenousbeliefsandpractices)andtheChristians.Location.ThetwoGaroHillsdistrictsaresituatedbe-tween25°9'and26°1'Nand89°49'and91°2'E,coveringanarea of 8,000squarekilometers.ThedistrictsborderBangla-deshonthe south andwestandAssamonthenorth.Hillscovermost of thedistrict,withsomeadjacentfringes of plainsborderingthemonsoonarea,producingthickvegetationonthehills.Thereareanumber of hillystreamsandrivers;ex-ceptfortheSimsangRiver,whichformsawidefloodplain,noneisnavigable.Demography.Accordingtothecensus of Indiafor1971,Garosnumbered342,474.ChristianGaroswere54.3percent of thetotalGaropopulation;nowtheymaybemorethan60percent of thetotalGaropopulation.LinguisticAffiliation.AccordingtoSirGeorgeGrierson'sclassificationinTheLinguisticSurvey of India,GarobelongstotheBodoSubsection of theBodo-NagaSection,undertheAssam-BurmaGroup of theSino-TibetanorTibeto-BurmanLanguageFamily.HistoryandCulturalRelationsThereremainsnorecord of whentheGarosmigratedandset-tledintheirpresenthabitat.Theirtraditionallore,asre-cordedbyA.Playfair,indicatesthattheymigratedtotheareafromTibet.Thereisevidencethattheareawasinhabitedbystone-usingpeoples-PaleolithicandNeolithicgroups-inthepast.Aftersettlinginthehills,Garosinitiallyhadnocloseandconstantcontactwiththeinhabitants of thead-joiningplains.In177 5-1 776theZamindars of MechparaandKaraibari(atpresentintheGoalparaandDhuburidis.tricts of Assam)ledexpeditionsintotheGarohills.ThefirstcontactwithBritishcolonialistswasin1788,andtheareawasbroughtunderBritishadministrativecontrolintheyear1873.SettlementsThepopulationinaGarovillagemayrangefrom20to1,000persons.Thepopulationdensitytendstodecreaseasonemovestowardtheinteriorareasfromtheurbanareas of thedistricts.Villagesarescatteredanddistantfromoneanotherintheinteriorareas.Thesevillagesaregenerallysituatedonthetop of hillocks.Thehousesarebuilt,togetherwithgrana-ries,firewoodsheds,andpigsties,onpilesaroundtheslope of thehillock,usinglocallyavailablebamboo,wood,grass,etc.Theapproachtotherectangularhouseisalwaysbuiltfacingtheleveledsurface of thetop,whiletherearpart of thehouseremainshorizontaltotheslope.Nowadaysnewpile-typebuildingsusingwoodandironasmajorcomponentsarebeingmadeinsometraditionalvillagesalso.Inaddition,buildingssimilartothose of theneighboringplainsareconstructed.Thevillagesmayremaindistantfromagriculturalfields(hum).Inordertoguard...