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ASM INTERNATIONAL ® Publication Information and Contributors Powder Metal Technologies and Applications was published in 1998 as Volume 7 of ASM Handbook. The Volume was prepared under the direction of the ASM Handbook Committee. Editorial Advisory Board • Peter W. Lee The Timken Co. • Yves Trudel Quebec Metal Powders Limited • Ronald Iacocca The Pennsylvania State University • Randall M. German The Pennsylvania State University • B. Lynn Ferguson Deformation Control Technology, Inc. • William B. Eisen Crucible Research • Kenneth Moyer Magna Tech P/M Labs • Deepak Madan F.W. Winter Inc. • Howard Sanderow Management and Engineering Technologies Contributors and Reviewers • Stanley Abkowitz Dynamet Technology • Samuel Allen Massachusetts Institute of Technology • Terry Allen • David E. Alman U.S. Department of Energy Albany Research Center • Sundar Atre Pennsylvania State University • Christopher Avallone International Specialty Products • Satyajit Banerjee Breed Technologies Inc. • J. Banhart Fraunhofer Institute • Daniel Banyash Dixon Ticonderoga Company • Tim Bell DuPont Company • David Berry OMG Americas • Ram Bhagat Pennsylvania State University • Pat Bhave Thermal Technology Inc. • Sherri Bingert Los Alamos National Laboratory • Jack Bonsky Advanced Manufacturing Center Cleveland State University • Robert Burns Cincinnati Incorporated • Donald Byrd Wyman Gordon Forgings • John Carson Jenike and Johanson Inc. • Francois Chagnon Quebec Metal Powders • Tom Chirkot Patterson-Kelley Company Harsco Corporation • Stephen Claeys Pyron Corporation • John Conway Crucible Compaction Metals • Kevin Couchman Sinter Metals Inc. Pennsylvania Pressed Metals Division • F. Robert Dax Concurrent Technologies Corporation • Amedeo deRege Domfer Metal Powders • R. Doherty Drexel University • Ian Donaldson Presmet • Carl Dorsch Latrobe Steel Company • John Dunkley Atomising Systems Ltd. • William Eisen Crucible Research • Mark Eisenmann Moft Metallurgical Corporation • Victor Ettel Inco Technical Services Limited • Daniel Eylon University of Dayton • Zhigang Fang Smith International • B. Lynn Ferguson Deformation Control Technology Inc. • Howard Ferguson Metal Powder Products Inc. • Richard Fields National Institute of Standards and Technology • Gavin Freeman Sherritt International Corporation • Sam Froes University of Idaho • Randall German Pennsylvania State University • Herbert Giesche Alfred University New York State College of Ceramics • Howard Glicksman DuPont Company • Kinyon Gorton Caterpillar Inc. • Mark Greenfield Kennametal Inc. • Joanna Groza University of California at Davis • E.Y. Gutmanas Technion--Israel Institute of Technology • Richard Haber Rutgers University • Jack A. Hammill, Jr. Hoeganaes Corporation • Francis Hanejko Hoeganaes Corporation • John Hebeisen Bodycotte, IMT • Ralph Hershberger UltraFine Powder Technology Inc. • Gregory Hildeman Alcoa Technical Center • Craig Hudson Sinter Metals Inc. • Ronald Iacocca Pennsylvania State University • M.I. Jaffe • W. Brian James Hoeganaes Corporation • John Johnson Howmet Corporation • Brian Kaye Laurentian University • Pat Kenkel Burgess-Norton Manufacturing Company • Mark Kirschner BOC Gases • Erhard Klar • Richard Knight Drexel University • Walter Knopp P/M Engineering & Consulting • John Kosco Keystone Powdered Metal Company • Sriram Krishnaswami MARC Analysis Research Corporation • David Krueger BASF Corporation • Howard Kuhn Concurrent Technologies Corporation • Chaman Lall Sinter Metals Inc. • Larry Lane Brush Wellman Inc. • Alan Lawley Drexel University • Jai-Sung Lee Hanyang University • Peter Lee The Timken Company • Louis W. Lherbier Dynamet Inc. • Deepak Madan F.W. Winter Inc. & Company • Craig Madden Madden Studios • Gary Maddock Carpenter Technology Corporation • Dan Marantz Flame Spray Industries Inc. • Alain Marcotte U.S. Bronze Powders • James Marder Brush Wellman • Millard S. Masteller Carpenter Technology Corporation • Ian Masters Sherritt International Corporation • Paul E. Matthews • Brian J. McTiernan Crucible Research Center • Steve Miller Nuclear Metals Inc. • Wojciech Misiolek Lehigh University • John Moll Crucible Research Center • In-Hyung Moon Hanyang University • Ronald Mowry C.I. Hayes Inc. • Kenneth Moyer Magna Tech P/M Labs • Charles Muisener Loctite Corporation • Alexander Sergeevich Mukasyan University of Notre Dame • Zuhair Munir University of California at Davis • Anil Nadkarni OMG Americas • K.S. Narasimhan Hoeganaes Corporation • Ralph Nelson DuPont Company • Bernard North Kennametal Inc. • W. Glen Northcutt Lockheed Martin • Scott Nushart ATM Corporation • James Oakes Teledyne Advanced Materials • Barbara O'Neal AVS Inc. • Lanny Pease III Powder Tech Associates Inc. • Kenneth Pinnow • Michael Pohl Horiba Laboratory Products • John Porter Cincinnati Inc. • Peter Price • Tom Prucher Burgess-Norton Manufacturing Company • David Pye Pye Metallurgical Consulting Inc. • Thomas Reddoch Ametek Inc. • John Reinshagen Ametek Inc. • Melvin Renowden Air Liquide America • Frank Rizzo Crucible Compaction Metals • Prasan Samal OMG Americas • Howard Sanderow Management and Engineering Technologies • G. Sathyanarayanan Lehigh University • Barbara Shaw Pennsylvania State University • Haskell Sheinberg Los Alamos National Laboratory • George Shturtz Carbon City Products • John Simmons B.I. Thortex • Ronald Smith Drexel University • Richard Speaker Air Liquide America • Robert Sprague Consultant • Victor Straub Keystone Carbon Company • C. Suryanarayana Colorado School of Mines • Bruce Sutherland Westaim Corporation • Rajiv Tandon Phillips Origen Powder Metallurgy • Pierre Taubenblat Promet Associates • Mark Thomason Sinterite Furnace Division Gasbarre Products Inc. • Juan Trasorras Federal Mogul • Yves Trudel Quebec Metal Powders Limited • John Tundermann Inco Alloys International Inc. • Christian Turner Hasbro Inc. • William Ullrich AcuPowder Int. • Arvind Varma University of Notre Dame • Jack T. Webster Webster-Hoff Corporation • Bruce Weiner Brookhaven Instruments • Greg West National Sintered Alloys • Donald White Metal Powder Industries Federation • George White BOC Gases • Eric Whitney Pennsylvania State University • Jeff Wolfe Kennametal Inc. • John Wood University of Nottingham • C. Fred Yolton Crucible Materials • Antonios Zavaliangos Drexel University • Robert Zimmerman Arburg Inc. Foreword In recognition of the ongoing development and growth of powder metallurgy (P/M) materials, methods, and applications, ASM International offers the new Volume 7 of ASM Handbook. Powder Metal Technologies and Applications is a completely revised and updated edition of Powder Metallurgy, Volume 7 of the 9th Edition Metals Handbook, published in 1984. This new volume provides comprehensive updates that reflect the continuing improvements in traditional P/M technologies as well as significant new coverage of emerging P/M materials and manufacturing methods. The ASM Handbook Committee, the editors, the authors, and the reviewers have collaborated to produce a book that meets the high technical standards of the ASM Handbook series. In addition to in-depth articles on production, testing and characterization, and consolidation of powders, the new volume expands coverage on the performance of P/M materials, part shaping methods, secondary operations, and advanced areas of engineering research such as process modeling. This extensive coverage is designed to foster increased awareness of the current status and potential of P/M technologies. To all who contributed toward the completion of this task, we extend our sincere thanks. Alton D. Romig, Jr. President, ASM International Michael J. DeHaemer Managing Director, ASM International Preface On behalf of the ASM Handbook Committee, it is a pleasure to introduce this fully revised and updated edition of Volume 7, Powder Metal Technologies and Applications as part of the ASM Handbook series. Since the first publication of Volume 7 in 1984 as part of the 9th Edition Metals Handbook, substantial new methods, technologies, and applications have occurred in powder metallurgy. These developments reflect the continuing growth of powder metallurgy (P/M) as a technology for net-shape fabrication, new materials, and innovative manufacturing processes and engineering practices. Net-shape or near-net-shape fabrication is a key objective in many P/M applications. Many factors influence the economics and performance of P/M fabrication, and new methods and process improvements are constantly considered and developed. In this regard, the new Volume 7 provides completely updated information on several emerging technologies for powder shaping and consolidation. Examples include all new articles on powder injection molding, binder assisted extrusion, warm compaction, spray forming, powder extrusion, pneumatic isostatic forging, field activated sintering, cold sintering, and the consolidation of ultrafine and nanocrystalline materials. New articles also cover process modeling of injection molding, isostatic pressing, and rigid die compaction. Traditional press-and-sinter fabrication and high-density consolidation remain the major topic areas in the new Volume 7. This coverage includes new articles in several practical areas such as resin impregnation, dimensional control, machining, welding, heat treatment, and metallography of P/M materials. The traditional processes of rigid die compaction and sintering are also covered extensively with several updated articles on major production factors such as tooling, die design, compressibility and compaction, sintering practices, and atmosphere control. An overview article, "Powder Shaping and Consolidation Technologies," also compares and summarizes the alternatives and factors that can influence the selection of a P/M manufacturing method. Coverage is also expanded on high-density consolidation and high- performance P/M materials such as powder forged steels. Multiple articles on powder production and characterization methods have also been revised or updated in several key areas. The article on atomization is fully revised from the previous edition, and several new articles have been added to the Section "Metal Powder Production and Characterization." In particular, the new article by T. Allen, "Powder Sampling and Classification," is a key addition that provides essential information for accurate characterization of particle size distributions. The variability of sieve analysis is also covered in more detail in this new Volume. The new Volume 7 also provides detailed performance and processing information on a wide range of advanced and conventional P/M materials. Ferrous P/M materials are covered in several separate articles, and more detailed information on corrosion, wear, fatigue, and mechanical properties are discussed in separate articles. New articles also provide information on several advanced materials such as aluminum-base composites and reactive-sintered intermetallics. This extensive volume would not have been possible without the guidance of the section editors and the dedicated efforts of the contributing authors. I would also like to thank Erhard Klar for organizing the previous edition, which formed the core for the structure of the new edition. Finally, special thanks are extended to ASM staff--particularly to project editor Steve Lampman--for their dedicated efforts in developing and producing this Volume. Peter W. Lee The Timken Company Member, ASM Handbook Committee General Information Officers and Trustees of ASM International (1997-1998) Officers • Alton D. Romig, Jr. President and Trustee Sandia National Laboratories • Hans H. Portisch Vice President and Trustee Krupp VDM Austria GmbH • Michael J. DeHaemer Secretary and Managing Director ASM International • W. Raymond Cribb Treasurer Brush Wellman Inc. • George Krauss Immediate Past President Colorado School of Mines Trustees • Nicholas F. Fiore Carpenter Technology Corporation • Gerald G. Hoeft Caterpillar Inc. • Jennie S. Hwang H-Technologies Group Inc. • Thomas F. McCardle Kolene Corporation • Bhakta B. Rath U.S. Naval Research Laboratory • C. (Ravi) Ravindran Ryerson Polytechnic University • Darrell W. Smith Michigan Technological University • Leo G. Thompson Lindberg Corporation • James C. Williams GE Aircraft Engines Members of the ASM Handbook Committee (1997-1998) • Michelle M. Gauthier (Chair 1997-; Member 1990-) Raytheon Electronic Systems • Craig V. Darragh (Vice Chair 1997-; Member 1989-) The Timken Company • Bruce P. Bardes (1993-) Materials Technology Solutions Company • Rodney R. Boyer (1982-1985; 1995-) Boeing Commercial Airplane Group • Toni M. Brugger (1993-) Carpenter Technology Corporation • R. Chattopadhyay (1996-) Consultant • Rosalind P. Cheslock (1994-) • Aicha Elshabini-Riad (1990-) Virginia Polytechnic Institute & State University • Henry E. Fairman (1993-) MQS Inspection Inc. • Michael T. Hahn (1995-) Northrop Grumman Corporation • Larry D. Hanke (1994-) Materials Evaluation and Engineering Inc. • Jeffrey A. Hawk (1997-) U.S. Department of Energy • Dennis D. Huffman (1982-) The Timken Company • S. Jim Ibarra, Jr. (1991-) Amoco Corporation • Dwight Janoff (1995-) FMC Corporation • Paul J. Kovach (1995-) Stress Engineering Services Inc. • Peter W. Lee (1990-) The Timken Company • William L. Mankins (1989-) • Mahi Sahoo (1993-) CANMET • Wilbur C. Simmons (1993-) Army Research Office • Karl P. Staudhammer (1997-) Los Alamos National Laboratory • Kenneth B. Tator (1991-) KTA-Tator Inc. • Malcolm C. Thomas (1993-) Allison Engine Company • George F. Vander Voort (1997-) Buehler Ltd. • Jeffrey Waldman (1995-) Drexel University • Dan Zhao (1996-) Essex Group Inc. Previous Chairmen of the ASM Handbook Committee • R.J. Austin (1992-1994) (Member 1984-) • L.B. Case (1931-1933) (Member 1927-1933) • T.D. Cooper (1984-1986) (Member 1981-1986) • E.O. Dixon (1952-1954) (Member 1947-1955) • R.L. Dowdell (1938-1939) (Member 1935-1939) • J.P. Gill (1937) (Member 1934-1937) • J.D. Graham (1966-1968) (Member 1961-1970) • J.F. Harper (1923-1926) (Member 1923-1926) • C.H. Herty, Jr. (1934-1936) (Member 1930-1936) • D.D. Huffman (1986-1990) (Member 1982-) • J.B. Johnson (1948-1951) (Member 1944-1951) • L.J. Korb (1983) (Member 1978-1983) • R.W.E. Leiter (1962-1963) (Member 1955-1958, 1960-1964) • G.V. Luerssen (1943-1947) (Member 1942-1947) • G.N. Maniar (1979-1980) (Member 1974-1980) • W.L. Mankins (1994-1997) (Member 1989-) • J.L. McCall (1982) (Member 1977-1982) • W.J. Merten (1927-1930) (Member 1923-1933) • D.L. Olson (1990-1992) (Member 1982-1988, 1989-1992) • N.E. Promisel (1955-1961) (Member 1954-1963) • G.J. Shubat (1973-1975) (Member 1966-1975) • W.A. Stadtler (1969-1972) (Member 1962-1972) • R. Ward (1976-1978) (Member 1972-1978) • M.G.H. Wells (1981) (Member 1976-1981) • D.J. Wright (1964-1965) (Member 1959-1967) Staff ASM International staff who contributed to the development of the Volume included Steven R. Lampman, Project Editor; Grace M. Davidson, Manager of Handbook Production; Bonnie R. Sanders, Copy Editing Manager; Alexandra B. Hoskins, Copy Editor; Randall L. Boring, Production Coordinator; and Kathleen S. Dragolich, Production Coordinator. Editorial assistance was provided by Amy E. Hammel and Anita D. Fill. The Volume was prepared under the direction of Scott D. Henry, Assistant Director of Reference Publications, and William W. Scott, Jr., Director of Technical Publications. Conversion to Electronic Files ASM Handbook, Volume 7, Powder Metal Technologies and Applications was converted to electronic files in 1999. The conversion was based on the first printing (1998). No substantive changes were made to the content of the Volume, but some minor corrections and clarifications were made as needed. ASM International staff who contributed to the conversion of the Volume included Sally Fahrenholz-Mann, Bonnie Sanders, Marlene Seuffert, Gayle Kalman, Scott Henry, Robert Braddock, Alexandra Hoskins, and Erika Baxter. The electronic version was prepared under the direction of William W. Scott, Jr., Technical Director, and Michael J. DeHaemer, Managing Director. Copyright Information (for Print Volume) Copyright © 1998 by ASM International All rights reserved No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the written permission of the copyright owner. First printing, December 1998 This book is a collective effort involving hundreds of technical specialists. It brings together a wealth of information from world-wide sources to help scientists, engineers, and technicians solve current and long-range problems. Great care is taken in the compilation and production of this Volume, but it should be made clear that NO WARRANTIES, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING, WITHOUT LIMITATION, WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE, ARE GIVEN IN CONNECTION WITH THIS PUBLICATION. Although this information is believed to be accurate by ASM, ASM cannot guarantee that favorable results will be obtained from the use of this publication alone. This publication is intended for use by persons having technical skill, at their sole discretion and risk. Since the conditions of product or material use are outside of ASM's control, ASM assumes no liability or obligation in connection with any use of this information. No claim of any kind, whether as to products or information in this publication, and whether or not based on negligence, shall be greater in amount than the purchase price of this product or publication in respect of which damages are claimed. THE REMEDY HEREBY PROVIDED SHALL BE THE EXCLUSIVE AND SOLE REMEDY OF BUYER, AND IN NO EVENT SHALL EITHER PARTY BE LIABLE FOR SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES WHETHER OR NOT CAUSED BY OR RESULTING FROM THE NEGLIGENCE OF SUCH PARTY. As with any material, evaluation of the material under enduse conditions prior to specification is essential. Therefore, specific testing under actual conditions is recommended. Nothing contained in this book shall be construed as a grant of any right of manufacture, sale, use, or reproduction, in connection with any method, process, apparatus, product, composition, or system, whether or not covered by letters patent, copyright, or trademark, and nothing contained in this book shall be construed as a defense against any alleged infringement of letters patent, copyright, or trademark, or as a defense against liability for such infringement. Comments, criticisms, and suggestions are invited, and should be forwarded to ASM International. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data (for Print Volume) ASM handbook. Vols. 1-2 have title: Metals handbook. Includes bibliographical references and indexes. Contents: v. 1. Properties and selection--irons, steels, and high-performance alloys--v. 2. Properties and selection-- nonferrous alloys and special-purpose materials--[etc.]--v. 7. Powder metal technologies and applications 1. Metals--Handbooks, manuals, etc. 2. Metal-work-- Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. ASM International. Handbook Committee. II. Metals Handbook. TA459.M43 1990 620.1'6 90-115 SAN 204-7586 ISBN 0-87170-387-4 History of Powder Metallurgy Revised by Donald G. White, Metal Powder Industries Federation and APMI International Introduction POWDER METALLURGY has been called a lost art. Unlike clay and other ceramic materials, the art of molding and firing practical or decorative metallic objects was only occasionally applied during the early stages of recorded history. Sintering of metals was entirely forgotten during the succeeding centuries, only to be revived in Europe at the end of the 18th century, when various methods of platinum powder production were recorded (Table 1). Table 1 Major historical developments in powder metallurgy Date Development Origin 3000 B.C. "Sponge iron" for making tools Egypt, Africa, India A.D. 1200 Cementing platinum grains South America (Incas) 1781 Fusible platinum-arsenic alloy France, Germany 1790 Production of platinum-arsenic chemical vessels commercially France 1822 Platinum powder formed into solid ingot France 1826 High-temperature sintering of platinum powder compacts on a commercial basis Russia 1829 Wollaston method of producing compact platinum from platinum sponge (basis of modern P/M technique) England 1830 Sintering compacts of various metals Europe 1859 Platinum fusion process 1870 Patent for bearing materials made from metal powders (forerunner of self-lubricating bearings) United States 1878-1900 Incandescent lamp filaments United States 1915-1930 Cemented carbides Germany Early 1900s Composite metals United States Porous metals and metallic filters United States [...]... refractory and reactive metals such as tungsten, molybdenum, niobium, titanium, and tantalum and of nuclear metals such as beryllium, uranium, zirconium, and thorium All of the refractory metals are recovered from their ores, processed, and formed using P/M techniques With the reactive metals, powder metallurgy is often used to achieve higher purity or to combine them with other metals or nonmetallics... Principles and Applications, Metal Powder Industries Federation, 1980, p 426 2 L.F Pease III and V.C Potter, Mechanical Properties of P/M Materials, Powder Metallurgy, Vol 7, ASM Handbook (formerly Metals Handbook, 9th ed.), American Society for Metals, 1984, p 467 Powder Metallurgy Methods and Design* Howard I Sanderow, Management & Engineering Technologies Powder Processing Techniques In order to understand... Wulff, Ed., American Society for Metals, 1942, p 16 G Osann, Ann Physik Chem., Vol 128, 1841, p 406 U.S Patents 101,863; 101,864; 101,866; and 101,867, 1870 U.S Patent 976,526, 1910 U.S Patents 899,875, 1908 and 912,246, 1909 C.R Smith, Powder Metallurgy, J Wulff, Ed., American Society for Metals, 1942, p 4 A.W Deller, Powder Metallurgy, J Wulff, Ed., American Society for Metals, 1942, p 582 U.S Patent... chloride was treated with a reducing agent such as ether, a paste was obtained Tungsten, molybdenum, and tantalum are the three most important refractory metals used today in the lamp, aerospace, electronics, x-ray, and chemical industries Other refractory metals of minor significance were developed by the P/M method in the early 1900s, notably niobium, thorium, and titanium However, at the same time another... holding the hard particles together and giving the metallic body sufficient toughness, ductility, and strength to permit its effective use as tool material Composite Metals The next development in powder metallurgy was the production of composite metals used for heavy-duty contacts, electrodes, counterweights, and radium containers All of these composite materials contain refractory metal particles, usually... of the design process because a subtle change in the manufacturing process can cause a significant change in material properties Note * Adapted from article in Materials Selection and Design, Vol 20, ASM Handbook, 1997, p 745-753 Powder Metallurgy Methods and Design* Howard I Sanderow, Management & Engineering Technologies General P/M Design Considerations To begin a design using powder processing, six... next stage in the development of these porous metals, and patents date back as far as 1923 (Ref 43), when Claus patented a process and machine to mold porous bodies from granular powder References cited in this section 20 U.S Patent 976,526, 1910 21 U.S Patents 899,875, 1908 and 912,246, 1909 22 C.R Smith, Powder Metallurgy, J Wulff, Ed., American Society for Metals, 1942, p 4 23 A.W Deller, Powder Metallurgy,... graphite The first attempt to produce such materials was recorded in the patent of Viertel and Egly (Ref 32) issued shortly after 1900 The procedures used either were similar to those developed for the hard metals (Ref 33) or called for introduction of the binder in liquid form by dipping or infiltration In 1916, Gebauer (Ref 34) developed such a procedure, which was developed further by Baumhauer (Ref 35)... obtained patent protection in 1919 for a heavy metal, consisting of tungsten and a binder that contained copper and nickel Porous Metal Bearings and Filters In addition to the development of refractory metals and their carbides, another important area of powder metallurgy that gained attention during the early 1900s was that of porous metal bearings Special types of these porous bearings are referred... W.H Wollaston, On a Method of Rendering Platina Malleable (Bakerian Lecture for 1828), Philos Trans R Soc., Vol 119, 1829, p 1-8 17 J.S Streicher, Powder Metallurgy, J Wulff, Ed., American Society for Metals, 1942, p 16 History of Powder Metallurgy Revised by Donald G White, Metal Powder Industries Federation and APMI International Further Developments The use of P/M technology to form intricately shaped . applications 1. Metals- -Handbooks, manuals, etc. 2. Metal-work-- Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. ASM International. Handbook Committee. II. Metals Handbook. TA459.M43. forwarded to ASM International. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data (for Print Volume) ASM handbook. Vols. 1-2 have title: Metals handbook.