An Introduction to Second LanguageAcquisition Research Applied Linguistics and Language Study General Editor Professor Christopher N Candlin, Macquarie University Error Analysis Perspectives on second language acquisition JACK C RICHARDS (ED.) Stylistics and the Teaching of Literature HENRY WIDDOWSON Language Tests at School A pragmatic approach JOHN W OLLER JNR Contrastive Analysis CARL JAMES Language and Communication JACK C RICHARDS AND RICHARD W SCHMIDT (EDS) Learning to Write: First Language/ Second Language AVIVA FREDMAN, IAN PRINGLE AND JANIC YALDEN (EDS) Strategies in Interlanguage Communication CLAUS FAERCH AND GABRIELE KASPER (EDS) Reading in a Foreign Language J CHARLES ALDERSON AND A H URQUHART (EDS) An Introduction to Discourse Analysis New edition MALCOLM COULTHARD Computers in English Language Teaching and Research GEOFFREY LEECH AND CHRISTOPHER N CANDLIN (EDS) Language Awareness in the Classroom CARL JAMES AND PETER GARRETT Bilingualism in Education Aspects of theory, research and practice JIM CUMMINS AND MERRILL SWAIN Second Language Grammar: Learning and Teaching WILLIAM E RUTHERFORD The Classroom and the Language Learner Ethnography and second-language classroom research LEO VAN LIER Vocabulary and Language Teaching RONALDrCARTERcANDeMICHAELichCARTHYaeEDS cCarthy (eds) Observation in the Language Classroom DICK ALLWRIGHT Listening to Spoken English Second Edition GILLIAN BROWN Listening in Language Learning MICHAEL ROST An Introduction to Second Language Acquisition Research DIANE LARSEN-FREEMAN AND MICHAEL H.LONG Language and Discrimination A study of communication in multi-ethnic workplaces CELIA ROBERTS, TOM JUPP AND EVELYN DAVIES Translation and Translating Theory and Practice ROGER T BELL Process and Experience in the Language Classroom MICHAEL LEGUTHE AND HOWARD THOMAS Rediscovering Interlanguage LARRY SELINKER Language as Discourse: Perspectives for Language Teaching MICHAEL McCARTHY AND RONALD CARTER Diane Larsen-Freeman and Michael H Long An Introduction to Second Language Acquisition Research First published 1991 by Pearson Education Limited Published 2014 by Routledge Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017, USA Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business Copyright © 1991, Taylor & Francis All rights reserved No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers Notices Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility 10 contrastive analysis, 52-6 Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis, 53-7, 96 contrastive rhetorical analysis, 72 convergence (see interlocutor) conversation, 70, 120-8, 130-2, 139-44, 145-9 conversational analysis, 70-1 copula, 281, 307 correction, 128,130, 151 q18, 228-30, 244, 258-9, 287, 291 fn3 creative construction process, 98, 100, 300 creolization, 87, 150 ql2, 256-7, 283, 311 critical period, 156, 158, 164 (see age of onset and sensitive period) cross-sectional studies, 11-14, 456 fnl data analysis, 52-74, 110—12 ql6 data collection, 26-30, 33-8 dative movement, 236, 238 decomposition, 124-5 704 decreolization, 257 developmental error (see error sources and types) developmental features (see Multidimensional Model) developmental sequence, 63-5, 92-6, 236-7, 239, 270-83, 284, 286, 301, 304-9 dialect acquisition, 156, 160, 161, 178, 185 diary study, 37, 179, 187-8, 318 dichotic listening, 215 fn9 difficulty, 53-4 discourse analysis, 69-74, 97, 108 fn8, 120-8 distance, 105 ego permeability, 190-1 elaborative simplification, 282 empathy, 189-90 error analysis, 33-4, 56-60, 76-9 error sources and types, 24-5, 32, 56-62, 165, 195-6, 306-7, 310-11, 316-17, 320-1 ethnicity, 179-81 705 ethnography, 23 experimental research, 19-24 exposure, 132, 141-2, 158, 161, 215 fnl, 315-16 extroversion, 143, 184-7, 209 eye movement, 210-11, 216 fn 12, 217-18 ql7 factor analysis, 175-6, 215 fn6 feedback (see correction) field dependence/independence, 193-4, 211-12 flooding and trickling, 83 focused description, 17-19 foreigner talk, 71, 116-28, 140-1, 145-9 form-function relationships, 68, 71, 83, 96, 107 fnl, 253-6, 283, 310 formulaic speech, 65-9, 198, 285 fossilization, 60-1, 107, 107 fn2, 308, 321 Functional-Typological Theory, 267-70 functionalist analysis, 68, 83, 26770 grammaticality judgments, 34-5, 106, 233-4, 239, 245, 308 706 habit formation, 55, 250 hemispheric specialization, 164, 197-9, 216 fnl2 hermeneutics, 46 fn5, 291 fn2, 295 q31 hierarchy of difficulty, 53-4, 76 q13 hypothesis, 291 fn5 idioms, 104, 120, 161 idiosyncratic dialect, 60 imitation, 28 implicational scaling, 110—12 ql6, 270, 280, 316, 319 index of development, 42-4, 47-9 q13 individual differences, 153-219 inhibition, 190-1 innateness (see theories of SLA, nativist) input adjustments to non-native speakers, 117-28, 134-9, 325-6 effects on SLA, 25, 89, 91, 128-45, 163-4, 165 for L1 acquisition, 114-16, 22830 707 for SLA, 116-45, 228 frequency, 132-4, 306, 318, 325 Input Hypothesis, 224-5, 242-3, 247-9, 284, 288-9 instruction effects on SLA, 92, 161, 169-70, 174-5, 178-9, 185-6, 20810, 233-4, 240, 242, 251, 277, 280, 282, 288, 299-322, 327-8 fn5 explanations for effects, 196, 225, 241, 248, 308-9, 322-5 instructional design features, 244, 325-7 intake, 140, 144 fn8 intelligence, 168-9, 170-1, 172, 182-3, 193, 215 fn5 interactional adjustments, 120-8, 139, 142-4, 145-9 interest, 204 interface hypothesis, 241, 323-5 interference, 52-6, 74 fn5, 96-108 interlanguage, 60-1, 81-108 origin of term, 74 fn4 variability, 30-3, 81-8 interlingual error, 58-9 708 interlocutor, 87, 108 fn5, 180, 188 interrogatives, 92-4, 100, 109-10, 122-3, 132, 239, 251-2, 254, 274, 305, 308 interview, 30, 308 intralingual error, 58-60 introspection, 15, 33-5, 37, 118, 245, 292 fn7 introversion (see extroversion) LAD (Language Acquisition Device), 114, 163, 225, 243 language teaching, 244, 299-304, 322, 325-7 lateralization, 165-7, 197-9 learnability/teachability, 272, 280, 286-7, 289, 307-8, 317, 324-5 learner strategies, 65-7 learner syllabus, 63 learner variables, 153-216 'learning' (see Monitor Theory) learning strategies, 199-203, 212— 15, 236-40 length of residence (LOR) (see exposure) 709 lexical rules, 238 lexically conditioned rules, 236, 238 Likert scale, 191, 204 linguistic environment, 114-45 logical problem, 228 longitudinal studies, 12-15, 16-17, 45-6 fnl, 89-90, 166, 170-1, 251, 268-9, 270, 292 fnl2, 3056, 318-9 loss/attrition, 97, 108 fn9 markedness, 101-7, 119, 230-1, 234, 270, 314-17, 319-21, 328 fn6 Markedness Differential Hypothesis, 102-3 matched guise technique, 36 maturation, 164-7 mechanisms, 154, 225 memory, 69, 203-4, 215 fn10 miniature lanquages, 35 mistake, 58-9 MLU (mean length of utterance), 43, 115 710 Monitor Theory, 224-5, 240-9, 284, 288, 300, 302, 312, 323 morpheme studies, 62-3, 88-92, 240-2, 246-7, 248, 300, 304-9 motivation, 173-5, 208 Multidimensional Model, 270-87, 288, 308, 325 multiple regression analysis, 167, 215 fn3 nativization/denativization, 257, 265 Natural Approach, 302-3 natural order, 89-90, 240-1, 242, 246, 292 fn8, 309-10 negation, 65-6, 94-6, 251, 255, 257, 259, 301, 308, 309 negative evidence, 228-9, 236, 238, 291 fn3 negotiation work, 120-8, 144 neurological factors, 164, 165-6, 250-1 nomothetic science, 47 fn5 (see hermeneutics) non-interface position, 323-4 non-participant observation, 16-17 obligatory context, 40-1 operating principles, 68, 265, 275 711 parallel distributed processing, 238-9, 250-1 parameter setting, 230-5, 239, 321 participant observation, 15-16 past time reference, 131, 250, 285 305 perceived transferability, 103-7 perceptual saliency (see attention to form) performance analysis, 62-9 personality, 184-92, 209-10 pidginization, 74 fn4, 87,129, 253— 9, 265, 311 Pidginization Hypothesis, 251-66 planned discourse, 317-19 planning, 325-6 plurals, 87, 259, 285, 306, 308, 310-11 positive evidence, 229-35, 238 pragmatics, 30, 47 fn7, 72-3, 121— 2, 144 fn3, 163, 267-70 preposition-stranding/pied-piping, 231, 235, 238 prior language experience, 205-6 712 processes of acquisition, 95, 98, 100, 106, 253, 309-12 processing constraints, 91, 272, 284-5, 286, 292 fnl3, 325 processing strategies, 272 pro-drop, 232-5 proficiency, 38-40, 44, 169-70, 182-3, 185, 287, 314 psychological distance, 253, 256, 260-4 questionnaires, 35-6 random sample, 46 fn3 rate of acquisition, 155—67, 312— 15 recreation, 95 reflexivity/impulsivity, 195-6 regularization, 119-20, 311 relative clauses, 61, 275, 314-15, 316-17, 328 fn6 relexification, 95 research on SLA data for, 26-35, 221, 226, 2834, 288 history, 5, 52-75, 283, 332-3 713 instrumentation, 26-30, 174, 181-4, 185-7, 189-90, 1912, 193, 215 fn7 and fn9, 216 fn12, 260 methodology, 10-46, 214, 221— 2, 246-7, 261, 283, 321-2 qualitative and quantitative, 1015, 23 scope, 1-8, 287-8 significance, 2-4 theoretical motivation for, 221— 7, 284, 287-90, 295 q31, 326 restrictive simplification, 282 restructuring, 95, 257 resultative hypothesis, 177, 221, 262 risk-taking, 188-9 rule formation, 57-8, 69-70, 83, 196-7, 250-1, 270 sandhi variation, 21 scaffolding, 70, 131, 269 segregative orientation, 282 self-esteem, 184 semi-partials, 221, 290-1 fnl 714 sensitive period, 156, 159, 166 (see age of onset and critical period) sensitivity to rejection, 189 setting for acquisition, 24-6, 176— 7, 185-6, 277, 309-10 sex, 204-5 silent period, 140-1 simplification, 150 q11, 254, 256, 258, 265, 280, 282-3 SOC (supplied in obligatory context) analysis, 40-1, 62—3, 91, 309-10 social class, 171, 176, 180—1, 261— social distance, 181-4, 252, 256, 260-4 social-psychological factors, 35-7, 163-6, 172-92, 208-9, 243-4, 247-9, 252-3, 257, 260-6, 282 sociometry, 36 speech acts, 71-2 (see pragmatics) speech style, 32, 84-8, 107 fn3 stage hypothesis, 198-9 stage of development, 92-272 state/trait variables, 192 715 strephosymbolia, 204, 216 fn11 subjacency, 230, 237-8 syntacticization, 267-9 task elicitation measures, 26-30 variability, 30-3, 84-8, 107 fn3, 161, 186-7, 194, 240, 246, 248, 251, 308, 314-5 versus test, 41-2, 169 teachability (see learnability) theories of SLA, 220-92 construction of, 221-2, 287-9 environmentalist, 128-45, 24966 evaluation criteria for, 284, 286, 287-90 functions, forms and types of, 221-7 interactionist, 266-87 nativist, 227-49 third person s, 275-7, 285, 310 TLU (target-like use) analysis, 401, 91, 310 716 tolerance of ambiguity, 191-2 topic, 120-6 topic-comment, 74-5 fn6, 97,108 fn8, 255, 267-8 transfer, 52-6, 58, 65, 73, 96-108, 235, 238, 259, 306 translation, 28-9, 32, 304 TTR (Type-Token Ratio) 115-16, 119-20 T-units, 43, 46 fn8, 47 q11 ultimate SL attainment, 153-67, 315-21 Universal Grammar, 227, 228-40, 243-4, 248-9 universals, 91, 265, 275, 280, 284, 302, 317 U-shaped behaviour, 105-6 variable rules, 110— 12 q16 variance, 169, 170, 172, 182-3, 215 fn4 variation, 30-3, 81-8, 280-2, 286 free, 81-2 relation to development, 85-6, 280-2 sources of, 30-3, 82, 84-5, 86-8 717 systematic, 82-8, 280-2 variational features (see Multidimensional Model) vertical constructions, 70, 131, 268 word order, 95, 98-9, 101, 119, 255, 270-82, 307 718 ... Second Edition GILLIAN BROWN Listening in Language Learning MICHAEL ROST An Introduction to Second Language Acquisition Research DIANE LARSEN-FREEMAN AND MICHAEL H.LONG Language and Discrimination... PUBLICATION DATA Larsen-Freeman, Diane An introduction to second language acquisition research (Applied linguistics and language study) Foreign language skills Acquisition Research I Title II Long,... PUBLICATION DATA Larsen-Freeman, Diane CATALOGING IN An introduction to second language acquisition research/ Diane Larsen-Freeman and Michael H Long p cm.—(Applied linguistics and language study) Includes