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... further out in the Solar System, Risto Pellinen discusses physical conditions on Mars The latest measurements conducted by Mars rovers show that there indeed is water ice on the surface of Mars ... of them may easily shift the system from one state to another 1.2 Themes of the Book The symposium From the Earth s Core to Outer Space comprised 26 presentations by leading Finnish geoscientists ... Pesonen Based on updated paleomagnetic data, this paper presents an extensive synthesis of the drift history of the lithospheric plates showing how these movements have, several times during the...

Ngày tải lên: 14/03/2014, 10:20

... Characteristics of the Radiation Field in the Atmosphere Nevertheless, taking into account that the thickness of the atmosphere is much less than the Earth s radius is, in a number of problems the ... ϕ) Cs (1.16) It is called also “differential scattering cross-section” in another terminology and the scattering cross-section is called “integral scattering cross-section” The sense of these ... = in (1.28) The data of the second kind describe the separate absorption lines of the gases (parameters of the fine structure) The theoretical aspects of the calculations using these data have...

Ngày tải lên: 05/08/2014, 21:21

... methodologies to the real cloudiness Remember the classification of the stratiform clouds: the stratiform clouds of the lower level are Stratus (St), Stratus-cumulus (Sc), Nimbus stratus (Ns); the stratiform ... clouds of the medium level are Alto-stratus (As), Alto-cumulus (Ac); the high stratiform clouds are Cirrus-stratus (Cs); and also the Frontal cloud systems are Ns-As, As-Cs, Ns-As-Cs (Feigelson ... brightness of the luminous object Actually, it is well known that the viewing brightness of stars decreases with the increasing of distance It is evident that as the star is further, then the solid...

Ngày tải lên: 05/08/2014, 21:21

... Thickness The optical thickness of certain cloud layers is not sufficient in some cases for making use of the above-presented equations and their application leads to significant errors and it causes the ... adducing these definitions It should be emphasized only that they depend on the optical thickness as well Besides, these functions depend inexplicitly on the phase function The tables containing the ... that they are describing the radiation field within the boundaries and at them the more exact, the bigger the optical thickness is and the less true absorption is In addition, there is a strong...

Ngày tải lên: 05/08/2014, 21:21

... the results is rather significant at the boundaries of the spectral regions, where the sensitivity of the photomultiplier is weak The analysis of the observational results indicates the decreasing ... possibility of using it as a starting one For this spectrum, the number of the spectra of the same class is determined together with the average distance to the spectra of this class expressed ... evidently has a sense of the spectra density in this class Hence, the spectrum providing the maximal spectra density in the class has been chosen as starting The formal computer classification has to...

Ngày tải lên: 05/08/2014, 21:21

... following thesis are given: The excessive absorption of SWR is defined just by the optical properties of cloudiness and is not caused by the observational or processing uncertainties as some investigators ... (in Russian) STANDARDS 4401–81 Standard atmosphere USSR state standard (1981) Standard s Press, Moscow (in Russian) Stephens G (1995) Anomalous shortwave absorption in clouds GEWEX News, WCRP ... array of the measured characteristics (see Sect 3.1) The opposite case is impossible because of digitations of the output signal Thus, it is safe to say without the generality loss that while solving...

Ngày tải lên: 05/08/2014, 21:21

... changes of the measured value In this case, (4.38) is the estimation of the variations of parameters X by the known variations of values Y Consequence Consider the simplest case of the relations similar ... noncoincidence The comparison of every element of the mentioned matrices is needless Usually the comparison of the diagonal elements (dispersions) or of the sums of these elements (the invariant under the ... grid on the other hand Some ideas of the algorithm presented in the study by Pokrovsky (1967) constitute the basis of this grid selection The centers of the spectral lines are selected as basic points...

Ngày tải lên: 05/08/2014, 21:21

... experiments with the processed results is less than ten for every type of surface, it would not be enough for statistical analysis of the results and for presenting them as models Nevertheless, it is ... obtain the inverse formulas for the retrieval of the desired parameters after substituting the measured values of the radiative characteristics The first studies in this field assumed either the infinitely ... to the atmospheric parameters becomes faster and simpler Moreover, the possibility of the analytical expressions of the radiative characteristics suggest an idea to convert these expressions and...

Ngày tải lên: 05/08/2014, 21:21

... Cloudiness The cloudy system consisting of the separate cloud layers has been discussed in Sect 2.3, and the model of multilayer cloudiness together with the set of the formulas solving the direct ... are presented in the same table As is seen from the table, the uncertainty in the case of inhomogeneous layers is the same as in the case of the homogeneous layers and depends only on the applicability ... domain is set on the optical thickness The restriction on the true absorption arises due to expansions over the small parameter for the asymptotic constants The applicability region of the inverse...

Ngày tải lên: 05/08/2014, 21:21

... clear sky Class 2.0 Class 3.0 Class 4.0 Class 5.0 Class 6.0 Class 7.0 Class 8.0 Class 9.0 Class 10.0 268 Appendix A: Tables of Radiative Characteristics and Optical Parameters of the Atmosphere ... before solving The incorrectness is intensified with the essentially different scales of the elementary volumes for different particles (molecules, aerosols and droplets), whose sizes distinguish ... wavelength At the sixth stage the results are prepared for mapping (inserting the missed pixels; inserting the values averaged over the neighbor pixels to the missed pixels or to the pixels with only...

Ngày tải lên: 05/08/2014, 21:21

... Formulas Derivation Substitute to (B.5) the following expansions over powers of small parameter s for values: 3.6 m = 8s2 + s − 7.5g + + O (s4 ) , 1+g l = − 6q s + 18q s2 + O (s3 ) , (B.6) a∞ = − 4s ... properties of natural surfaces 79 spectral resolution 199 spectral transformation of the albedo 100 spectral transparency 173 spectral values 205, 243 spectrometer 78 spectroscopic parameters 134 spectrum ... A: Tables of Radiative Characteristics and Optical Parameters of the Atmosphere 289 Table A.14 The single scattering albedo and optical thickness at different sublayers of the stratus cloud from...

Ngày tải lên: 05/08/2014, 21:21

... closely and notice that, as the earth spins on its axis, the side facing the sun is in sunshine and the other side is in darkness Thus, half of the globe is always illuminated If the earth s axis ... the sun s rays when the earth is at an average distance from the sun Satellite measurements from the Earth Radiation Budget Satellite suggest the solar constant varies slightly as the sun s radiant ... atmosphere than sunlight that reaches the earth s surface farther south Sunlight is lost through both the thickness of the pure atmosphere and by impurities in the atmosphere As the sun s rays...

Ngày tải lên: 09/08/2014, 11:20

... decreases, so does the air s saturation vapor pressure As the saturation vapor pressure approaches the actual vapor pressure, the relative humidity increases as the air approaches saturation In summary, ... housed in an instrument shelter (see Fig 3.17) The shelter completely encloses the instruments, protecting them from rain, snow, and the sun s direct rays It is of these instruments measure the ... Northern Hemisphere during the course of one year Note that, during the winter, the sun rises in the southeast and sets in the southwest During the summer, it rises in the northeast, reaches a much...

Ngày tải lên: 09/08/2014, 11:20

... Russian scientists claim great success in suppressing hail using ice nuclei, such as silver iodide and lead iodide In the United States, the results of most hail-suppression experiments are still ... But why does the air rise on some occasions and not on others? And why does the size and shape of clouds vary so much when the air does rise? To answer these questions, let s focus on the concept ... clouds— uch as cirrostratus, altostratus, nimbostratus, or stratus—forming in stable air The atmosphere is stable when the environmental lapse rate is small; that is, when there is a relatively small...

Ngày tải lên: 09/08/2014, 11:20

... the northeast trades thousands of kilometers across the Atlantic, where they settle upon the Amazon basin Some scientists suggest that this is one of the major sources of soil nutrients for the ... This relationship tells us that when surface high pressure is more dense the pressure of a gas is held constant, than air above a region of surface the gas becomes less dense as the low pressure ... Coriolis force deflects the air, causing it to blow from the northeast in the Northern Hemisphere and from the southeast in the Southern Hemisphere These steady winds provided sailing ships with...

Ngày tải lên: 09/08/2014, 11:20

... on the eastern shores of the Great Lakes brace themselves for heavy snow showers Snowstorms that form on the downwind side of one of these lakes are known as lake-effect snows (Since the lakes ... mass will control the weather in a region for some time These persistent weather conditions are known as air mass weather Air mass weather is especially common in the southeastern United States ... mass only forms in summer over the United States? Why are mP air masses along the east coast of the United States usually colder than those along the nation s west coast? Why are they also less...

Ngày tải lên: 09/08/2014, 11:20

... examining the movement of these clouds on successive satellite photographs, the forecaster can predict the arrival of clouds and storms, and the passage of weather fronts The shades of gray on ... and light rain and snow ahead of a warm front The dashed lines on the map represent the position of the weather systems six hours ago Our first question is: How will these systems move? Groundhog ... northeastward at about half the speed of the winds at this level, or 25 knots Solid lines are contours in meters above sea level Surface pressure systems tend to move in the same direction as the...

Ngày tải lên: 09/08/2014, 11:20

... while the smoke from the taller stack, above the inversion, rises, mixes, and disperses downwind As the sun rises and the surface warms, the radiation inversion normally weakens and disappears before ... compounds 15% Fuel combustion in stationary sources 29% Industrial processes 16% (b) Primary Sources Solid waste disposal 2% Miscellaneous 7% (a) Estimates of emissions of the primary air pollutants ... just as ice skaters spin faster as their arms are brought in close to their bodies The winds then generate rough seas, which increase the friction on the moving air This increased friction causes...

Ngày tải lên: 09/08/2014, 11:20

... latitudes the migrating position of the subtropical anticyclones also has an effect on the west-to-east distribution of precipitation The sinking air associated with these systems is more strongly ... that most air pollution episodes occur when the winds are light, skies are clear, the mixing layer is shallow, the atmosphere is stable, and a strong inversion exists These conditions usually ... along the east coasts of continents, roughly between 25° and 40° latitude They dominate the southeastern section of the United States, as well as eastern China and southern Japan In the Southern...

Ngày tải lên: 09/08/2014, 11:20

... fires, and dust storms Some particles (such as soil dust and sulfate particles) mainly reflect and scatter incoming sunlight, while others (such as smoky soot) readily absorb sun- Possible Causes ... is shown in yellow; input from greenhouse gases plus aerosols is shown in blue; input from greenhouse gases, sulfate aerosols, and solar energy changes is shown in red The gray line shows observed ... in size, they can selectively scatter the sun s rays Even at noon, various colored suns have appeared: orange suns, green suns, and even blue suns For blue suns to appear, the size of the suspended...

Ngày tải lên: 09/08/2014, 11:20