Tài liệu Master the Gre 2010 - Part 16 pptx

What if you think you won’t have enough time to provide supporting detail for each point of critique? Don’t despair. Look for two or three points that are related to the same item of evidence (for example, those involving the same statistical survey). Then plan to touch briefly on each one in the same paragraph. Grouping them together will make sense to the reader, who may not notice what’s missing as much as the fact that you’re very organized. Don’t Look for the “Fatal Flaw” Avoid dwelling on one particular flaw that you think is the most serious one, or on one realistic example or counterexample that you think, if true, would spell certain death for the entire Argument. If you do, you’ll risk running out of time. Instead, treat every problem as a contributing cause. Don’t bother trying to rank flaws as more or less serious, either. True, one particular flaw might be more damaging to an Argument than others. But by identifying it as “the most serious problem with the Argument,” you’re committing yourself to defending this claim above all others. Do you really have time for this kind of analysis? No! Nor does the GRE reader expect or want this from you. In short, you’re best off applying equal treatment to each of the Argument’s problems. There’s No Need to Impress with Technical Terminology Scholars in the academic fields of Critical Reasoning and Logic rely on all manner of formal terminology for the kinds of reasoning flaws you’ll find in GRE Arguments. For example, post hoc reasoning refers to a faulty construct best described as “after this, therefore, because of this” reasoning. You won’t score any points with GRE readers by tossing around such terminology in your Argument essay, however. Besides, if you use a technical term, you should define it for the reader—and this only consumes precious time. Go with the Logical Flow Try to organize your points of critique to reflect the Argument’s line of reasoning, from its evidence and assumptions to its intermediate conclusion (if any), and then to its final conclusion. Fortunately, most GREArguments are already organized this way, so that your points of critique can simply follow the quoted Argument from beginning to end. But don’t assume that this sequence will be the most logical one. Regardless of the sequence of ideas in the quoted Argument, you should try to group all points of critique involving the same item of evidence (for example, a statistical survey or study). And of course, it’s logical to address problems involving the Argument’s intermediate conclusion before those involving its final conclusion. Appear Organized and in Control As with the Issue essay, use every means at your disposal to show the reader that, even when working under significant time pressure, you know how to organize your ideas and convey them in writing. Use logical paragraph breaks, present your points of critique in a logical sequence, and try to save time for brief introductory and concluding paragraphs. Chapter 5: The Argument Task 133 www.petersons.com Remember Your Primary Objectives The official scoring criteria for the Argument essay boil down to four questions that you should keep in mind during the 30 minutes of formulating and writing your essay: Have I clearly identified each of the Argument’s major assumptions and reasoning problems? Can I support each point of my critique with at least one relevant example or counterexample? Do I have in mind a clear, logical structure for presenting my points of critique? Once you can confidently answer “Yes” to questions 1–3, start composing your essay. When you’ve finished your draft, ask yourself the same questions, along with this fourth one: Have I demonstrated good grammar, diction, and syntax? If you can answer “Yes” to all four questions, be assured that you’ve produced a solid, high-scoring Argument essay. PART III: Analytical Writing134 www.petersons.com SUMMING IT UP • The Argument writing task comes immediately before or after the Issue writing task on the GRE. It consists of one essay, for which you have 30 minutes. Your job is to discuss how well-reasoned you find a particular Argument—specifically, to identify its unsubstantiated or unreasonable assumptions, problems with the Argument’s internal logic or line of reasoning, how it might be strengthened (optional), and what additional information is needed to better evaluate the Argument (optional). • Follow the 7-step plan in this chapter to score high on this essay. Give yourself time before you begin writing to organize your thoughts, and time after you’re finished writing to fine-tune your essay. • To score high on the Argument writing task, practice writing essays in which you work on these techniques: identify and analyze the Argument’s key elements; organize, develop, and express your critique in a coherent and logically con- vincing manner; support your ideas with sound reasons and examples; and demonstrate adequate control of the elements of Standard Written English (grammar, syntax, and usage). • Follow and review the Argument task strategies in this chapter and apply them to this book’s Practice Tests. Then review them again just before exam day. Chapter 5: The Argument Task 135 www.petersons.com Writing Style and Mechanics OVERVIEW • Use rhetorical words and phrases • Avoid empty rhetoric • Use irony as a rhetorical device • Use punctuation for emphasis • Connect your ideas • Use the language of critical reasoning properly • Refer to yourself, the statement, or the argument—as needed • Maintain proper tone and voice • Vary sentence length and structure • Write clearly and concisely • Use language correctly and persuasively • Summing it up In the previous two chapters, you learned how to develop persuasive and incisive ideas and how to organize your ideas so that they flow logically and coherently in your GRE essays. Now that you’ve laid that foundation, it’s time to pay close attention to how you express your ideas. As you know by now, GRE essay readers place less weight on writing style and mechanics than on content and organization. However, the way you write can affect your GRE Analytical Writing score, especially if you’ve written an otherwise borderline essay that leaves the reader trying to decide between a higher or lower score, or if the reader has trouble understanding your ideas because you’ve expressed them poorly. So, to ensure a high Analytical Writing score, you need to make sure your essays are the following: • Persuasive in style (by the effective use of rhetorical devices) • Appropriate in tone and “voice” for graduate-level writing • Varied in sentence length and structure (to add interest and to demon- strate maturity in writing style) • Clear and concise (easy to follow and direct rather than wordy or verbose) • Correct in diction, word usage, and idiom • Correct in grammar and writing mechanics chapter 6 137 In the pages ahead, you’ll learn how to improve your GRE writing in the ways listed above. Don’t worry if you don’t have a knack for writing effective prose. You can improve your writing for the GRE, even if your time is short. USE RHETORICAL WORDS AND PHRASES Here’s a reference list of rhetorical words and phrases categorized by function. You’ve already encountered some of these items in the previous two chapters. • To subordinate an idea: although it might appear that, admittedly • To argue a position, thesis, or viewpoint: promotes, facilitates, provides a strong impetus, directly, furthers, accomplishes, achieves, demonstrates, sug- gests, indicates • To argue for a solution or direction based on a commonly held standard (such as public policy): ultimate goal/objective/purpose, overriding, primary concern, subordinate, subsumed • To refute, rebut, or counter a proposition, theory, or viewpoint: however, closer scrutiny reveals, upon closer inspection/examination, a more thorough analysis, in reality, actually, viewed more closely, viewed from another per- spective, further observation shows • To point out problems with a proposition, theory, or viewpoint: however, nevertheless, yet, still, despite, of course, serious drawbacks, problematic, coun- tervailing factors • To argue against a position or viewpoint: undermines, thwarts, defeats, runs contrary to, fails to achieve/promote/accomplish, is inconsistent with, impedes • To argue that the merits of one position outweigh those of another: on balance, on the whole, all things considered, in the final analysis AVOID EMPTY RHETORIC Many test takers try to mask weak ideas by relying on strong rhetoric. But use caution when you use words and phrases such as these for emphasis: clearly absolutely definitely without a doubt nobody could dispute that extremely positively emphatically unquestionably certainly undeniably without reservation Although such phrases are perfectly acceptable, remember that by themselves, they add no substance to your ideas. Be sure that you have convincing reasons and/or examples to back up your rhetoric. PART III: Analytical Writing138 NOTE While these advanced tips can certainly help you score higher on your GRE essays, refinement and maturity in writing style come mainly with practice. Make sure you apply what you learn here to the Practice Tests at the end of this book. www.petersons.com USE IRONY AS A RHETORICAL DEVICE In your Issue essay, you may want to look for the opportunity to use words in their ironic sense, or as misnomers, to add rhetorical emphasis. Read the Issue statement closely for key words to tip you off. Here’s one example of each: • Irony: The speaker fails to consider the long-term cultural impact of the kinds of technological “advancements” I’ve just described. • Misnomer: The “knowledge” to which the statement refers is actually only subjective perception. Be sure to use quotation marks around the ironic term or misnomer, regardless of whether you’re quoting the Issue statement. USE PUNCTUATION FOR EMPHASIS You can also use punctuation for rhetorical emphasis. Here are a few suggestions you may want to try out when taking the practice tests in this book: • Use em dashes. Em dashes (two hyphens, or one hyphen preceded and followed by a space) can be used in the middle of a sentence—instead of commas or parentheses—to set off particularly important parenthetical material (just as in this sentence). You can also use an em dash before a concluding phrase instead of a comma—to help set off and emphasize what follows (just as in this sentence). Don’t overuse the em dash, however, or it will lose its punch. • Use exclamation points for emphasis very sparingly. As in this paragraph, one per essay is plenty! • Posing a rhetorical question can be a useful writing tool. Like short, abrupt sentences, rhetorical questions can help persuade the reader, or at least help to make your point. They can be quite effective, especially in Issue essays. They also add interest and variety. Yet how many test takers incorporate them into their essays? Not many. (By the way, we just posed a rhetorical question.) Be sure to provide an answer to your question. And don’t overdo it; one rhetorical question per essay is plenty. Don’t confuse emphatic rhetorical speech with rhetorical writing. Avoid typing words in uppercase, adding asterisks or underlines before and after words, or employing similar devices to flag words you’d emphasize in speech. (This is a common practice in e-mails and instant messages.) Instead, rely on your sentence construction and your choice of words and phrases. CONNECT YOUR IDEAS If the ideas you present in your GRE essays flow naturally from one to the next so that the reader can easily follow your train of thought, it’s a good bet that you’ll score high. To connect your ideas, you need to develop a personal “arsenal” of transition devices—words and phrases that bridge ideas and help you convey your line of reasoning. Chapter 6: Writing Style and Mechanics 139 NOTE The GRE testing system’s word processor does not permit attributes such as bolding, underlining, and italicizing, so those devices are not available to use for emphasis in your GRE essays in any event. www.petersons.com Each transition device should help the reader make the link between the two concepts you’re connecting. Some of these devices lead your reader forward and imply the building of an idea or thought; others prompt the reader to compare ideas or draw conclusions from preceding ideas. Here’s a reference list of transition devices catego- rized by function. • To signal addition: and, again, and then, besides, equally important, finally, further, furthermore, nor, also, next, lastly, what’s more • To connect ideas: furthermore, additionally, in addition, also, first (or second, or third), moreover, most important/significantly, consequently, simultaneously, con- currently, next, finally • To signal comparison or contrast: but, although, conversely, in contrast, on the other hand, whereas, except, by comparison, compared to, vis-à-vis, while, meanwhile • To signal proof: because, for, since, for the same reason, obviously, evidently, furthermore, moreover, besides, indeed, in fact, in addition, in any case, that is • To signal exception: yet, still, however, nevertheless, in spite of, despite, of course, occasionally, sometimes, in rare instances, infrequently • To signal chronological, logical, or rhetorical sequence: first (or second, or third), next, then, now, at this point, after, in turn, subsequently, finally, conse- quently, previously, beforehand, simultaneously, concurrently • To signal examples: for example, for instance, perhaps, consider, take the case of, to demonstrate, to illustrate, as an illustration, one possible scenario, in this case, in another case, on this occasion, in this situation • To signal the move from premise to conclusion: therefore, thus, hence, accordingly, as a result, it follows that, in turn • To conclude or sum up your essay: in sum, in the final analysis, in brief, in conclusion, to conclude, to recapitulate, in essence, in a nutshell USE THE LANGUAGE OF CRITICAL REASONING PROPERLY You don’t need to resort to the technical terminology of formal logic in your essays, nor should you. However, you will need to use less technical terms, such as “argument,” “assumption,” “conclusion,” and possibly “premise” and “inference”—especially in your Argument essay. Make sure you not only know what these words mean, but that you also use them idiomatically. Here are some definitions and usage guidelines for these terms. Argument An argument describes the process of reasoning from premises to conclusion. To describe a flawed argument, use adjectives such as weak, poor, unsound, poorly reasoned, dubious, poorly supported, or problematic. To describe a good argument, use adjectives such as strong, convincing, well-reasoned, or well-supported. You don’t “prove an argument”; rather, you “prove an argument (to be) true.” (However, the PART III: Analytical Writing140 www.petersons.com word “prove” implies deduction and should be used sparingly, if at all, in your Argument essay.) Premise A premise is a proposition that helps to support an argument’s conclusion. Use the words premise and evidence interchangeably to refer to stated information that is not in dispute. Assumption When you make an assumption, you take for granted that a fact or statement is true in the argument. (Strictly speaking, assumptions are unstated, assumed premises.) To describe an assumption, use adjectives such as unsupported, unsubstantiated, or unproven. To describe a bad assumption, use adjectives such as unlikely, poor, ques- tionable, doubtful, dubious, or improbable. To strengthen an argument, you substan- tiate an assumption or prove (or show or demonstrate) that the assumption is true. But as mentioned above, use caution with the word prove; it is a strong word that implies deduction. Strictly speaking, an assumption is neither “true” nor “false,” neither “correct” nor “incorrect.” Also, you don’t “prove an assumption.” Conclusion Aconclusion is a proposition derived by deduction or inference from the premises of an argument. To describe a poor conclusion, use adjectives such as indefensible, unjus- tified, unsupported, improbable, or weak. To describe a good conclusion, use adjectives such as well-supported, proper, probable, well-justified, or strong. Although you can “prove a conclusion” or “provide proof for a conclusion,” remember that the word proof implies deduction. You’re better off “supporting a conclusion” or “showing that the conclusion is probable.” Inference Inference is the process of deriving from assumed premises either a strict conclusion or one that is probable to some degree. You can describe an inference as poor, unjustified, improbable or unlikely, or a good inference as strong, justified, probable, or likely.Youcan“inferthat ”;butthephrase “infer a conclusion” is awkward. Deduction Deduction is the process of reasoning in which the conclusion follows necessarily from the premises—a specific type of inference. GRE Arguments do not involve deduction. All inferences and conclusions in the GRE Argument section involve probabilities rather than certainties, so there’s no reason to use any form of the word “deduction” in your essay. Chapter 6: Writing Style and Mechanics 141 www.petersons.com REFER TO YOURSELF, THE STATEMENT, OR THE ARGUMENT— AS NEEDED In your essay, you’ll occasionally need to refer to the Issue statement orArgument and to its hypothetical source, whether it’s a person or entity. You might also wish to refer to yourself from time to time. Here are a few tips for handling these references. Self-References Singular or plural self-references are perfectly acceptable, though optional. Just be sure you’re consistent. If you write “I disagree with” in one section of the essay, don’t write “one must also disagree with” or “the speaker has not convinced us” in another section. References to the Statement or Argument In your Issue essay, refer to the statement as “this statement,” or an alternative such as “this claim” or “this assertion.” In your Argument essay, try using “argument” to refer to the passage’s line of reasoning as a whole, or “recommendation” or “claim” to refer to specific conclusions. References to the Source of the Statement or Argument Be sure your references to a statement or argument’s source are appropriate. In your Issue essay, you can simply refer to the statement’s source as the “speaker,” for example. In yourArgument essay, the first time you refer to the source, be specific and correct (for example, “this editorial,” “the ad,” “the vice president,” or “ACME Shoes”). If no specific source is provided, try using “author” or “argument.” Pronoun References In your Argument essay, it’s acceptable to use an occasional pronoun, but be sure that they’re appropriate and consistent (male or female, singular or plural). For example: “The speaker argues Her line of reasoning is ;butshe overlooks ” “The manager cites insupport of his argument He then recommends ” “To strengthen its conclusion, the city council must It must also ” Make sure that your pronoun references are clear. If the pronoun will be separated from its antecedent by one or more sentences, don’t use it. Shorthand References to an Argument’s Source and Evidence It’s perfectly acceptable to save keystrokes by using shorthand names or acronyms in place of multiple-word proper nouns. If you decide to do so, however, make sure you identify it the first time you use it. For example: In this argument, the marketing director for Specialty Manufacturing (SM) recommends that SM discontinue its line PART III: Analytical Writing142 TIP GRE essay readers will disregard whether you use masculine, feminine, or gender-neutral terms in your essays, so don’t worry about being politically correct when it comes to gender. Gender- neutral pronouns are fine, but avoid alternating male and female gender expressions; you might confuse the reader. www.petersons.com . Grouping them together will make sense to the reader, who may not notice what’s missing as much as the fact that you’re very organized. Don’t Look for the “Fatal. serious, either. True, one particular flaw might be more damaging to an Argument than others. But by identifying it as the most serious problem with the Argument,”