Tài liệu Handbook of Corrosion Engineering P1 pptx

Handbook of Corrosion Engineering Pierre R. Roberge McGraw-Hill New York San Francisco Washington, D.C. Auckland Bogotá Caracas Lisbon London Madrid Mexico City Milan Montreal New Delhi San Juan Singapore Sydney Tokyo Toronto 0765162_FM_Roberge 9/1/99 2:36 Page iii Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Roberge, Pierre R. Handbook of Corrosion Engineering / Pierre R. Roberge. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 0-07-076516-2 (alk. paper) 1. Corrosion and anti-corrosives. I. Title. TA418.74.R63 1999 620.1'1223—dc21 99-35898 CIP Copyright © 2000 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. Except as permit- ted under the United States Copyright Act of 1976, no part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a data base or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of the publisher. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 AGM/AGM 9 0 4 3 2 1 0 9 ISBN 0-07-076516-2 The sponsoring editor of this book was Robert Esposito. The editing supervisor was David E. Fogarty, and the production supervisor was Sherri Souffrance. This book was set in New Century Schoolbook by Joanne Morbit and Paul Scozzari of McGraw-Hill’s Professional Book Group in Hightstown, N.J. Printed and bound by Quebecor/Martinsburg. This book was printed on recycled, acid-free paper contain- ing a minimum of 50% recycled, de-inked fiber. McGraw-Hill books are available at special quantity discounts to use as premiums and sales promotions, or for use in corporate training programs. For more information, please write to the Director of Special Sales, McGraw-Hill, 11 West 19th Street, New York, NY 10011. Or contact your local bookstore. McGraw-Hill Information contained in this work has been obtained by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. (“McGraw-Hill) from sources believed to be reliable. However, neither McGraw-Hill nor its authors guarantee the accuracy or completeness of any information published herein and neither McGraw-Hill nor its authors shall be responsible for any errors, omissions, or damages arising out of use of this information. This work is published with the understanding that McGraw-Hill and its authors are supplying information but are not attempt- ing to render engineering or other professional services. If such services are required, the assistance of an appropriate professional should be sought. 0765162_FM_Roberge 9/1/99 2:36 Page iv Contents Preface ix Acknowledgments xi Introduction 1 1.1 The Cost of Corrosion 1 1.2 Examples of Catastrophic Corrosion Damage 3 1.3 The Influence of People 5 References 12 Chapter 1. Aqueous Corrosion 13 1.1 Introduction 13 1.2 Applications of Potential-pH Diagrams 16 1.3 Kinetic Principles 32 References 54 Chapter 2. Environments 55 2.1 Atmospheric Corrosion 58 2.2 Natural Waters 85 2.3 Seawater 129 2.4 Corrosion in Soils 142 2.5 Reinforced Concrete 154 2.6 Microbes and Biofouling 187 References 216 Chapter 3. High-Temperature Corrosion 221 3.1 Thermodynamic Principles 222 3.2 Kinetic Principles 229 3.3 Practical High-Temperature Corrosion Problems 237 References 265 0765162_FM_Roberge 9/1/99 2:36 Page v Chapter 4. Modeling, Life Prediction and Computer Applications 267 4.1 Introduction 267 4.2 Modeling and Life Prediction 268 4.3 Applications of Artificial Intelligence 303 4.4 Computer-Based Training or Learning 322 4.5 Internet and the Web 324 References Chapter 5. Corrosion Failures 331 5.1 Introduction 332 5.2 Mechanisms, Forms, and Modes of Corrosion Failures 332 5.3 Guidelines for Investigating Corrosion Failures 359 5.4 Prevention of Corrosion Damage 360 5.5 Case Histories in Corrosion Failure Analysis 368 References 369 Chapter 6. Corrosion Maintenance Through Inspection And Monitoring 371 6.1 Introduction 372 6.2 Inspection 374 6.3 The Maintenance Revolution 6.4 Monitoring and Managing Corrosion Damage 406 6.5 Smart Sensing of Corrosion with Fiber Optics 448 6.6 Non-destructive Evaluation (NDE) 461 References 481 Chapter 7. Acceleration and Amplification of Corrosion Damage 485 7.1 Introduction 486 7.2 Corrosion Testing 488 7.3 Surface Characterization 562 References 574 Chapter 8. Materials Selection 577 8.1 Introduction 578 8.2 Aluminum Alloys 584 8.3 Cast Irons 612 8.4 Copper Alloys 622 8.5 High-Performance Alloys 664 8.6 Refractory Metals 692 8.7 Stainless Steels 710 8.8 Steels 736 8.9 Titanium 748 8.10 Zirconium 769 References 777 Chapter 9. Protective Coatings 781 9.1 Introduction 781 9.2 Coatings and Coating Processes 782 Contents 0765162_FM_Roberge 9/1/99 2:36 Page vi 326 383 9.3 Supplementary Protection Systems 829 9.4 Surface Preparation 831 References 831 Chapter 10. Corrosion Inhibitors 833 10.1 Introduction 833 10.2 Classification of Inhibitors 834 10.3 Corrosion Inhibition Mechanism 838 10.4 Selection of an Inhibitor System 860 References 861 Chapter 11. Cathodic Protection 863 11.1 Introduction 863 11.2 Sacrificial Anode CP Systems 871 11.3 Impressed Current Systems 878 11.4 Current Distribution and Interference Issues 886 11.5 Monitoring the Performance of CP Systems for Buried Pipelines 904 References 919 Chapter 12. Anodic Protection 921 12.1 Introduction 921 12.2 Passivity of Metals 923 12.3 Equipment Required for Anodic Protection 927 12.4 Design Concerns 930 12.5 Applications 932 12.6 Practical Example: Anodic Protection in the Pulp and Paper Industry 933 References 938 Appendix A. SI Units 939 Appendix B. Glossary 947 Appendix C. Corrosion Economics 1001 C.1 Introduction 1001 C.2 Cash Flows and Capital Budgeting Techniques 1002 C.3 Generalized Equation for Straight Line Depreciation 1004 C.4 Examples 1006 C.5 Summary 1009 References 1009 Appendix D. Electrochemistry Basics 1011 D.1 Principles of Electrochemistry 1011 D.2 Chemical Thermodynamics 1029 D.3 Kinetic Principles 1047 0765162_FM_Roberge 9/1/99 2:36 Page vii Appendix E. Chemical Compositions of Engineering Alloys 1061 Appendix F. Thermodynamic Data and E-pH Diagrams 1101 Appendix G. Densities and Melting Points of Metals 1125 Index 1129 Contents 0765162_FM_Roberge 9/1/99 2:36 Page viii Preface The design and production of the Handbook of Corrosion Engineering are drastically different than other handbooks dealing with the same subject. While other corrosion handbooks have been generally the results of collective efforts of many authors, the Handbook of Corrosion Engineering is the result of an extensive survey of state-of- the-art information on corrosion engineering by a principal author. Although only one author appears on the cover, this Handbook is indeed the result of cumulative efforts of many generations of scien- tists and engineers in understanding and preventing the effects of cor- rosion, one of the most constant foes of human endeavors. The design and construction of this Handbook were made for the new millennium with the most modern information-processing techniques presently available. Many references are made to sources of information readily accessible on the World Wide Web and to software systems that can simplify the most difficult situation. It also provides elements of infor- mation management and tools for managing corrosion problems that are particularly valuable to practicing engineers. Many examples, for example, describe how various industries and agencies have addressed corrosion problems. The systems selected as supportive examples have been chosen from a wide range of applications across various industries, from aerospace structures to energy carriers and producers. This Handbook is aimed at the practicing engineer, as a comprehen- sive guide and reference source for solving material selection problems and resolving design issues where corrosion is possibly a factor. During the past decades, progress in the development of materials capable of resisting corrosion and high temperatures has been signifi- cant. There have been substantial developments in newer stainless steels, high-strength low-alloy steels, superalloys, and in protective coatings. This Handbook should prove to be a key information source concerning numerous facets of corrosion damage, from detection and monitoring to prevention and control. The Handbook is divided into three main sections and is followed by supporting material in seven appendixes. Each section and its chapters are relatively independent and can be consulted without having to go through previous chapters. The first main section (Introduction and 0765162_FM_Roberge 9/1/99 2:36 Page ix Chapters 1 to 3) contains fundamental principles governing aqueous corrosion and high-temperature corrosion and covers the main environ- ments causing corrosion such as atmospheric, natural waters, seawater, soils, concrete, as well as microbial and biofouling environments. The second section (Chapters 4 to 7) addresses techniques for the pre- diction and assessment of corrosion damage such as modeling, life pre- diction, computer applications, inspection and monitoring and testing through acceleration and amplification of corrosion damage. The second section also contains a detailed description of the various types of corro- sion failures with examples and ways to prevent them. The third section (Chapters 8 to 12) covers general considerations of corrosion prevention and control with a focus on materials selection. This chapter is particu- larly valuable for its detailed descriptions of the performance and main- tenance considerations for the main families of engineering alloys based on aluminum, copper, nickel, chrome, refractory metals, titanium and zirconium, as well as cast irons, stainless steels and other steels. This section also provides elements for understanding protective coatings, corrosion inhibitors, cathodic protection and anodic protection. The first appendix contains a table of appropriate SI units making references to most other types of units. This table will hopefully com- pensate for the systematic usage of SI units made in the book. Another appendix is an extensive glossary of terms often used in the context of corrosion engineering. A third appendix summarizes corrosion econom- ics with examples detailing calculations based on straight value depre- ciation. The fourth appendix provides a detailed introduction to basic electrochemical principles. Many examples of E-pH (Pourbaix) dia- grams are provided in a subsequent appendix. The designations and compositions of engineering alloys is the subject of a fifth appendix. Pierre R. Roberge Preface 0765162_FM_Roberge 9/1/99 2:36 Page x Acknowledgments The Handbook of Corrosion Engineering was designed entirely in collab- oration with Martin Tullmin. In fact, Martin is the sole author of many sections of the book (corrosion in concrete, soil corrosion and cathodic protection) as well as an important contributor to many others. My acknowledgments also go to Robert Klassen who contributed to the atmospheric corrosion section as well as for his study of the fiber optic sensors for corrosion monitoring. As I mentioned in the Preface, this book tries to summarize the pre- sent state of our knowledge of the corrosion phenomena and their impact on our societies. Many of the opinions expressed in the Handbook have come either from my work with collaborators or, more often, from my study of the work of other corrosion engineers and sci- entists. Of the first kind I am particularly indebted to Ken Trethewey with whom I have had many enlightening discussions that sometimes resulted in published articles. I also have to thank the congenial experts I interacted with in corrosion standard writing committees (ISO TC 156 and ASTM G01) for their expert advice and the rigor that is required in the development of new procedures and test methods. Of the second kind I have to recognize the science and engineering pillars responsible for the present state of our knowledge in corrosion. The names of some of these giants have been mentioned throughout the book with a particular recognition made in the Introduction in Table I.4. In this respect, my personal gratitude goes to Professor Roger Staehle for his pragmatic vision of the quantification of corrosion dam- age. I have been greatly inspired by the work of this great man. I would also like to take this occasion to express my love to those close to me, and particularly to Diane whose endurance of my working habits is phenomenal. 0765162_FM_Roberge 9/1/99 2:36 Page xi 1 I.1 The Cost of Corrosion 1 I.2 Examples of Catastrophic Corrosion Damage 3 I.2.1 Sewer explosion, Mexico 3 I.2.2 Loss of USAF F16 fighter aircraft 3 I.2.3 The Aloha aircraft incident 3 I.2.4 The MV KIRKI 4 I.2.5 Corrosion of the infrastructure 4 I.3 The Influence of People 5 Introduction Corrosion is the destructive attack of a material by reaction with its environment. The serious consequences of the corrosion process have become a problem of worldwide significance. In addition to our every- day encounters with this form of degradation, corrosion causes plant shutdowns, waste of valuable resources, loss or contamination of prod- uct, reduction in efficiency, costly maintenance, and expensive over- design; it also jeopardizes safety and inhibits technological progress. The multidisciplinary aspect of corrosion problems combined with the distributed responsibilities associated with such problems only increase the complexity of the subject. Corrosion control is achieved by recognizing and understanding corrosion mechanisms, by using corro- sion-resistant materials and designs, and by using protective systems, devices, and treatments. Major corporations, industries, and govern- ment agencies have established groups and committees to look after corrosion-related issues, but in many cases the responsibilities are spread between the manufacturers or producers of systems and their users. Such a situation can easily breed negligence and be quite cost- ly in terms of dollars and human lives. I.1 The Cost of Corrosion Although the costs attributed to corrosion damages of all kinds have been estimated to be of the order of 3 to 5 percent of industrialized countries’ gross national product (GNP), the responsibilities associat- ed with these problems are sometimes quite diffuse. Since the first sig- nificant report by Uhlig 1 in 1949 that the cost of corrosion to nations is indeed great, the conclusion of all subsequent studies has been that corrosion represents a constant charge to a nation’s GNP. 2 One conclu- sion of the 1971 UK government-sponsored report chaired by Hoar 3 was that a good fraction of corrosion failures were avoidable and that improved education was a good way of tackling corrosion avoidance. 0765162_Intro_Roberge 9/1/99 2:38 Page 1 [...]... TABLE I.4 Landmarks of Discoveries Related to the Understanding and Management of Corrosion Date Landmark 1675 Mechanical origin of corrosiveness and corrodibility Bimetallic corrosion Water becomes alkaline during corrosion of iron Copper-iron electrolytic galvanic coupling Insight into electrochemical nature of corrosion Cathodic protection of Cu by Zn or Fe Microstructural aspect of corrosion (Zn) Relations... intergranular corrosion High-temperature formation of oxides Galvanic corrosion Subscaling of “internal corrosion Quantitative electrochemical nature of corrosion Anodic and cathodic inhibitors E-pH thermodynamic diagrams Autocatalytic nature of pitting Tafel extrapolation for measurement of kinetic parameters Electrochemical noise signature of corrosion Study of corrosion processes with electrochemical impedance... generation of electric currents Passivity of iron Hydrogen overvoltage as a function of current Carbonic and other acids are not essential for the corrosion of iron Oxygen action as cathodic stimulator Compilation of corrosion rates in different media Inhibitive paint Study of high-temperature oxidation kinetics of tungsten Differential aeration currents Season-cracking of brass ϭ intergranular corrosion. .. 17 Aqueous Corrosion Potential 17 Mode definition pH Potential Environment definition pH Potential Superposition Operating region of mode Figure 1.2 Representation of a corrosion mode and the corrosion susceptibility of a metal in a given environment on an E-pH scale pH namic boundaries Some examples of the application of E-pH diagrams to practical corrosion problems follow 1.2.1 Corrosion of steel in... application of E-pH diagrams to corrosion, thermodynamic data can be used to map out the occurrence of corrosion, passivity, and nobility of a metal as a function of pH and potential The operating environment can also be specified with the same coordinates, facilitating a thermodynamic prediction of the nature of corrosion damage A particular environmental diagram showing the thermodynamic stability of different... Corrosion Cracking of Stainless Steels, in Shreir, L L., Jarman, R A., and Burstein, G T (eds), Corrosion Control Oxford, UK, Butterworths Heinemann, 1994, pp 8:52–8:83 0765162_Ch01_Roberge 9/1/99 2:46 Page 13 Chapter 1 Aqueous Corrosion 1.1 Introduction 13 1.2 Applications of Potential-pH Diagrams 16 1.2.1 Corrosion of steel in water at elevated temperatures 17 1.2.2 Filiform corrosion 26 1.2.3 Corrosion. .. (magnitude and type) and environmental conditions that lead to stresscorrosion cracking, corrosion fatigue, or fretting corrosion: 0765162_Intro_Roberge TABLE I.3 9/1/99 2:38 Page 9 Outline of Methods of Corrosion Control (Continued) Method Selection of Materials Responsibility Direct Managerial For stress corrosion cracking, avoid the use of alloys that are susceptible in the environment under consideration,... References 1 Uhlig, H H., The Cost of Corrosion in the United States, Chemical and Engineering News, 27:2764 (1949) 2 Cabrillac, C., Leach, J S L., Marcus P., et al., The Cost of Corrosion in the EEC, Metals and Materials, 3:533–536 (1987) 3 Hoar, T P., Report of the Committee on Corrosion and Protection 1971 London, UK, Her Majesty’s Stationary Office 4 Holbrook, D., Corrosion Annually Costs $300 Billion,... infrastructure A survey of collapsed buildings during the 1974 to 1978 period in England showed that the immediate cause of failure of at least eight structures, which were 12 to 40 years old, was corrosion of reinforcing or prestressing steel Deterioration of parking garages has become a major concern in Canada Of the 215 garages surveyed recently, almost all suffered varying degrees of deterioration due... the seriousness of the corrosion problem of parking garages was revealed dramatically during the investigation that followed the bomb attack on the underground parking garage of the World Trade Center.11 I.3 The Influence of People The effects of corrosion failures on the performance maintenance of materials would often be minimized if life monitoring and control of the environmental and human factors . of collective efforts of many authors, the Handbook of Corrosion Engineering is the result of an extensive survey of state -of- the-art information on corrosion. production of the Handbook of Corrosion Engineering are drastically different than other handbooks dealing with the same subject. While other corrosion handbooks