CRC HANDBOOK of LUBRICATION (Theory and Practice of Tribology) Volume II Theory & Design Editor E. Richard Booser, Ph.D. Senior Engineer Electromechanical Systems Engineering Turbine Technology Laboratory General Electric Company Schenectady, New York Boca Raton London New York Washington, D.C. Copyright © 1983 CRC Press LLC This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted material is quoted with permission, and sources are indicated. Awide variety of references are listed. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the authors and the publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or for the consequences of their use. 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Theory and design. 1. Lubrication and lubricants—Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Booser. E. Richard. TJ1075.C7 1983 621.8’9 82-4552 Copyright © 1983 CRC Press LLC PREFACE—VOLUME II Volume II of the Handbook of Lubrication (Tribology) provides coverage of basic theory involved in friction, wear, and lubrication; characteristics and application practices for lubricants; and design principles for lubricated machine elements such as bearings, gears, couplings, and seals. Among significant developments covered in Volume II are new understandings of boundary lubrication and wear; new elastohydrodynamic theory for rolling bearings, gears, and cams; extension of hydrodynamic analysis to high-speed operation in the turbulent regime and to dynamic response; and distinctive trends in the use of oils, greases, solid lubricants, additives, and synthetics. This volume is intended to be used as a companion to Volume I with its coverage of theory and design. While construction equipment is covered in Volume I, for instance, companion coverages on the properties of oils and greases, design of bearings and gears, and lubrication fundamentals appear in Volume II. The Society of Tribologists and Lubrication Engineers has sponsored the development of the Handbook of Lubrication. STLE Technical Committees and Industry Councils provided technical review, and the Handbook Advisory Committee oversaw the myriad day-to-day activities in producing the Handbook. Much of the original plan for Volume II was developed by Dr. P. M. Ku as the initial chairman of the Handbook Advisory Committee until his untimely death. It is hoped that the Handbook will aid in achieving more effective lubrication, in control of friction and wear, and as another step to improve understanding of the complex factrors involved in tribology. E. R. BOOSER EDITOR Copyright © 1983 CRC Press LLC THE EDITOR Dr. E. Richard Booser has been a leader in the field of lubrication and tribology for the past 30 years. He completed his academic training in Chemical Engineering at The Pennsylvania State University in 1948 following research studies on composition, oxidation mechanisms, additives, and refining procedures for petroleum lubricants. Since that time, he has been employed by the General Electric Co. in development work on the lubrication of steam and gas turbines, electric motors and generators, nuclear plant equipment, jet engines, aircraft accessories, and household appliances. His current assignment is Manager of the Systems Engineering Subsection in the General Electric Turbine Technology Laboratory in Schenectady, N.Y., and he has served as leader of the Company Center of Research on Bearings and Rotor Dynamics. He has published 60 papers covering oil oxidation, grease life in ball bearings, turbulence in high-speed oil-film bearings, selection of bearing materials, design of circulating oil systems, electric motor lubrication, and lubrication of nuclear plants. Co-author of the McGraw-Hill book Bearing Design and Application, he organized and taught bearing and lubrication courses for 400 engineers over the past 10 years. Elected President of the Society of Tribologists and Lubrication Engineers (formerly the American Society for Lubrication Engineers) in 1956, he served the Society as Chairman of various activities: Lubrication Fundamentals Committee, General Technical Committee, Awards Committee, Fellows Committee, and two local sections. He is also a member of the American Chemical Society, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Sigma Xi, and is a registered professional engineer in New York State. Dr. Booser draws on worldwide associations, and particularly on the resources and members of the Society of Tribologists and Lubrication Engineers, to organize this Handbook. It is a compilation by 80 authors of developments and practices in the emerging fields of tribology: the science of friction, wear, and lubrication. Copyright © 1983 CRC Press LLC ADVISORY BOARD Edmond E. Bisson Consulting Engineer Fairview Park, Ohio Andrew E. Cichelli (Retired) Senior Consultant Lubrication and Special Projects Bethlehem Steel Corporation Bethlehem, Pennsylvania Donald G. Flom, Ph.D. Manager Advanced Machining and Wear Control Program General Electric Company Schenectady, New York Patrick E. Fowles, Sc.D. Assistant Manager Research Department Mobil Research and Development Corporation Paulsboro, New Jersey Donald F. Hays Department Head Mechanical Research Department General Motors Technical Center General Motors Research Laboratories Warren, Michigan Robert L. Johnson (Retired) Consultant NASA-Lewis Research Center Cleveland, Ohio Elmer E. Klaus, Ph.D. (Retired) Professor Emeritus Fenske Faculty Fellow Department of Chemical Engineering Pennsylvania State University University Park, Pennsylvania Copyright © 1983 CRC Press LLC EDITORIAL REVIEW BOARD W. J. Anderson NASA-Lewis Research Center Cleveland, Ohio D. A. Becker National Bureau of Standards Washington, D. C. D. H. Buckley NASA-Lewis Research Center Cleveland, Ohio S. R. Calish Chevron U.S.A., Inc. San Francisco, California R. C. Elwell General Electric Company Schenectady, New York I. L. Goldblatt Exxon Research and Engineering Linden, New Jersey W. O. Heyn Safety-Kleen Corporation Elgin, Illinois L. C. Horwedel E/M Lubricants, Inc. West Lafayette, Indiana R. B. McBride General Electric Company Schenectady, New York J. S. McCoy International Harvester Company Melrose Park, Illinois C. A. Moyer The Timken Company Canton, Ohio A. G. Papay Edwin Cooper Inc. St. Louis, Missouri M. B. Peterson Wear Sciences Arnold, Maryland H. J. Sneck Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute Troy, New York W. C. Unangst Bethlehem Steel Corporation Bethlehem, Pennsylvania W. H. Vickers E. F. Houghton and Company Norristown, Pennsylvania M. H. Zitkow Witco Chemical Company New York, New York Copyright © 1983 CRC Press LLC CONTRIBUTORS Frederick T. Barwell, Ph.D. Emeritus Professor University of Wales and Honorary Professorial Fellow (Formerly Department Head) Department of Mechanical Engineering University College of Swansea U.K. E. O. Bennett, Ph.D. Professor Department of Biology University of Houston Houston, Texas J. F. Booker, Ph.D. Professor School of Mechanical & Aerospace Engineering Cornell University Ithaca, New York Donald H. Buckley, Doc. of Eng. Chief Tribology Branch NASA-Lewis Research Center Cleveland, Ohio Michael M. Calistrat Manager, Research & Development Power Transmission Division Koppers Company, Inc. Baltimore, Maryland Herbert S. Cheng, Ph.D. Professor Department of Mechanical Engineering Technological Institute Northwestern University Evanston, Illinois Horst Czichos, Ph.D. Director and Professor Department of "Special Fields of Materials Testing" Bundesanstalt fur Materialprüfung (Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing) Berlin-Dahlem, West Germany A. O. DeHart Fluid Mechanics Department GM Research Laboratories GM Technical Center Warren, Michigan William J. Derner Consultant Mechanical Power Transmission Indianapolis, Indiana Norman S. Eiss, Jr., Ph.D. Professor Department of Mechanical Engineering Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University Blacksburg, Virginia Richard C. Elwell Engineer — Development Turbine Technology Laboratory General Electric Company Schenectady, New York Richard S. Fein, Ph.D. Consultant Poughkeepsie, New York Formerly Senior Research Associate Texaco Inc. Beacon, New York Gregory Foltz Specialist Cimcool Technical Services Products Division Cincinnati Milacron Cincinnati, Ohio Edward J. Gesdorf Consultant Farval Lubricating Systems Farval Division Cleveland Gear Company Cleveland, Ohio Copyright © 1983 CRC Press LLC Howard N. Kaufman Fellow Engineer Tribology and Experimental Mechanics Section Mechanics Department Westinghouse Research and Development Center Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania Ralph Kelly Manager New Products Cimcool Marketing Development Products Division Cincinnati Milacron Cincinnati, Ohio Elmer E. Klaus, Ph.D. (Retired) Professor Emeritus Fenske Faculty Fellow Department of Chemical Engineering Pennsylvania State University University Park, Pennsylvania John K. Lancaster, Ph.D. Head Materials and Structures Department Royal Aircraft Establishment Farnborough, Hants, U.K. K. C. Ludema, Ph.D. Professor Department of Mechanical Engineers University of Michigan Ann Arbor, Michigan S. Frank Murray Senior Research Engineer Department of Mechanical Engineering Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute Troy, New York James A. O’Brien Manager, Planning Amoco Petroleum Additives Company Clayton, Missouri Eugene E. Pfaffenberger, P.E. Manager Engineering Analysis Link-Belt Bearing Division PT Components, Inc. Indianapolis, Indiana Ernest Rabinowicz, Ph.D. Professor Department of Mechanical Engineering M.I.T. Cambridge, Massachusetts John L. Radovich Senior Product Designer Gear Division Staff Lubrication Engineer Farrel Company Emhart Machinery Group Ansonia, Connecticut Albert A. Raimondi, Ph.D. Manager Tribology and Experimental Mechanics Westinghouse R & D Center Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania Carleton N. Rowe, Ph.D. Research Associate Mobil Research and Development Corporation Paulsboro, New Jersey Irwin W. Ruge (Retired) Product Manager Marketing Technical Services Union Oil Company of California Schaumburg, Illinois John A. Schey, Ph.D. Professor Department of Mechanical Engineering University of Waterloo Waterloo, Ontario, Canada Milton C. Shaw, Sc.D. Professor Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering Arizona State University Tempe, Arizona Henry J. Sneck, Ph.D. Professor Department of Mechanical Engineering Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute Troy, New York Copyright © 1983 CRC Press LLC William K. Stair Director Engineering Experiment Station and Associate Dean College of Engineering University of Tennessee Knoxville, Tennessee Andras Z. Szeri, Ph.D. Consultant Westinghouse Research Laboratories and Professor Department of Mechanical Engineering University of Pittsburgh Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania Elmer J. Tewksbury, Ph.D. (Retired) Professor Department of Chemical Enigneering Pennsylvania State University University Park, Pennsylvania Arthur J. Twidale Managing Director Denco Farval Limited Hereford, England John H. Vohr, Ph.D. Senior Engineer Turbine Technology Laboratory General Electric Company Schenectady, New York D. F. Wilcock, D.E.S. President Tribolock, Inc. Schenectady, New York Desmond C. J. Williams Director Denco Farval Limited Hereford, England J. Brian P. Williamson, Ph.D. Scientific Consultant Williamson Interface Limited Malvern, England Copyright © 1983 CRC Press LLC TABLE OF CONTENTS FRICTION, WEAR, AND LUBRICATION THEORY The Shape of Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3 Properties of Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17 Friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31 Boundary Lubrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49 Hydrodynamic Lubrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69 Numerical Methods in Hydrodynamic Lubrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .93 Hydrostatic Lubrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .105 Squeeze Films and Bearing Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .121 Elastohydrodynamic Lubrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .139 Metallic Wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .163 Wear of Nonmetallic Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .185 Wear Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .201 Lubricated Wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .209 LUBRICANTS AND THEIR APPLICATION Liquid Lubricants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .229 Lubricating Greases—Characteristics and Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .255 Solid Lubricants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .269 Properties of Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .291 Lubricating Oil Additives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .301 Metal Processing—Deformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .317 Metal Removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .335 Cutting Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .357 Cutting Fluids—Microbial Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .371 Lubricant Application Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .379 Circulating Oil Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .395 DESIGN PRINCIPLES Journal and Thrust Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .413 Sliding Bearing Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .463 Sliding Bearing Damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .477 Rolling Element Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .495 Gears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .539 Mechanical Shaft Couplings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 565 Dynamic Seals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .581 Wear Resistant Coatings and Surface Treatments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .623 Systems Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .645 Copyright © 1983 CRC Press LLC [...].. .CRC HANDBOOK OF LUBRICATION (Theory and Practice of Tribology) E Richard Booser, Editor Volume I Application and Maintenance Applications Industrial Lubrication Practices Maintenance Appendixes Volume II Theory and Design Friction, Wear, and Lubrication Theory Lubricants and Their Application Design Principles Copyright © 1983 CRC Press LLC Friction, Wear, and Lubrication Theory Copyright © 1983 CRC. .. aberrations whenever possible Surface profiles usually contain three major components (Figure 4): Copyright © 1983 CRC Press LLC 4 CRC Handbook of Lubrication A B FIGURE 1 Electron micrographs of (A) mechanically polished copper surface and (B) gold electroplate deposited on brass Copyright © 1983 CRC Press LLC Volume II FIGURE 2 Comparative size of surface-related phenomena FIGURE 3 Contact areas revealed... contact, the gap between Copyright © 1983 CRC Press LLC 10 CRC Handbook of Lubrication FIGURE 6 A glass surface lightly bead-blasted Map made from height data collected from many parallel closely spaced profiles The roughness is approximately 1 μm Ra The white areas are plateau of the original glass surface The countours are every micrometer Copyright © 1983 CRC Press LLC Volume II FIGURE 7 A typical... cubic Zinc, cadmium, cobalt, rhenium, zirconium, and titanium have a hexagonal structure Copyright © 1983 CRC Press LLC Volume II a b FIGURE 2 (a) Field ion micrograph; clean tungsten surface, (b) Concluded; vacancy in the (203) plane of a platinum surface Copyright © 1983 CRC Press LLC 19 20 CRC Handbook of Lubrication FIGURE 3 Planes of possible slip in a cubic crystal; (a) three (100) planes, (b)... Contact areas revealed by chemical decoration Two copper surfaces were pressed together for 1 month in an atmosphere of 1% SO2 in air at 85% R.H., then photographed on separation Copyright © 1983 CRC Press LLC 5 6 CRC Handbook of Lubrication FIGURE 4 1 2 3 The three components of surface texture Roughness — closely spaced irregularities, the height, width, and direction of which create the predominant surface... with a Gaussian height distribution, Ra is approximately 0.8 Rq In Figure 9, Rq is 1.25 µm and Ra is 1.0 µm In general, however, there is no simple relation between Ra and Rq Copyright © 1983 CRC Press LLC 12 CRC Handbook of Lubrication FIGURE 9 Cumulative height distribution of a bead-blasted surface The surface distribution is Gaussian — at the high end to at least 3.5 standard deviations from the... is said to be pure Such textures are created only by processes which obliterate all previous treatments (milling or melting, or roughening a much smoother surface, for example) Copyright © 1983 CRC Press LLC 14 CRC Handbook of Lubrication FIGURE 11 Cumulative height distribution and typical profile of a turned surface (solid circles) The distribution is definitely nonGaussian The profile peaks (x’s)... Dearborn, Mich., 1973, 96 8 Sayles, R S and Thomas, T R., Mapping a small area of a surface, J Phys E., 9, 855, 1976 9 Tabor, D., The solid surface, Phys Bull., 29, 521, 1978 Copyright © 1983 CRC Press LLC 16 CRC Handbook of Lubrication 10 Whitehouse, D J., Surfaces — a link between manufacture and function, Proc Inst Mech Eng (London), 192, 179, 1978 11 Whitehouse, D J., Stylus techniques, in Characterization... recrystallization temperature from 900 to 400 °C METHODS OF CHARACTERIZATION OF SURFACES Microscopy Microscopy is the most common technique employed for characterization of surfaces Copyright © 1983 CRC Press LLC 18 CRC Handbook of Lubrication FIGURE 1 Schematic representation of a metal surface The ordinary optical microscope can yield detailed surface features at magnifications up to about 500 times, 1000... have one major disadvantage: both give equal weight to the shape of valleys and peaks In practice, however, behavior of a surface in contact with another depends essentially on Copyright © 1983 CRC Press LLC 8 CRC Handbook of Lubrication the texture of its highest strata, and hardly at all on the shape of its valleys Frequently the highest parts of engineering surfaces differ significantly from the general . explanation, without intent to infringe. Visit the CRC Press Web site at www.crcpress.com © 1983 by CRC Press LLC No claim to original U.S. Government. Specific permission must be obtained in writing from CRC Press LLC for such copying. Direct all inquiries to CRC Press LLC. 2000 N.W. Corporate Blvd., Boca Raton.