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Springer Handbook of Nanotechnology Springer Handbook provides a concise compilation of approved key information on methods of research, general principles, and functional relationships in physics and engineering. The world’s lead- ing experts in the fields of physics and engineering will be assigned by one or several renowned editors to write the chapters comprising each volume. The content is selected by these experts from Springer sources (books, journals, online content) and other systematic and approved recent publications of physical and technical information. The volumes will be designed to be useful as readable desk reference book to give a fast and comprehen- sive overview and easy retrieval of essential reliable key information, including tables, graphs, and bibli- ographies. References to extensive sources are provided. 3 Berlin Heidelberg New York Hong Kong London Milan Paris Tokyo 1 13 Handbook Springer of Nanotechnology Bharat Bhushan (Ed.) With 972 Figures and 71 Tables Professor Bharat Bhushan Nanotribology Laboratory for Information Storage and MEMS/NEMS The Ohio State University 206 W. 18th Avenue Columbus, Ohio 43210-1107 USA Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Springer handbook of nanotechnology / Bharat Bhushan (ed.) p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 3-540-01218-4 (alk. paper) 1. Nanotechnology--Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Bhushan, Bharat; 1949- T174.7S67 2003 620  .5--dc22 2003064953 ISBN 3-540-01218-4 Spinger-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg New York This work is subject to copyright. All rights reserved, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilm or in any other way, and storage in data banks. 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Skolaut, Heidelberg Typography, layout and illustrations: schreiberVIS, Seeheim Cover design: eStudio Calamar Steinen, Barcelona Cover production: design&production GmbH, Heidelberg Printing and binding: Stürtz AG, Würzburg Printed on acid-free paper SPIN 10890790 62/3141/YL 5 4 3210 V Foreword by Neal Lane In a January 2000 speech at the California Institute of Technology, former President W. J. Clinton talked about the exciting promise of “nanotechnology” and the im- portance of expanding research in nanoscale science and engineering and in the physical sciences, more broadly. Later that month, he announced in his State of the Union Address an ambitious $ 497 million federal, multi-agency national nanotechnology initiative (NNI) in the fiscal year 2001 budget; and he made the NNI a top science and technology priority within a budget that emphasized increased investment in U.S. scientific re- search. With strong bipartisan support in Congress, most of this request was appropriated, and the NNI was born. Nanotechnology is the ability to manipulate indi- vidual atoms and molecules to produce nanostructured materials and sub-micron objects that have applica- tions in the real world. Nanotechnology involves the production and application of physical, chemical and biological systems at scales ranging from individ- ual atoms or molecules to about 100 nanometers, as well as the integration of the resulting nanostruc- tures into larger systems. Nanotechnology is likely to have a profound impact on our economy and soci- ety in the early 21st century, perhaps comparable to that of information technology or advances in cellu- lar and molecular biology. Science and engineering research in nanotechnology promises breakthroughs in areas such as materials and manufacturing, elec- tronics, medicine and healthcare, energy and the environment, biotechnology, information technology and national security. It is widely felt that nano- technology will lead to the next industrial revolution. Nanometer-scale features are built up from their elemental constituents. Micro- and nanosystems compo- nents are fabricated using batch-processing techniques that are compatible with integrated circuits and range in size from micro- to nanometers. Micro- and nanosys- tems include Micro/NanoElectroMechanical Systems (MEMS/NEMS), micromechatronics, optoelectronics, microfluidics and systems integration. These systems can sense, control, and activate on the micro/nanoscale and can function individually or in arrays to generate effects on the macroscale. Due to the enabling nature of these systems and the significant impact they can have on both the commercial and defense applications, indus- Prof. Neal Lane University Professor Department of Physics and Astronomy and James A. Baker III Institute for Public Policy Rice University Houston, Texas USA Served in the Clinton Admin- istration as Assistant to the President for Science and Tech- nology and Director of the White House Office of Science and Technology Policy (1998–2001) and, prior to that, as Director of the National Science Foundation (1993–1998). While at the White House, he was instrumental in creating NNI. try as well as the federal government have taken special interest in seeing growth nurtured in this field. Micro- and nanosystems are the next logical step in the “silicon revolution”. The discovery of novel mater- ials, processes, and phenomena at the nanoscale and the development of new experimental and theoretic- al techniques for research provide fresh opportunities for the develop- ment of innovative nanosystems and nanostructured materials. There is an increasing need for a multidis- ciplinary, systems-oriented approach to manufacturing micro/nanodevices which function reliably. This can only be achieved through the cross- fertilization of ideas from different disciplines and the systematic flow of information and people among re- search groups. Nanotechnology is a broad, high- ly interdisciplinary, and still evolving field. Covering even the most important aspects of nanotechnology in a single book that reaches readers ranging from stu- dents to active researchers in academia and industry is an enormous challenge. To prepare such a wide-ranging book on nanotechnology, Professor Bhushan has har- nessed his own knowledge and experience, gained in several industries and universities, and has assembled about 90 internationally recognized authors from three continents to write 38 chapters. The authors come from both academia and industry. Professor Bharat Bhushan’s comprehensive book is intended to serve both as a textbook for university courses as well as a reference for researchers. It is a timely addition to the literature on nanotechnology, which I anticipate will stimulate further interest in this important new field and serve as an invaluable resource to members of the international scientific and industrial community. The Editor-in-Chief and his team are to be warmly congratulated for bringing together this exclusive, timely, and useful Nanotechnology Handbook. Springer Handbook of Nanotechnology B. Bhushan • ! Springer 2004 1 VI Springer Handbook of Nanotechnology B. Bhushan • ! Springer 2004 1 VII Foreword by James R. Heath Nanotechnology has become an increasingly popular buzzword over the past five years or so, a trend that has been fueled by a global set of publicly funded nano- technology initiatives. Even as researchers have been struggling to demonstrate some of the most fundamental and simple aspects of this field, the term nanotechnol- ogy has entered into the public consciousness through articles in the popular press and popular fiction. As a con- sequence, the expectations of the public are high for nanotechnology, even while the actual public definition of nanotechnology remains a bit fuzzy. Why shouldn’t those expectations be high? The late 1990’s witnessed a major information technology (IT) revolution and a minor biotechnology revolution. The IT revolution impacted virtually every aspect of life in the western world. I am sitting on an airplane at 30,000 feet at the moment, working on my laptop, as are about half of the other passengers on this plane. The plane itself is riddled with computational and communications equip- ment. As soon as we land, many of us will pull out cell phones, others will check email via wireless modem, some will do both. This picture would be the same if I was landing in Los Angeles, Beijing, or Capetown. I will probably never actually print this text, but will instead submit it electronically. All of this was unthink- able a dozen years ago. It is therefore no wonder that the public expects marvelous things to happen quickly. However, the science that laid the groundwork for the IT revolution dates back 60 years or more, with its origins in the fundamental solid state physics. By contrast, the biotech revolution was relatively minor and, at least to date, not particularly effective. The major diseases that plagued mankind a quarter century ago are still here. In some third world countries, the aver- age lifespan of individuals has actually decreased from where it was a full century ago. While the costs of elec- tronics technologies have plummeted, health care costs have continued to rise. The biotech revolution may have a profound impact, but the task at hand is substantially more difficult to what was required for the IT revolution. In effect, the IT revolution was based on the advanced Prof. James R. Heath Department of Chemistry Mail Code: 127-72 California Institute of Technology Pasadena, CA 91125, USA Worked in the group of Nobel Laureate Richard E. Smalley at Rice University (1984–88) and co-invented Fullerene mol- ecules which led to a revolution in Chemistry including the realization of nanotubes. The work on Fullerene mol- ecules was cited for the 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry. Later he joined the University of California at Los Angeles (1994– 2002), and co-founded and served as a Scientific Director of The California Nanosystems Institute. engineering of two-dimensional digit- al circuits constructed from rela- tively simple components – extended solids. The biotech revolution is real- ly dependent upon the ability to reverse engineer three-dimensional analog systems constructed from quite complex components – pro- teins. Given that the basic science be- hind biotech is substantially younger than the science that has supported IT, it is perhaps not surprising that the biotech revolution has not really been a proper revolution yet, and it likely needs at least another decade or so to come to fruition. Where does nanotechnology fit into this picture? In many ways, nanotechnology depends upon the ability to engineer two- and three- dimensional systems constructed from complex components such as macromolecules, biomolecules, nanostructured solids, etc. Further- more, in terms of patents, publica- tions, and other metrics that can be used to gauge the birth and evolution of a field, nanotech lags some 15–20 years behind biotech. Thus, now is the time that the fundamental science behind nanotech- nology is being explored and developed. Nevertheless, progress with that science is moving forward at a dra- matic pace. If the scientific community can keep up this pace and if the public sector will continue to support this science, then it is possible, and perhaps even likely, that in 20 years from now we may be speaking of the nanotech revolution. The Nanotechnology Handbook is timely in assem- bling chapters in the broad field of nanotechnology with an emphasis on reliability. The handbook should be a valuable reference for experienced researchers as well as for a novice in the field. Springer Handbook of Nanotechnology B. Bhushan • ! Springer 2004 1 VIII Springer Handbook of Nanotechnology B. Bhushan • ! Springer 2004 1 IX Preface On December 29, 1959 at the California Institute of Technology, Nobel Laureate Richard P. Feynman gave a talk at the Annual meeting of the American Physic- al Society that has become one classic science lecture of the 20th century, titled “There’s Plenty of Room at the Bottom.” He presented a technological vision of extreme miniaturization in 1959, several years before the word “chip” became part of the lexicon. He talked about the problem of manipulating and controlling things on a small scale. Extrapolating from known physical laws, Feynman envisioned a technology using the ultimate toolbox of nature, building nanoobjects atom by atom or molecule by molecule. Since the 1980s, many inventions and discoveries in fabrication of nanoobjects have been a testament to his vision. In recognition of this reality, in a January 2000 speech at the same institute, former President W. J. Clinton talked about the exciting promise of “nanotechnology” and the importance of expanding research in nanoscale science and engineering. Later that month, he announced in his State of the Union Ad- dress an ambitious $ 497 million federal, multi-agency national nanotechnology initiative (NNI) in the fiscal year 2001 budget, and made the NNI a top science and technology priority. Nanotechnology literally means any technology done on a nanoscale that has applications in the real world. Nanotechnology encompasses produc- tion and application of physical, chemical and biological systems at size scales, ranging from individual atoms or molecules to submicron dimensions as well as the integration of the resulting nanostructures into larger systems. Nanofabrication methods include the manipu- lation or self-assembly of individual atoms, molecules, or molecular structures to produce nanostructured ma- terials and sub-micron devices. Micro- and nanosystems components are fabricated using top-down lithographic and nonlithographic fabrication techniques. Nanotech- nology will have a profound impact on our economy and society in the early 21st century, comparable to that of semiconductor technology, information technology, or advances in cellular and molecular biology. The re- search and development in nanotechnology will lead to potential breakthroughs in areas such as materials and manufacturing, nanoelectronics, medicine and health- care, energy, biotechnology, information technology and national security. It is widely felt that nanotechnology will lead to the next industrial revolution. Reliability is a critical technology for many micro- and nanosystems and nanostructured materials. No book exists on this emerging field. A broad based handbook is needed. The purpose of this handbook is to present an overview of nanomaterial synthe- sis, micro/nanofabrication, micro- and nanocomponents and systems, reliability issues (including nanotribology and nanomechanics) for nanotechnology, and indus- trial applications. The chapters have been written by internationally recognized experts in the field, from academia, national research labs and industry from all over the world. The handbook integrates knowledge from the fab- rication, mechanics, materials science and reliability points of view. This book is intended for three types of readers: graduate students of nanotechnology, re- searchers in academia and industry who are active or intend to become active in this field, and practicing en- gineers and scientists who have encountered a problem and hope to solve it as expeditiously as possible. The handbook should serve as an excellent text for one or two semester graduate courses in nanotechnology in mech- anical engineering, materials science, applied physics, or applied chemistry. We embarked on this project in February 2002, and we worked very hard to get all the chapters to the publisher in a record time of about 1 year. I wish to sincerely thank the authors for offering to write compre- hensive chapters on a tight schedule. This is generally an added responsibility in the hectic work schedules of researchers today. I depended on a large number of reviewers who provided critical reviews. I would like to thank Dr. Phillip J. Bond, Chief of Staff and Under Secretary for Technology, US Department of Commerce, Washington, D.C. for suggestions for chap- ters as well as authors in the handbook. I would also like to thank my colleague, Dr. Huiwen Liu, whose ef- forts during the preparation of this handbook were very useful. I hope that this handbook will stimulate further in- terest in this important new field, and the readers of this handbook will find it useful. September 2003 Bharat Bhushan Editor Springer Handbook of Nanotechnology B. Bhushan • ! Springer 2004 1 X Springer Handbook of Nanotechnology B. Bhushan • ! Springer 2004 1 [...]... Academy of Engineering and Technology and the Academy of Triboengineering of Ukraine, an honorary member of the Society of Tribologists of Belarus, a fellow of ASME, IEEE, and the New York Academy of Sciences, and a member of STLE, ASEE, Sigma Xi and Tau Beta Pi Dr Bhushan has previously worked for the R & D Division of Mechanical Technology Inc., Latham, NY; the Technology Services Division of SKF... Handbook of Nanotechnology B Bhushan • ! Springer 2004 1 XXI Contents List of Tables XXIX List of Abbreviations XXXIII 1 Introduction to Nanotechnology 1.1 Background and Definition of Nanotechnology 1.2 Why Nano? 1.3 Lessons from Nature 1.4 Applications in Different Fields 1.5 Reliability Issues of MEMS/NEMS 1.6 Organization of the Handbook. .. size of E coli Table 24.2 Time scales of various events in biological nanotechnology 748 750 25 Mechanical Properties of Nanostructures Table 25.1 Hardness, elastic modulus, fracture toughness, and critical load results of the bulk single-crystal Si(100) and thin films of undoped polysilicon, SiO2 , SiC, Ni-P, and Au 770 Springer Handbook of Nanotechnology B Bhushan • ! Springer 2004 1 List of Tables... Relevant properties of materials used for cantilevers Measured vertical spring constants and natural frequencies of triangular (V-shaped) cantilevers made of PECVD Si3 N4 Vertical and torsional spring constants of rectangular cantilevers made of Si and PECVD Noise in Interferometers Springer Handbook of Nanotechnology B Bhushan • ! Springer 2004 326 339 341 341 353 XXX List of Tables 13 Noncontact... Technology Services Division of SKF Industries Inc., King of Prussia, PA; the General Products Division Laboratory of IBM Corporation, Tucson, AZ; and the Almaden Research Center of IBM Corporation, San Jose, CA XII Springer Handbook of Nanotechnology B Bhushan • ! Springer 2004 1 XIII List of Authors Chong H Ahn University of Cincinnati Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering and Computer Science... Table 21.2 Summary of the mechanical properties of carbon nanotubes Absolute and relative changes of the indentation modulus with respect to the initial values under wet conditions 672 680 22 Nanomechanical Properties of Solid Surfaces and Thin Films Table 22.1 Results for some experimental studies of multilayer hardness 710 24 Mechanics of Biological Nanotechnology Table 24.1 Sizes of entities in comparison... Institute of Technology (EPFL) Institute of Physics of Complex Matter Ecublens 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland e-mail: laszlo.forro@epfl.ch Jane Frommer IBM Almaden Research Center Department of Science and Technology 650 Harry Road San Jose, CA 95120, USA e-mail: frommer@Almaden.ibm.com 1 Springer Handbook of Nanotechnology B Bhushan • ! Springer 2004 Jason H Hafner Rice University Department of Physics... Bond strengths of the chemical bonds in SAMs 28 Nanoscale Boundary Lubrication Studies Table 28.1 Typical properties of Z-15 and Z-DOL 835 836 836 837 838 838 839 839 840 846 851 855 855 856 863 Part E Industrial Applications and Microdevice Reliability 30 Nanotechnology for Data Storage Applications Table 30.1 A comparison of the parameters of HDD and ODD 1 Springer Handbook of Nanotechnology. .. Metal-Polymer Research Institute of National Academy of Sciences at Gomel, Belarus in 2000 He is a registered professional engineer (mechanical) He is presently an Ohio Eminent Scholar and The Howard D Winbigler Professor in the Department of Mechanical Engineering, Graduate Research Faculty Advisor in the Department of Materials Science and Engineering, and the Director of the Nanotribology Laboratory... Institute of Technology Mechanical Engineering and Applied Physics 1200 California Boulevard Pasadena, CA 91125, USA e-mail: phillips@aero.caltech.edu Mark O Robbins Johns Hopkins University Department of Physics and Astronomy 3400 North Charles Street Baltimore, MD 21218, USA e-mail: mr@jhu.edu Springer Handbook of Nanotechnology B Bhushan • ! Springer 2004 1 List of Authors John A Rogers University of Illinois . timely, and useful Nanotechnology Handbook. Springer Handbook of Nanotechnology B. Bhushan • ! Springer 2004 1 VI Springer Handbook of Nanotechnology B Springer Handbook of Nanotechnology Springer Handbook provides a concise compilation of approved key information on methods of research, general