Pragmatics Yan Huang

OXFORD TEXTBOOKS IN LINGUISTICS Pragmatics Second edition OXFORD TEXTBOOKS IN LINGUISTICS PUBLISHED Pragmatics Second edition by Yan Huang Compositional Semantics An Introduction to the Syntax/ Semantics Interface by Pauline Jacobson The Grammar of Words An Introduction to Linguistic Morphology Third edition by Geert Booij A Practical Introduction to Phonetics Second edition by J C Catford Meaning in Use An Introduction to Semantics and Pragmatics Third edition by Alan Cruse Natural Language Syntax by Peter W Culicover Principles and Parameters An Introduction to Syntactic Theory by Peter W Culicover A Semantic Approach to English Grammar by R M W Dixon Semantic Analysis A Practical Introduction by Cliff Goddard The History of Languages An Introduction by Tore Janson Diachronic Syntax by Ian Roberts Cognitive Grammar An Introduction by John R Taylor Linguistic Categorization Third edition by John R Taylor IN PREPARATION The Lexicon An Introduction by Elisabetta Ježek Functional Discourse Analysis by Evelien Keizer Semantics and Pragmatics Meaning in Language and Discourse Second edition by Kasia M Jaszczolt Translation Theory and Practice by Kirsten Malmkjaer Speech Acts and Sentence Types in English by Peter Siemund Linguistic Typology Theory, Method, Data by Jae Jung Song Pragmatics Second edition Yan Huang Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP, United Kingdom Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries # Yan Huang 2007, 2014 The moral rights of the author have been asserted First Edition published in 2007 Second Edition published in 2014 Impression: All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted by law, by licence or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics rights organization Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the address above You must not circulate this work in any other form and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press 198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Data available Library of Congress Control Number: 2014936066 ISBN 978–0–19–957776–7 Printed and bound by CPI Group (UK) Ltd, Croydon, CR0 4YY Links to third party websites are provided by Oxford in good faith and for information only Oxford disclaims any responsibility for the materials contained in any third party website referenced in this work Dedication In loving memory of and with profound gratitude to my mother, Hexia Feng (1921–2010), and my father, Yongzeng Huang (1922–2013) Contents Preface to the second edition xiv Acknowledgements to the second edition Preface to the first edition xix Acknowledgements to the first edition Symbols and abbreviations xvi xxi xxiii Introduction 1.1 What is pragmatics? 1.1.1 A definition 1.1.2 A brief history of pragmatics 1.1.3 Two main schools of thought in pragmatics: Anglo-American versus European Continental 1.2 Why pragmatics? 1.2.1 Linguistic underdeterminacy 1.2.2 Simplification of semantics and syntax 1.3 Some basic notions in semantics and pragmatics 13 1.3.1 Sentence, utterance, and proposition 13 1.3.2 Context 16 1.3.3 Truth value, truth condition, and entailment 17 1.4 Organization of the book 21 Key concepts 22 Exercises and essay topics 22 Further readings 23 Part I Central topics in pragmatics 25 Implicature 27 2.1 Classical Gricean theory of conversational implicature 28 2.1.1 Grice’s notion of non-natural meaning or meaningnn 28 2.1.2 Grice’s co-operative principle and the maxims of conversation 29 2.1.3 Relationship between a speaker and the maxims 30 viii CONTENTS 2.1.4 Conversational implicatureO versus conversational implicatureF 31 2.1.5 Generalized versus particularized conversational implicature 38 2.1.6 Properties of conversational implicature 39 2.2 Two neo-Gricean pragmatic theories of conversational implicature 43 2.2.1 The Hornian system 44 2.2.2 The Levinsonian system 49 2.3 Some current debates about conversational implicature 2.4 Embedded (conversational) implicature 68 2.4.1 What is an embedded implicature? 68 2.4.2 The main problem 69 2.4.3 Analyses 70 2.5 Conventional implicature 73 2.5.1 What is conventional implicature? 73 2.5.2 Properties of conventional implicature 75 2.6 Summary 78 Key concepts 78 Exercises and essay questions 79 Further readings 83 Presupposition 84 3.1 Phenomena of presupposition 85 3.1.1 What is presupposition? 85 3.1.2 Some representative examples of presupposition 86 3.2 Properties of presupposition 89 3.2.1 Constancy under negation 89 3.2.2 Defeasibility 90 3.2.3 The projection problem 95 3.3 Analyses 97 3.3.1 Three main issues 98 3.3.2 The filtering-satisfaction analysis 100 3.3.3 The cancellation analysis 104 3.3.4 The accommodation analysis 108 3.4 Summary 113 Key concepts 114 Exercises and essay questions 114 Further readings 117 66 CONTENTS Speech acts 118 4.1 Performatives versus constatives 119 4.1.1 The performative-constative dichotomy 119 4.1.2 The performative hypothesis 123 4.2 Austin’s felicity conditions on performatives 124 4.3 Locutionary, illocutionary, and perlocutionary acts 126 4.4 Searle’s felicity conditions on speech acts 130 4.5 Searle’s typology of speech acts 132 4.6 Indirect speech acts 135 4.6.1 What is an indirect speech act? 135 4.6.2 How is an indirect speech act analysed? 138 4.6.3 Why is an indirect speech act used? Some remarks on politeness and impoliteness 142 4.7 Speech acts and culture 152 4.7.1 Cross-cultural variation 152 4.7.2 Interlanguage variation 161 4.8 Summary 163 Key concepts 164 Exercises and essay topics 165 Further readings 168 Deixis 169 5.1 Preliminaries 171 5.1.1 Deictic versus non-deictic expression 171 5.1.2 Gestural versus symbolic use of a deictic expression 172 5.1.3 Deictic centre and deictic projection 173 5.2 Basic categories of deixis 174 5.2.1 Person deixis 174 5.2.2 Time deixis 182 5.2.3 Space deixis 187 5.3 Other categories of deixis 208 5.3.1 Social deixis 208 5.3.2 Discourse deixis 216 5.3.3 Emotional deixis 219 5.4 Summary 220 Key concepts 220 Exercises and essay questions 221 Further readings 223 ix 450 INDEX OF NAMES Green, M 70 Greenberg, J H 180 Grice, H P 3, 6, 9–10, 27–45, 48, 50–1, 67–71, 73–8, 80–1, 104, 107, 110, 112–13, 129, 139, 144, 167, 181, 194, 207, 250, 252, 255, 259, 267–8, 272, 274–5, 277, 281, 283–4, 288–96, 298, 301, 304–8, 311, 317–21, 323–4, 326–32, 334, 351–2, 354, 358, 360, 365–7, 369–71, 373–4 Grimshaw, J 370 Grodner, D 68 Gu, Y G 148 Habermas, J Haggan, M 156 Haiman, J 49, 356 Hall, A 311 Hamblin, J L 292 Hamilton, W Hanks, W 169–70, 173, 192, 195–6, 198, 200–3, 205, 222–3 Harley, H 177 Harnish, R 43, 54, 68, 129, 355 Harré, R 176, 178, 180, 208, 214 Harris, R A Harris, S G 153 Harrison, S P 178 Hasler-Barker, M 161, 163 Hassall, T 161–3 Hatfield, H 154 Haugh, M 148, 151 Haviland, J 210–11 Hawkins, J 45 Hawthorn, J 311 Headland, P 153 Heasley, B 15, 122, 130 Heath, J 203, 205 Heeschen, V 218 Hegel, G W F 49 Heim, I 102, 107–8, 111, 113, 231–2 Helmbrecht, J 212–13 Herbert, R 154 Higginbotham, J 365 Hill, C 190 Hill, D 206–7 Himmelmann, N 192 Hirschberg, J 54, 67 Hispanus, P 84 Ho, D 144 Ho, G 160 Ho, M L 148 Hobbs, J 268 Holdcroft, D 138 Holmes, J 156 Hong, W 160 Hopper, R 205 Horgan, T 285 Horn, L R 2–4, 8, 10, 12, 27, 33, 42–9, 53–6, 61–4, 72–8, 83–4, 94, 99–100, 108, 110, 139–41, 194, 282, 289, 302, 317, 322, 352, 354, 358, 360 Hottenroth, P.-M 207 Houck, N 161–2 House, J 159, 161–2 Hoza, J 149 Hu, H C 144 Huang, Y 1, 3, 7, 10–12, 18–19, 21, 30, 32, 44, 46, 49–51, 54, 58, 61–3, 66–7, 121, 159, 167, 175, 180, 194, 218, 235–6, 238, 244–5, 268, 274, 281, 288, 291, 293, 298–9, 304, 309, 311, 317, 319, 321, 325, 328, 332, 338–41, 343–4, 346–8, 350–2, 354–7, 362–70, 372–4 Huang, Y.-T 67 Hudson, J 153 Humboldt 370 Hurewitz, F 66 Hurford, J 15, 122, 130 Hwang, J 148 Hyman, L 363 Hyslop, C 197, 201 INDEX OF NAMES 451 Ide, S 143, 148 Imai, S 197–8, 200–2 Ingram, D 175 Ippolito, M 72 Israel, M 47–8 Krahmer, E 98 Kripke, S 97–8, 228–9, 234, 239, 241–2, 245–6, 250–2, 259, 263, 319 Kroon, F 246 Kuno, S 363 Jackendoff, R 256, 298 Jaggar, P J 198 Jamet, D 150 Janssen, T 95 Jee-Won, H 154 Jiang, X Y 148, 158 Jobert, M 150 Jucker, A H 151, 213 Jungbluth, K 197 Jurafsky, D 164 Lakoff, G 3, 74, 123, 140, 298 Lakoff, R 143 Lalitha Murthy, B 176, 373 Lam, B 242 Landman, F 107 Langacker, R 298 Langendoen, D T 95, 370 Lascarides, A 112 Lasnik, H 349, 372 Le Pair, R 161–2 Lee, C 154 Leech, G 40, 44, 143, 149, 157, 298 Lee-Wong, S M 148 Legendre, G 370 Leibniz, G W 230, 260 Leonard, R A 197 Lepore, E 4, 263, 308 Levinson, S C 1–2, 4, 7–8, 10, 12, 14, 29, 33–4, 38–9, 42–51, 54–5, 57–67, 71, 75–8, 83–4, 86, 93, 95, 98, 103–4, 108–9, 112–13, 119, 122–4, 126, 137–8, 143–4, 149, 151, 156–7, 167–9, 172–5, 177, 181–90, 193–5, 197–9, 202, 205, 211–13, 215–18, 221, 223–4, 243, 251, 271, 274–5, 290–3, 298–9, 301, 304–6, 318–20, 322–4, 327–34, 337, 340, 345, 348, 351, 353–4, 358, 361, 368, 373 Lewis, D 3, 108, 246, 364 Li, C 218 Li, W 158 Lin, Y L 155 Löbner, S 229, 248 Locher, M A 144–5, 150–1 Lorenzo-Dus, N 157, 160 Lust, B 204, 212 Lwanga-Lamn, J C 160 Kadar, D 148, 151 Kadmon, N 103, 108, 112 Kamp, H 232 Kant, I 2, 29, 189, 352, 368 Kaplan, D 169, 241, 250, 252, 262, 302, 312 Karttunen, L 74, 86, 92, 100–8, 117, 232, 237 Kasanga, L 160 Kasher, A 43, Kasper, G 159, 161–2 Katz, J 301 Kay, P 74 Keating, E 210 Keenan, E L 171, 173, 175, 178–80, 182–4, 187, 192–3, 195–9, 204–5, 208, 210, 214–15, 218, 223 Keenan, E O 42–3 Kempson, R 74, 98, 112 Kim, S.-H 367 King, J 70, 311, 322 Kita, S 172 Kölble, M 310 König, E 348, 356–7, 373 Korta, K 329 Koutlaki, S A 148 452 INDEX OF NAMES Lycan, W G 74, 98, 112 Lyons, J 119, 122, 127, 169–70, 173, 175, 183, 186, 196, 216, 224–5, 263, 292, 299, 334 McConnell-Ginet, S 89, 92 MacDonald, L 201 MacFarlane, J 309–10 McGinn, C 226 Machery, E 242 Majid, A 188, 190 Malotki, E 175, 195 Manning, H P 169, 192, 205, 207–8 Mao, L M 148 Margi, G 113 Marmaridou, S 98, 124, 181, 206, 208 Márquez-Reiter, R 160 Marti, G 241, 311 Martinet, A 49 Mary, C 199 Masuko, M 37 Mate, D 289 Matsumato, Yo 45 Matsumato, Yoshiko 148 Mattausch, J 370 Matthews, P H 298 Meibauer, J 37 Meini, C 286 Meira, S 197 Merin, A 68, 98 Mey, J 6, 80, 153, 174, 221 Mill, J S 10, 27, 226, 239, 241, 246 Miller, R A 155 Mills, S 148–9 Mithun, M 205 Mizutani, N 155 Mizutani, O 155 Moise, J 324–5 Montague, R 3, 228 Montalbetti, M 253 Moore, G E 34, 126, 365 Morgan, J L 139 Morris, C 2, 5–6, 299 Morris, R K 292 Mühlhäusler, P 176, 178, 180, 208, 214 Mursy, A 156 Musolino, J 292 Neale, S 274, 304 Nelson, G 157, 160 Nemo, F 300 Newton, I 189 Nguyen, T T M 160 Nicolle, S 38, 325 Noveck, I A 67–8, 292 Nunberg, G 169, 252–4, 256–8, 314 Nwoye, O 148 Occam 9, 44, 103, 250, 293, 328, 333 O’Driscoll, J 148 Ogiermann, E 142, 148 Ohasi, J 154 Olshtain, E 159, 162 Othman, N 157 Pan, Y L 148 Panizza, D 68 Papafragou, A 292 Parker, E 348 Peccei, J S 79, 166 Pedersen, J 154 Peirce, C Perrault, C R 164 Perry, J 311–12, 329, 364 Peters, S 74, 86, 100, 104 Peterson, E 160 Pickering, M J 255 Plank, F 361 Plato 340, 370 Platt, J 148 Popper, K 291 Portner, P 232, 234, 242, 246 Posner, R 299 Postal, P INDEX OF NAMES Potts, C 76 Pouscoulous, N 72 Predilli, S 309 Prince, A 370 Prucha, J Pustejovsky, J 255 Putnam, H 234, 241, 252, 290 Pylyshyn, Z 285 Qian, Y 158 Quine, W V O 252 Ramsay, F 247 Ray, T S 177, 348 Reboul, A 68 Recanati, F 3, 4, 7, 70–3, 129, 227, 256, 258–9, 276–8, 281, 298–301, 303–4, 307–14, 323–8, 330, 332–5, 337 Reesink, G P 217 Reinhart, T 343–4, 346, 355, 373 Reuland, E 12, 343–4, 346, 350–1, 355, 373 Reyle, U 112 Richard, M 324 Rieber, S 76 Ritter R, E 177 Roberts, C 17, 112 Rosaldo, M Z 152–3 Ross, J R 3, 123 Rothschild, D 229 Rue, Y.-J 160 Ruhi, S 156 Russell, Benjamin 72 Russell, Bertrand 3, 6, 84, 86, 98–9, 238, 240, 246–9, 263, 307, 318, 340 Ryle, G 3, 69 Sacks, H 244 Sadock, J M 39, 48, 123–5, 129–30, 132, 135–7, 140, 168 Saeed, J I 136, 198, 205 Safir, K 365 453 Salgado, E F 161, 163 Salmon, N 252, 304 Sandalo, F 203 Sauerland, U 67, 72 Saul, J 32–3, 289 Savic, M 163 Savin, H 95 Sbisà, M 118, 129 Schegloff, E 244–5 Schladt, M 356 Schlenker, P 100, 113, 365 Schneider, K P 149 Schöll, A 149 Schutz, A 269 Scollon, R 144 Scollon, S W 144 Searle, J R 3, 6–7, 119, 125, 128–35, 138–40, 142, 153, 163–4, 168, 227, 240, 307–8, 311 Segal, G 286 Sells, P 363 Servius 27 Seuren, P 98, 341 Shariati, M 154 Sharifian, F 156–7 Sharvit, Y 71 Shibatani, M 210, 212 Siebold, K 160 Sidnell, J 170, 172, 192, 194, 198, 205, 216, 218–20, 223 Siemund, P 348, 356–7, 373 Siewierska, A 177 Sifianou, M 142, 148, 156, 160 Sigurðsson, H 360 Simons, M 113 Sinha, A K 207 Slobin, D I 161 Smith, B 118, 263 Smith, N 286, 288 Smith, N K 352 Smith, P 288 Smolensky, P 370 454 INDEX OF NAMES Soames, S 84, 86, 89, 97, 104–5, 107–10, 112–13, 228 Spector, B 71–2 Sperber, D 4, 7, 21, 33–4, 67–8, 267–9, 271–5, 280–4, 286–91, 293, 296, 311, 329 Sperlich, D 367 Stalnaker, R C 2, 16, 86, 99–100, 104–5, 108, 110, 312, 364 Stanley, J 4, 70, 248, 256, 309, 311, 322 Stirling, L 363 Stone, T 288 Strawson, P 3, 6, 69, 84–5, 98–9, 108, 119, 125, 129, 227, 229, 247–9, 263, 307, 318 Strecker, I 148 Subbarao, K 176, 363, 373 Suszczyńska, M 148, 159 Szabó, Z G 248, 300, 304–5, 309, 311 Taavitsainen, I 151, 213 Takahashi, T 160, 162 Tang, C.-H 157 Tarski, A 3, 18, 307 Taylor, K 277, 311 Terkourafi, M 143, 150–1 Thomas, J 33, 80, 122, 125 Thomason, R 110 Thompson, S 218 Tienson, J 285 Tirassa, M 289 Tomasello, M 287 Traugott, E 63, 216 Travis, C 7, 308, 311 Trosborg, A 161, 162 Trudgill, P 178, 215 Turner, K 77, 300 Ueda, K 156 Urmson, J O 69 van der Sandt, R 97–8, 104, 107–8, 110–11 van Eijk, J 193 van Kuppevelt, J 54 van Mulken, D 160 van Rooij, R 72 van Tiel, B 71–3 Vanderveken, D 135, 139, 164 Verschueren, J 5–6 Viker, S 370 Vincente, B 317 Vognoli, G 193, 201 von Heusinger, K 77 Voorhoeve, C L 176, 180 Wali, K 363, 372 Walker, R 70 Walkinshaw, I 163 Ward, G 2, 4, 252, 254, 257–8 Watkins, L J 205 Watts, R 142–3, 148, 150–1 Weber, H 148 Weinbach, L 162 Weiner, M 39 Weizman, E 162 Welker, K 43 Wierzbicka, A 36, 140, 142, 153 Wilkins, D 206–7 Wilson, D 4, 7, 21, 33–4, 67, 70, 98, 113, 267–9, 271–5, 280–4, 287–91, 293, 296, 301, 311, 318, 329 Wilson, G 251 Wilson, J 156 Wittgenstein, L 3, 6, 34, 118, 240, 307 Wong, M 163 Yang, D F 157 Yu, M.-C 157 Yuen, L 154 Yule, G 124, 134 INDEX OF NAMES Zeevat, H 68, 74, 370 Zeitoun, E 204 Zeyrek, D 148, 154 Zhang, G 157, 160 Zhu, H 158 Ziff, P Zimmerman, T E 112 Zipf, G K 48–9 Zribi-Hertz, A 363, 372 Zwicky, A M 135–7, 181 455 Index of subjects absolute ranking (R) 145 abuse 125, 132, 166 accommodation 108–12, 375 global/de facto 110 intermediate 111 local/de jure 110 accommodation module 109 ad hoc concept construction 278–9, 375 adjacency pair 158–9 adjective interpretation 60–1 ambiguity 8, 61, 275, 305 lexical 8, 275, 305 syntactic/structural 8, 275 syntactic/structural–lexical 275 systematic 61 anaphor 10–13, 341–51 anaphora 9–13, 59, 235–8, 338–70, 375 bound-variable 235 bridging-cross reference 59, 237–8 E-type 236–7 general pattern of 353 identity of reference 235 identity of sense 235 possessive 347–8, 360–2 pronoun of ‘laziness’ 237 referential 235 revised neo-Gricean pragmatic apparatus for 354–7 revised neo-Gricean pragmatic theory of 10–13, 351–70 Andeutungen 73; see also conventional implicature antipresupposition 113 Atlas principle 112 audibility 200 Austinian typology of speech act 132 behabitive 132 commissive 132 exercitive 132 expositive 132 verdictive 132 availability principle 324–5, 328 ‘avoidance’ language 209–10, 215 bidirectional Optimality theory 68, 369–70 binding 10–13, 341–51, 358–9, 367–70 binding condition 11–12, 342–51, 358–9 A 11–12, 342–9, 358–9 B 11–12, 342–3, 345–9, 358–9 C 11–12, 349–50, 358–9 elimination of 12, 350–1 bridging-cross reference 59, 237–8 ‘brother-in-law’ language 209–10 charity 303 circumstance of evaluation 310 classical Gricean pragmatic theory 25–43, 288–93 cognitive/contextual effect 269 cognitive modularity 285–6 cognitive pragmatics theory 268 common ground 16–17, 106 completion 315 conceptual meaning 284 conditional perfection 59 conjunction buttressing 58–9 connectionism 285, 369–70 connotation 239 constative 119–23, 375 constitutive rule 131 INDEX OF SUBJECTS context 16–17, 40, 91–2, 100, 102, 104, 106, 293, 310, 302–3 of assessment 310 broad 303, 375 dynamic conception of 17 Gazdarian 106 general knowledge 16, 40, 91, 102, 104 global 100 linguistic/discourse 16, 40, 92 local 100 narrow 302–3, 378 physical 16 static conception of 17 type 293 of use 310 context change potential 108 context dependence 302–3 context independence 302–3 contextual implication 269–71 contextualism 307–11 moderate 307 non-indexical 309 radical/full-fledged 307 conventional implicature 19, 73, 75–7, 90, 104, 375 definition of 73 properties of 75–7 versus conversational implicature 75–6 conventional meaning 301–2 conversation analysis 158–9 conversational implicature 12, 27–73, 75–7, 91–2, 104–5, 243–5, 319, 327–9, 354–67, 375–8 audience 32 calculability of 41 cancellability/defeasiblity of 39–40, 64–6, 69 definition of 31–2 generalized versus particularized 38, 377–8 457 indeterminacy of 42–3 interaction of 64–6 near 33 non-conventionality of 41 non-detachability of 40–1 and presupposition 91–2, 104–5 properties of 39–43, 75–6 reinforceability of 41 short-circuited 139 type 43–64 universality of 41–2 utterer 33 versus conventional implicature 75–6 conversational implicatureF 33–7, 376 conversational implicatureO 33–7, 376 conversational impliciture 315–18, 330–1, 376 conversational postulate 140 co-operative principle 29–30, 42–3, 376 Cross-Cultural Speech Act Realization Project (CCSARP) 159–60 de re 364 de se 364–6, 376 defeasibility 39–40, 64, 66, 69, 90–5, 376 explicit 39 implicit 40 deferential 216 deferred equative 257–8 deferred ostension 252–3 deferred reference 252–9 definite description 228–30, 246–52 complete 229 incomplete 229 deictic centre/origo 173 deictic adverb of space 192–203 deictic adverb of time 183–6 deictic affix 215 deictic clitic 215 deictic directional 204–7 deictic expression/deictic 171–3, 376 458 INDEX OF SUBJECTS deictic expression/deictic (cont.) gestural use of 172–3 symbolic use of 172–3 versus non-deictic expression/ non-deictic 171–2 deictic gesture 200 deictic name of day 184–5 deictic particle 215 deictic presentative 192 deictic projection/transposition 173–4 deictic simultaneity 182–3 deictically marked third-person pronoun 203–4 deixis 169–220, 376, 379–80 accessibility approach to 170 basic categories of 174–207 discourse/text/textual 216–18, 376 emotional 219–20, 376 ethnographic/social position of 170 interactionist position of 170 person 174–81, 379 social 208–16, 380 socio-person 208 space/spatial/place/local/ locational 187–207, 380 spatialist view of 170 time 182–7, 380 denotation 239 descriptive fallacy 119 descriptive negation 55 distal versus proximal 193–8 distance 192–8 distance-oriented system 195–7 division of pragmatic labour 49–50, 64–6 donkey anaphora/pronoun/ sentence 237 Einstein’s Chopper elevation 201–2 embedded (conversational) implicature 68–73, 322–3, 376 continuity hypothesis of 72 conventionalism of 71 definition of 68–9 lexical conventionalism of 71 pragmatic analysis of 72–3 syntax-based conventionalism of 71 embedded implicature hypothesis 70 emphaticness/contrastiveness 361–2 empty category/zero anaphor/ gap 10–11, 180–1, 354, 366–7 entailment 19–21, 39, 71, 94,104–5, 377 downward 20–1 scalar/pragmatic 48 soft 71 upward 20–1 etic–emic distinction 147, 149 etiolation 152 exclusive ‘we’ 177–8 expansion 314, 316 experimental pragmatics 38, 67–8, 72, 113, 242, 255, 292, 324–5, 328 explicature/explicit content 275–80, 311, 329, 332–3, 377 basic 280 high-level/order 279–80 face 144–9, 377–9 group 148 individual/self 148 negative 144, 378 positive 144, 379 face-threatening act (FTA) 145 avoidance strategy 146–7 calculation of the weightiness of 145 face-saving act 146 felicity condition on speech act 124–5, 131–2, 377 essential condition 132 preparatory condition 131–2 propositional content condition 131 sincerity condition 132 INDEX OF SUBJECTS File Change Semantics 232 form of address 181, 214–15 frame of spatial reference/spatial coordinate system 187–91 absolute 188–91 intrinsic 187–91 relative 188–91 frame-based inference 59 free enrichment 72, 277–8, 313, 377 Fregean principle of compositionality 95 generative semantics geographic parameter 202 geometric parameter 201 Grice’s circle 291, 332, 377 hedge 30–1 Hirschberg scale 53–4 honorific 209–10 addressee 209 bystander 209–10 referent 209 Horn scale, see Q-/Horn scale humiliative 216 I-principle/implicature 50, 57–62, 64–6, 69–70, 243–5, 321–3, 354–67, 377 iconicity 35, 50, 362 ideal language philosophy 2–3 illocutionary act 128–9, 377 intentional approach to 129 interactional approach to 129 normative approach to 129 illocutionary act potential (IAP) 128–9 illocutionary force/point 128, 133–5 illocutionary force indicating device (IFID) 128 impersonal 171 implicature cancellation procedure 66 impoliteness 149–51 affective 150 coercive 150 459 definition of 149–50 entertainment 150 first-order 150 second-order 150 inclusive ‘we’ 177–8 indexical expression/indexical 169 indexicalism 309 hidden 309 Indirect Quotation (IQ) test 330 indirect speech act 59, 135–52, 377 conventionality of 138–40 idiom model of 140–1 inferential model of 140 inference to stereotype 59 innateness hypothesis 340, 368 institutionalized performative/speech act 121, 134, 152–3 interaction of Q-, I- and Mprinciples 64–6 interlanguage 161 intrusive construction 321–3, 377 Leibniz’s law 230 lexical cloning 63 lexical narrowing 60 linguistic underdeterminacy thesis 7–9, 272, 300–1, 378 literal force hypothesis 137 local/locational deixis, see deixis, space locutionary act 127–8, 378 logical positivism 119 logical problem of language acquisition 340 logophoricity 362–3, 378 long-distance reflexivization 343–4, 347, 359–61, 378 loose use 126, 279 M-principle/implicature 50, 62–6, 69, 319, 354, 361–6, 378 maxims of conversation 29–31, 33–7, 378 flouting/exploiting 31, 35–7 460 INDEX OF SUBJECTS maxims of conversation (cont.) Manner/clarity 30–1 observing 30, 33–5 opting out of 30–1 Quality/sincerity/truth/ truthfulness 29–31 Quantity/informativeness 30–1 Relation 30–1 and speaker 30–1 violating 30 meaningnn 129 medial 195 membership categorization 59 metalinguistic negation 54–7, 378 minimalist program 341, 369 mirror maxim 59 misfire 125, 166 modified Occam’s razor 9, 378 modulation 72 Moore’s paradox 34, 126 ‘mother-in-law’ language 209–10 motion affix, morpheme and particle 204–5 motion verb 205–7 negative raising 60 negative strengthening 60 neo-Gricean pragmatic theory 43–73, 288–93, 311–33, 351–70 neural network, see connectionism non-conventional meaning 301–2 non-truth-conditional meaning 300–1 noun–noun compound 60 null subject/pro-drop 180–1 obviation 175 Occam’s eraser 9, 378 Occam’s razor 9, 44, 103, 328, 378 optimal relevance 273 presumption of 273 Optimality theory (OT) 68, 369–70 bidirectional 68, 369–70 ordinary language philosophy 2–3 ostensive-inferential communication 272–3 parallel distributed model, see connectionism performative 119–27, 379 collaborative 125 explicit 121, 126–7 felicity condition on 124–5 implicit 121, 126–7 performative hypothesis 123–4 performative verb 121 perlocutionary act/effect 129–30, 379 person-oriented system 195–7 place deixis, see deixis, space politeness 44, 142–9, 379 as adherence to politeness maxims 144 conversational contract model of 143 conversational maxim model of 44, 143 discursive/post-modern model of 143 face-saving model of 143–9 negative 144–7 positive 144–7 social norm model of 143 social practice model of 143 as social rules/norms 143 as strategic face management 144 politeness principle 44 possessive construction 60 possible world(s) semantics 228 power principle 71 pragmatic disorder 79 pragmatic intrusion 301, 303–11, 379 pragmatic module 285 pragmatic paradox 157–8 pragmatic process 72, 312–14 primary 72, 312–14 secondary 312 pragmatically enriched said 311–14, 330 pragmatics 1–370, 379 INDEX OF SUBJECTS Anglo-American versus European Continental school of thought 4–7 and cognition 267–94 cognitive 268 component versus perspective view of 4–7 computational 268 definition of 1–2, experimental 38, 67–8, 72, 113, 242, 255, 292, 324–5, 328 frozen 368 history of 2–4 and semantics 9–10, 297–334 Soviet and East European tradition of and syntax 10–13, 338–70 predicate meaning/reflexivizing strategy correlation 357 preference for global accommodation (PGA) 111 presumptive meaning 292 presupposition 84–114, 379 accommodation analysis of 108–12 actual 104–8 anti 113 cancellability/defeasibility of 90–5 cancellation analysis of 104–8 constancy under negation 89, 375 conventional implicature analysis of 104 cumulative hypothesis of 95 definition of 85–6, 89–90 existential 87–8 explicit suspension of 94 factive 86, 88 failure 98 filter 100–1, 106 filtering-satisfaction (Karttunen– Stalnaker) analysis of 100–4 hole 100–1, 106 implicated 113 maximize 113 461 (neo-)/(post-)Gricean pragmatic analysis of 112–13 neo-Strawsonian semantic analysis of 98 overt denial of 93–94 plug 100–1 potential 104–8 pragmatic/conversational/speaker/ utterance 85 projection problem 95–7, 379 properties of 89–95 semantic/conventional/sentence/ statement 85 semantico-pragmatic 86 theoretical issues of 98–100 triggering problem of 99 ‘utterance’ 86 and verbs of saying, believing, and positional attitudes 94–5 presupposition cancellation procedure 106 presupposition trigger 86–9 aspectual/change of state predicate 86–8 cleft sentence 87, 89 constructional/structural 88–9 counterfactual conditional 87–9 definite description 86–9 emotive factive predicate 86–8 epistemic/cognitive factive predicate 86–8 implicative predicate 87–8 iterative 87–8 lexical 88 pseudo-cleft sentence 87–9 quantifier 87–8 temporal clause 87–8 principle of relevance 268–73, 375 cognitive 268–71 communicative 271–3, 375 procedural meaning 284 processing effort 269–71 462 INDEX OF SUBJECTS pronominal 10 pronoun 174–8, 234 gender of 178–80 number of 176–8 person of 175–6 proper name 227–8, 238–46 causal (chain) theory of 241–2 cluster view of 240–1 description theory of 239–41 direct reference theory of 241–6 partially descriptive 228 proper name narrowing 60 proposition 13–15, 18, 379 propositional attitude 230 propositional attitude verb 230 propositional content 14 propositional radical 315, 331 Q-/Horn scale 45–8, 354, 358, 379 negative 46–7 positive 45–6 Q-implicature 12, 44–57, 64–73, 318–23, 327–9, 354–5, 358–9 Q-alternate 52–4 Q-clausal 51–2, 64–6 Q-ordered alternate 52–4 Q-scalar 12, 44–57, 64–73, 318–23, 327–9, 354–5, 358–9 Q-unordered alternate 52–4 Q-principle 12, 44–5, 48–51, 64–6, 358, 379–80 Q-scalar implicature 12, 44–57, 64–73, 318–23, 327–9, 354–5, 358–9 contextual inference theory of 67–8 default inference theory of 67–8 epistemic strength of 67 structural inference theory of 67–8 quasi-indicator 364 r-implicated conclusion 281 r-implicated premise 281 r-implicature/implicit content 280–3 strong versus weak 283 R-principle 48–9 rank order 54 rationality 145 reference 224–60, 380 chain of 231 deferred 252–9 definite 230 deictic 233 demonstrative 233 discourse 231 generic 233 indefinite 231 indexical 233 pragmatic definition of 226–7 semantic 250–2 semantic definition of 226 speaker’s 250–2 r[eferential]-expression 11–12, 342–3, 349–50 referential versus attributive 249–50 referentially opaque context 230 referring expression 225, 227–34, 246–52, 380 common noun 234 definite description 228–30, 238–52 demonstrative 233 demonstrative description 233 generic NP 232 indefinite description 231–2 natural kind term 234 possessive NP 232 pronoun 234 proper name 227–8, 238–46 quantificational NP 232 relative power (P) 145 relevance 268–73, 375 cognitive principle of 268–71 communicative principle of 271–3, 375 optimal 273 relevance theory 268–94, 311, 329, 380 INDEX OF SUBJECTS versus Gricean/neo-Gricean theory 288–93 Revised Disjoint Reference Presumption (RDRP) 355 rigid–non-rigid designation 228 saturation 276–7, 312–14, 380 scope principle 325–7, 380 Searlean typology of speech act 132–5 commissive 133–5 declaration/declarative 134–5 directive 133, 135 expressive 134–5 representative/assertive 133, 135 semantic minimalism 307–11 insensitive semantics 308 minimal semantics 308 radical semantic minimalism 308–9 semantic relativism 310 semantic transfer 314, 380 semifactive 92 sense 239 sentence 13, 380 sentence-meaning 13 sentence-type-meaning 292 semiotics side 202–3 social deixis 208–16 absolute versus relational 208–9 space deixis 187–207, 380 social distance (D) 145 speaker-meaning 14 specialization of spatial term 60 speech act 59, 124–32, 135–8, 152–61, 380 Austinian typology of 132 cross-cultural variation in 152–61 direct 135–8, 376 direction of fit 133–5 directness/indirectness 159–61 expressed psychological state 133–5 felicity condition on 124–5, 130–2 illocutionary 126–30 indirect 59, 135–8 463 interlanguage variation in 161–3 locutionary 126–30 perlocutionary 126–30 Searlean typology of 132–5 speech act idiom 140–1 speech act pluralism 308 speech act theory 118–64 versus Gricean/neo-Gricean theory 139 stance 203 strengthening 313 T/V distinction 211–13 tense 186–7 linguistic 186–7 metalinguistic 186–7 time 182–3 coding 182–3 distal 183 proximal 183 receiving 182–3 time unit 182, 185–6 calendrical 182, 185–6 non-calendrical 182, 185–6 truth condition 17–19, 380 truth-conditional meaning 300–1 truth-conditional narrowing 73 truth-conditional pragmatics 301, 307 truth value 17–18, 381 truth-value gap 99 unarticulated constituent (UC) 311–12, 381 upper-bounded construal (UBC) 73 uptake 125 utterance 13, 381 utterance-meaning 13–14 utterance-token-meaning 292 utterance-type-meaning 292 verificationist thesis 119 visibility 199–201 464 INDEX OF SUBJECTS vocative 181 address 181 call/summon 181 what is said 31–2, 274–5, 304–7, 324–5, 329–33 versus what is communicated/ conveyed/ meant 31–2, 305 versus what is (conversationally) implicated 31–2, 274–5, 304–7, 324–5, 329–33 world knowledge 8, 16, 39–40, 91, 102, 104, 106, 170, 366–67, 306 Zipfian economy 48–50 ... Introduction 1.1 What is pragmatics? 1.2 Why pragmatics? 1.3 Some basic notions in semantics and pragmatics 13 1.4 Organization of the book 21 1.1 What is pragmatics? 1.1.1 A definition Pragmatics is one... issues of the Journal of Pragmatics, Pragmatics, and Intercultural Pragmatics, and entries in Verschueren et al.’s 1995 Handbook of Pragmatics and its periodic updates) Thus, pragmatics in the Continental...OXFORD TEXTBOOKS IN LINGUISTICS Pragmatics Second edition OXFORD TEXTBOOKS IN LINGUISTICS PUBLISHED Pragmatics Second edition by Yan Huang Compositional Semantics An Introduction