ACTA ARCHAEOLOGICA LUNDENSIA SERIES IN o, No 32 Tilling Nature Harvesting Culture Exploring Images of the Human Being in the Transition to Agriculture Elisabeth Rudebeck ALMQVIST & WIKSELL INTERNATIONAL STOCKHOLM/SWEDEN Cover: Elisabeth Rudebeck © Elisabeth Rudebeck Printed by Bloms i Lund Tryckeri AB, Lund 2000 Distributed by: Almqvist & Wiksell International P.O Box 7634 SE-103 94 Stockholm Sweden Telefax: + 46 24 25 43 E-mail: info@awi.akademibokhandeln.se ISBN 91-22-01872-7 Preface Do you eat food? Then you’re involved in agriculture! I don’t know to what extent my reaction to this bumper sticker text, which I saw one early Sunday morning about twenty-five years ago, is the main cause for my interest in the origins of agriculture I must admit, however, that the statement immediately struck me as ingenious and that is has stayed with me ever since One reason for the effect this text had on me was probably that I saw it during a moment of particular receptiveness I was on my way to a job involving food, to wash the porridge pots and fry 70 kilos of meatballs in the kitchen of the University Hospital i Lund This was my weekend and summer job when I was studying archaeology The main reason for my interest in agriculture, however, is personal nostalgia concerning the agricultural way of life I had the great fortune of spending every school holiday when I was a child with my grandmother and grandfather and other relatives on their farm in Västergötland This place was my childhood’s Garden of Eden, and – as with all such places – it is now lost and life has become a “relentless toil” I still miss my Paradise and I try to convince myself that I am really an agricultural being, although it was a long time since I participated in the activities of food-production I am not the only one having this nostalgia for agriculture It is probably the most common form of nostalgia among urban middle-aged people who have spent their childhood in the country; in Sweden there are quite a few of us Considering the rate of liquidation of small and medium-sized farms in Sweden, however, younger generations have experienced other Gardens of Eden – they have other nostalgias To the emotional me, agriculture is a state of mind I believe that my interest both in archaeology and in the origins of agriculture is essentially an attempt to recreate the sensual experiences that made me feel alive when I was a child: crawling on my knees in dirt, digging up potatoes, and enjoying the smell of soil and diesel Moreover, archaeology justifies the obsession with the past and is therefore a suitable cover for nostalgics I have almost forgotten how my wish to explore existential images of the human being in archaeology once began I just know that, many years ago, when I was planning to study another topic, I came to a point when I realised that, in order for archaeology to make sense to me, I had to investigate how it could be that archaeological narratives evoked quite strong emotional responses – positive and negative – not only in me, but obviously also in my colleagues How could it be that archaeological scenarios often painted an image of the human being as either progressing or degenerating? Would it be possible to investigate existential images of the human being in archaeology? I want to thank Jes Wienberg who made me realise that it was possible to unite my two fields of interest, by suggesting that I focus the existential questions around a specific archaeological problem, “why not the origins of agriculture?” Your suggestion fell i fertile soil! I don’t know if it is the nostalgia that has kept me from finishing this work at a more proper point in time than this Whether this is the case or not, apart from myself, there is one person in particular who has had to live with this project for a much longer time than was intended: Debbie Olausson, my tutor With never failing enthusiasm, she has helped me find my way She has never revealed a doubt concerning the possibility of turning my, not always crystal clear, discussions into some kind of end-product in the end She has set limits and dead-lines, the meaning of which was previously somewhat unclear to me She has had to deal with the subtleties of the Swenglish language and guided me towards the remains of English that seem to have been hibernating somewhere in the innermost part of my brain I could not have wished for a better tutor and I am happy that we will continue to meet in other projects in the future Two other persons have played a very important role for the completion of this work: Anders Andrén and Kristina Jennbert I want to thank them both for valuable comments on the manuscript and for inspiring discussions that made me see aspects of the work that I had not been aware of before Torbjörn Ahlström gave me valuable comments on the chapter dealing with evolutionary biology, a field of which my knowledge is much more limited than my interest Thank you Torbjörn! Furthermore I want to thank Marie Louise Stig Sørensen and Jarl Nordbladh who, many years ago, gave me advice and encouragement Many thanks also to Professor Lars Larsson, teachers, fellow-students and personnel at the Institute of Archaeology in Lund for help and support in different ways during the years Thanks also to the Gender-group which has been an inspiring meeting-place I hope that it will continue to be so in the future I have received financial support from Erik och Gurli Hultengrens fond för filosofi, Fornanderska fonden and Riddarhuset i Stockholm During the many years that this “image-of-the-human-being-thing” has been going on I have been on leave of absence from my work at the Department of Antiquities at the Museum in Malmö several times I am very grateful to my former superior, Thomas Romberg, and to my present superior, Ingmar Billberg, for allowing me the time to finish this work I also want to thank colleagues at the Department of Antiquities for stimulating discussions and for encouragement I am indebted to my friend Ella Johansson for leading me towards texts that turned out to be vital for my work I know we have had many discussions that have been inspiring and important for the outcome of this study, although I am not sure precisely how and why… I also want to thank my friends Titti Fendin and Victoria Höög for advise concerning literature and for support To my friend Kirsten Roth I am grateful for winter walks, movie evenings and for her being there Thanks to all of you for inspiring discussions about issues that are even more confusing than archaeology: life and death, self and other, passion and intellect… To my parents, Inga and Gustaf Rudebeck, who have supported me in all kinds of ways during the years, I address my final gratitude Lund, April 2000 Elisabeth Rudebeck CONTENTS Introduction Myth, Archaeology and Identity A Persistent Issue Outline Part I Looking for Images of the Human Being Sources of Inspiration 10 Interpretation 10 Teleology and Chronology 12 Heading Towards the Neolithic 13 Narratology 14 Metahistory 15 The Other as a Spatial and Temporal Category 17 Time Orientation and the Modern Identity Space 20 Conclusion and Discussion 20 The Direction of Influences, Human Nature and Gender Images 23 Human Nature 24 Human Nature Component Areas 25 Sources of Human Nature 26 Behaviour and Activity 26 Motive, Choice and “Changes of taste in human character” 28 Images of Gender 28 Conclusion and Discussion 29 Choosing Sources 32 Sources in Part II 32 Sources in Part III 33 Sources in Part IV 33 Notes on limitations and terminology 34 Part II From Nature, God or Society? Introduction 36 Nature and Agriculture 37 The Chain of Being and the Design Argument 39 The Earth as an Organism – the Golden Age 41 Environmental Influences 42 Human Influence 44 Conclusion and Discussion 44 From Dominion and Care to Toil and Alienation 47 Dominion over the Earth 48 Caretaker of the Environment 49 The Fall of Man 50 Reconciliation 52 Conclusion and Discussion 53 The State of Nature and Society 55 The State of Nature 55 Property 58 The Barbarian and the Amerindian 59 The State of Nature and Society in Classical Sources 61 Thomas Aquinas – Society before the Fall 65 Thomas Hobbes – The Struggle between Passions and Reason 66 John Locke – Labour mixed with Soil 67 Conclusion and Discussion 69 Part III A Necessary and Progressive Subsistence Introduction 72 Subsistence in Focus 73 Human Nature – Activity, Perfectibility and Pride 75 Time and Progress 76 Subsistence and Society 77 The Physiocratic School 78 Charles de Montesquieu – Climates, Passions and Laws 80 Jean Jacques Rousseau – Sociability and Competition 81 Adam Smith – The Will to Progress 84 Thomas Malthus – Misery in Harsh Environments 87 Conclusion and Discussion 89 An Inevitable Product of Human Development 92 A Note on Nature and Progress 93 The Enlightenment Stages and Social Evolutionism 94 Sven Nilsson – Reaching Maturity 97 John Lubbock – Controlling Nature 99 Edward Burnett Tylor – Imitating Nature 103 Lewis Henry Morgan – Compelled to Progress 104 Friedrich Engels – Causality in Absence of God 108 Marxism, Human Nature and the Direction of Influences 109 Conclusion and Discussion 110 The Mistress of Soil and Sex 113 The Natural Nature of Woman and the Cultural Nature of Woman 114 Agriculture, Matriarchy and Property 116 Conclusion and Discussion 119 Part IV Archaeology and the Origins of Agriculture Introduction 122 Inert Mentalities, Refreshing Disequilibria and the Mother of Agriculture 124 Henry Ling-Roth – The Mental Capacity of Savages 125 James George Frazer – The Petty Marks of Women and the Distant Targets of Mankind 129 John Myres – Stasis in Eden and the Blessings of Disequilibrium 130 James Henry Breasted – The Struggle with Material and Moral Worlds 132 Conclusion and Discussion 134 The Spur of Necessity, Generous Climates and Men of Genius 137 Centres of Domestication and Environmental Ideas 137 Raphael Pumpelly – The Spur of Necessity 138 Ellsworth Huntington – Stimulating Climates 141 Grafton Elliot Smith – Nature’s Lesson and Men of Genius 142 Conclusion and Discussion 145 The Revolution – Incidental, Mental and Oriental 147 Gordon Childe – Liberation from Nature and Aggressive Attitudes 147 Hunters in Emancipation and Human Conservatism 149 The Neolithic Revolution as a Social Phenomenon 150 Incidental Activities and the Beginning of Science 152 The Problem of Science and Progress 153 Harold Peake and Herbert John Fleure – The Breaking of Taboos 154 Conclusion and Discussion 157 Maturing in Permissive Environments 161 Carl O Sauer – Cultivating for Ceremonies 162 Edgar Anderson – The Significance of Dump-heaps 166 The Natufian Culture and the Concept of the Neolithic 167 Robert Braidwood and Bruce Howe – Living into Nature, Maturing into Culture 168 Karl Butzer – Unconscious Seed Dropping and Conscious Manipulation 171 Conclusion and Discussion 172 Free to Choose or Predetermined to Adapt 175 Economy 175 Grahame Clark – The Choice for Good or Evil 176 Eric Higgs and Michael Jarman – Predetermined to Adapt to Nature 180 Conclusion and Discussion 183 An Efficient Necessity – Natural or Unnatural? 186 Leslie White – From Natural Society to Efficient Society 187 Ester Boserup – Adapting to Population Growth 190 Lewis Binford – Necessities in the Margin 192 Kent Flannery – Not Because They Wanted To 195 Mark Nathan Cohen – The Advantages of Undesirable Foods 198 Fekri A Hassan – Increasing Predictability and Safety 200 Bennet Bronson – A Perceptual Mistake? 202 Conclusion and Discussion 204 As Natural as Natural Selection 207 Central Concepts and General Outline of Evolutionary Theory 209 David Rindos – Unconscious Agents and Benevolent Plants 213 Mark A Blumler and Roger Byrne – Adapting to the Chaotic Kaleidoscope 218 Jared Diamond – Without Cultural Constraints in a Benevolent Nature 220 Conclusion and Discussion 224 Property, Alliances, Competition and Fear 228 Property – Exclusive Communal or Collective 230 Barbara Bender – Craving for Authority and Forming Alliances 232 Brian Hayden – The Intentions of Accumulators 235 Ian Hodder – The Taming of the Wild Within Us 239 Conclusion and Discussion 241 10 Ambiguous Mothers, the Roots of Misery and the Harvests of Culture 244 Sigmund Freud – The Mother of Agriculture as a Conscious Manipulator 246 Ian Hodder – The Mother of Agriculture as a Neolithic Construction 247 Randi Haaland – The Mother of Agriculture as a Universal Construction 249 Christine Hastorf – The Mother of Agriculture as Time and Care Manager 250 Conclusion and Discussion 251 One Gender of Harmony and One of Power? – A Discussion 252 Part V Themes, Images and Identities Introduction 256 The Natural and the Unnatural 258 Nature in Balance or Chaos? 260 Influences from Nature 261 Deconstructing the Boundary 263 Necessities and Motives 267 Ultimate and Proximate Explanations 268 Behaviours and Activities – Zombies and Agents 271 The Motives of Unconscious Cultivators 272 The Significance of the Mother 275 The Incidental Mother 275 Images of the Human Being 279 The Re-interpretation of Emplotments 279 Images of the Human Being – Reflections 281 References 283 Online references 297 Dahlström, Anna 1997 I gudinnans tecken? 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