• Part I “Surveying Principles,” includes chapters on the basics of surveying, leveling, distance measurement (taping and electronic distance measurement), theodolites, total stations, t[r]
(1)(2)(3)SURVEYING
with Construction Applications
Seventh Edition
Barry F Kavanagh Seneca College, Emeritus
Prentice Hall
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Kavanagh, Barry F
Surveying with construction applications/Barry F Kavanagh.—7th ed p cm
Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN-13: 978-0-13-500051-9 (alk paper) ISBN-10: 0-13-500051-3 (alk paper) Surveying Building sites I Title TA625.K38 2010
526.9—dc22
2009012778
(5)Preface
This edition has some changes in the order of chapters Reflecting the additional complexities in electronic distance measurement, the order of presentation of surveying topics has been revised as follows: The leveling chapter has been moved forward to Chapter 2, allowing instructors to introduce the simpler instruments before the more complex total stations; distance measurement has been moved to Chapter 3; total stations have been combined with electronic theodolites in Chapter (optical theodolites have been moved to Appendix G); and satellite positioning has been revised and moved up in the presentation order to Chapter
Revision to the text and the addition of new material have been focused on the chapters describing topics where the technology and applications are still evolving Revised text and new material are included in the following: Chapter 5, Total Stations—where the introduction has been re-written and the topics on combined total station/GPS instruments and ground-based lidar imag-ing have been revised and/or added; and Chapter 7—where the introductory topics were revised and the topics on wide area augmentation, CORS, OPUS, and real-time GPS networks were expanded
End-of-chapter problems have been expanded and refreshed The websites given in selected chapters and in Appendix B have been updated and verified
The text continues to be divided into three parts:
• Part I “Surveying Principles,” includes chapters on the basics of surveying, leveling, distance measurement (taping and electronic distance measurement), theodolites, total stations, traverse surveys and computations, satellite positioning, geomatics, and control surveys
• Part II “Construction Applications,” includes chapters on machine guidance and control, highway curves, highway construction, municipal street construction, pipeline and tunnel construction, culvert and bridge construction, building construction, and quantity and final surveys
• Part III “Appendix,” includes the following information: trigonometry and geometry review, surveying and mapping Internet websites, glossary, typical field projects, answers to selected text problems, steel tape corrections, early surveying, and a color photo gallery
As with the earlier editions of this text, material here is presented in a clear and logical fashion, a style that reflects the many years of surveying field experience and classroom instruction accumulated by the author
(6)The following online supplements are available for instructors:
• Online Instructor’s Manual, including problem solutions, typical tests, and typical class handouts
• Online PowerPoint Slides, illustrating all text topics
To access and download the above supplements, instructors need to request an instructor access code Go to http://www.pearsonhighered.com/ric, where you can request an instructor access code Within 48 hours after registering, you will receive a confirming e-mail Once you have received your code, go to the site and log on for full instructions on downloading the materials you wish to use
Comments and suggestions about this text are welcomed by the author at barry. kavanagh@cogeco.ca
Barry F Kavanagh
Acknowledgments
The author is grateful for the comments and suggestions received from those who adopted previous editions of this text and from the faculty of the Civil and Resources Engineering Technology School at Seneca College
In addition, particular thanks are due to Frank Corso, Illinois Central College; Deogratias Eustace, University of Dayton; Dennis Hughes, CS Mott Community College; Hesham Mahgoub, South Dakota State University; George Murgel, Boise State University; Dan Perry, Utah Valley University; Walid H Shayya, Morrisville State College; Dianne Slattery, Southern Illinois University, Edwardsville; Brian L Smith, University of Virginia; Eileen Young, Bristol Community College; Daniel Reed, Point Park University for their assistance with the seventh edition text reviews
The following surveying, engineering, and equipment manufacturers have provided generous assistance:
iv Preface
American Congress on Surveying and Mapping, Bethesda, Maryland
American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, Bethesda, Maryland Applanix, Richmond Hill, Ontario Bird and Hale, Ltd., Toronto, Ontario Canadian Institute of Geomatics, Ottawa,
Ontario
CST/Berger, Watseka, Illinois
Environmental Systems Research Institute, Inc (ESRI), Redlands, California
Geomagnetic Laboratory, Geological Survey of Canada, Ottawa
International Systemap Corp., Vancouver, British Columbia
Laser Atlanta, Norcross, Georgia
Leica Geosystems Inc., Norcross, Georgia
MicroSurvey International, Kelowna, British Columbia
National Geodetic Survey (NGS), Silver Spring, Maryland
OPTECH, Vaughn, Ontario
Pacific Crest Corporation, Santa Clara, California Position Inc., Calgary, Alberta
Sokkia Corporation, Olathe, Kansas Texas DOT, Austin, Texas
Topcon Positioning Systems, Pleasanton, California
Trimble, Sunnyvale, California
Tripod Data Systems, Corvallis, Oregon U.S Geological Survey, Denver, Colorado—
John M Quinn
(7)Contents
PART I SURVEYING PRINCIPLES 1 1 Surveying Fundamentals 2
1.1 Surveying Defined
1.2 Surveying: General Background 1.3 Control Surveys
1.4 Preliminary Surveys 1.5 Surveying Instruments 1.6 Construction Surveys 1.7 Distance Measurement
1.8 Angle Measurement
1.9 Position Measurement 1.10 Units of Measurement 11 1.11 Stationing 11
1.12 Types of Construction Projects 13 1.13 Random and Systematic Errors 13 1.14 Accuracy and Precision 14
1.15 Mistakes 15
1.16 Field Notes 15
Review Questions 17
2 Leveling 18
2.1 General Background 18
2.2 Theory of Differential Leveling 19 2.3 Curvature and Refraction 20
(8)2.4 Types of Surveying Levels 25
2.5 Leveling Rods 31
2.6 Definitions for Differential Leveling 34 2.7 Techniques of Leveling 35
2.8 Benchmark Leveling (Vertical Control Surveys) 39 2.9 Profile and Cross-Section Leveling 41
2.10 Reciprocal Leveling 46
2.11 Peg Test 47
2.12 Three-Wire Leveling 49 2.13 Trigonometric Leveling 50 2.14 Level Loop Adjustments 51 2.15 Suggestions for Rod Work 52 2.16 Suggestions for Instrument Work 53 2.17 Mistakes in Leveling 54
Problems 55
3 Distance Measurement 61
3.1 Methods of Linear Measurement 61 3.2 Gunter’s Chain 63
3.3 Tapes 63
3.4 Steel Tapes 64
3.5 Taping Accessories and Their Use 67 3.6 Taping Techniques 71
3.7 Taping Corrections 74
3.8 Systematic Taping Errors and Corrections 75 3.9 Random Taping Errors 79
3.10 Techniques for “Ordinary” Taping Precision 80 3.11 Mistakes in Taping 81
3.12 Field Notes for Taping 82
3.13 Electronic Distance Measurement 84 3.14 Electronic Angle Measurement 84 3.15 Principles of EDM 86
3.16 EDM Characteristics 88
3.17 Prisms 89
3.18 EDM Instrument Accuracies 90 3.19 EDM Without Reflecting Prisms 91
Problems 93
4 Introduction to Total Stations and Theodolites 96
4.1 General Background 96
4.2 Reference Directions for Vertical Angles 96
4.3 Meridians 96
4.4 Horizontal Angles 98
(9)4.5 Theodolites 99
4.6 Electronic Theodolites 100 4.7 Total Station 103
4.8 Theodolite/Total Station Setup 104
4.9 Geometry of the Theodolite and Total Station 105 4.10 Adjustment of the Theodolite and Total Station 105 4.11 Laying Off Angles 111
4.12 Prolonging a Straight Line (Double Centering) 112 4.13 Bucking-in (Interlining) 112
4.14 Intersection of Two Straight Lines 113
4.15 Prolonging a Measured Line by Triangulation over an Obstacle 114 4.16 Prolonging a Line Past an Obstacle 116
Review Questions 117
5 Total Station Operations 118
5.1 General Background 118 5.2 Total Station Capabilities 118 5.3 Total Station Field Techniques 124
5.4 Field Procedures for Total Stations in Topographic Surveys 132 5.5 Field-Generated Graphics 138
5.6 Construction Layout Using Total Stations 140 5.7 Motorized Total Stations 145
5.8 Summary of Modern Total Station Characteristics and Capabilities 152 5.9 Instruments Combining Total Station Capabilities and GPS Receiver
Capabilities 153
5.10 Portable/Handheld Total Stations 154
Review Questions 156
6 Traverse Surveys and Computations 157
6.1 General Background 157 6.2 Balancing Field Angles 160
6.3 Meridians 161
6.4 Bearings 162
6.5 Azimuths 165
6.6 Latitudes and Departures 169 6.7 Traverse Precision and Accuracy 175 6.8 Compass Rule Adjustment 177
6.9 Effects of Traverse Adjustments on Measured Angles and Distances 178 6.10 Omitted Measurement Computations 179
6.11 Rectangular Coordinates of Traverse Stations 181 6.12 Area of a Closed Traverse by the Coordinate Method 184
Review Questions 186 Problems 187
(10)7 Satellite Positioning 190
7.1 General Background 190
7.2 U.S Global Positioning System 194
7.3 Receivers 196
7.4 Satellite Constellations 198 7.5 GPS Satellite Signals 200 7.6 GPS Position Measurements 202
7.7 Errors 210
7.8 Continuously Operating Reference Stations 211 7.9 Canadian Active Control System 213
7.10 Survey Planning 213 7.11 GPS Field Procedures 218 7.12 GPS Applications 224 7.13 Vertical Positioning 231
7.14 Conclusion 235
7.15 GPS Glossary 235
7.16 Recommended Readings 238
Review Questions 239
8 An Introduction to Geomatics 240
8.1 Geomatics Defined 240 8.2 Branches of Geomatics 240 8.3 Data Collection Branch 242 8.4 Design and Plotting 248
8.5 Contours 258
8.6 Aerial Photography 265
8.7 Airborne and Satellite Imagery 276 8.8 Remote-Sensing Satellites 287 8.9 Geographic Information System 289 8.10 Database Management 294
8.11 Metadata 295
8.12 Spatial Entities or Features 296 8.13 Typical Data Representation 298 8.14 Spatial Data Models 298 8.15 GIS Data Structures 300
8.16 Topology 303
8.17 Remote Sensing Internet Websites and Further Reading 304
Review Questions 306 Problems 307
9 Horizontal Control Surveys 311
9.1 General Background 311 9.2 Plane Coordinate Grids 320 9.3 Lambert Projection Grid 326 9.4 Transverse Mercator Grid 327
(11)9.5 UTM Grid 329
9.6 Use of Grid Coordinates 336 9.7 Illustrative Examples 344
9.8 Horizontal Control Techniques 351 9.9 Project Control 353
Review Questions 361 Problems 363
PART II CONSTRUCTION APPLICATIONS 365
II.1 Introduction 365 II.2 General Background 365
II.3 Grade 367
10 Machine Guidance and Control 368
10.1 General Background 368
10.2 Motorized Total Station Guidance and Control 371 10.3 Satellite Positioning Guidance and Control 373 10.4 Three-Dimensional Data Files 375
10.5 Summary of the 3D Design Process 377
10.6 Website References for Data Collection, DTM, and Civil Design 379
Review Questions 379
11 Highway Curves 380
11.1 Route Surveys 380
11.2 Circular Curves: General Background 381 11.3 Circular Curve Geometry 382
11.4 Circular Curve Deflections 388 11.5 Chord Calculations 390 11.6 Metric Considerations 391
11.7 Field Procedure (Steel Tape and Theodolite) 391 11.8 Moving up on the Curve 392
11.9 Offset Curves 393
11.10 Compound Circular Curves 401 11.11 Reverse Curves 402
11.12 Vertical Curves: General Background 403 11.13 Geometric Properties of the Parabola 405
11.14 Computation of the High or the Low Point on a Vertical Curve 406 11.15 Computing a Vertical Curve 406
11.16 Design Considerations 409
11.17 Spiral Curves: General Background 411 11.18 Spiral Curve Computations 413 11.19 Spiral Layout Procedure Summary 421 11.20 Approximate Solution for Spiral Problems 428
(12)11.21 Superelevation: General Background 429 11.22 Superelevation Design 430
Review Questions 436 Problems 437
12 Highway Construction Surveys 442
12.1 Preliminary (Preengineering) Surveys 442 12.2 Highway Design 446
12.3 Highway Construction Layout 448
12.4 Clearing, Grubbing, and Stripping Topsoil 452 12.5 Placement of Slope Stakes 453
12.6 Layout for Line and Grade 457 12.7 Grade Transfer 460
12.8 Ditch Construction 462
Review Questions 463
13 Municipal Street Construction Surveys 464
13.1 General Background 464
13.2 Classification of Roads and Streets 465 13.3 Road Allowances 466
13.4 Road Cross Sections 466 13.5 Plan and Profile 466
13.6 Establishing Centerline (cL) 469
13.7 Establishing Offset Lines and Construction Control 471 13.8 Construction Grades for a Curbed Street 474
13.9 Street Intersections 478 13.10 Sidewalk Construction 480 13.11 Site Grading 481
Problems 483
14 Pipeline and Tunnel Construction Surveys 489
14.1 Pipeline Construction 489 14.2 Sewer Construction 491 14.3 Layout for Line and Grade 493 14.4 Catch-Basin Construction Layout 502 14.5 Tunnel Construction Layout 503
Problems 508
15 Culvert and Bridge Construction Surveys 514
15.1 Culvert Construction 514 15.2 Culvert Reconstruction 514
15.3 Bridge Construction: General Background 517 15.4 Contract Drawings 521
15.5 Layout Computations 526
(13)15.6 Offset Distance Computations 526 15.7 Dimension Verification 527 15.8 Vertical Control 529
15.9 Cross Sections for Footing Excavations 530
Review Questions 531
16 Building Construction Surveys 532
16.1 Building Construction: General Background 532 16.2 Single-Story Construction 532
16.3 Multistory Construction 544
Review Questions 551
17 Quantity and Final Surveys 552
17.1 Construction Quantity Measurements: General Background 552 17.2 Area Computations 553
17.3 Area by Graphical Analysis 560 17.4 Construction Volumes 566
17.5 Cross Sections, End Areas, and Volumes 568 17.6 Prismoidal Formula 573
17.7 Volume Computations by Geometric Formulas 574 17.8 Final (As-Built) Surveys 574
Problems 576
Appendix A Trigonometry and Coordinate Geometry Review 579
A.1 Trigonometric Definitions and Identities 579 A.2 Coordinate Geometry 583
Appendix B Surveying and Mapping Websites 592 Appendix C Glossary 594
Appendix D Typical Field Projects 605
D.1 Field Notes 605
D.2 Project 1: Building Measurements 606
D.3 Project 2: Experiment to Determine “Normal Tension” 608 D.4 Project 3: Field Traverse Measurements with a
Steel Tape 609
D.5 Project 4: Differential Leveling 610
D.6 Project 5: Traverse Angle Measurements and Closure Computations 612
D.7 Project 6: Topographic Survey 613 D.8 Project 7: Building Layout 620 D.9 Project 8: Horizontal Curve 621 D.10 Project 9: Pipeline Layout 622
(14)Appendix E Answers to Selected Problems 624 Appendix F Steel Tape Corrections 630
F.1 Erroneous Tape-Length correction 630 F.2 Temperature Corrections 631
F.3 Tension and Sag Corrections 633
Problems 636
Appendix G Early Surveying 637
G.1 Evolution of Surveying 637
G.2 Dumpy Level 643
G.3 The Engineers’ Vernier Transit 645 G.4 Optical Theodolite 653
G.5 Stadia 659
Problems 671
Appendix H Illustrations of Machine Control and of Various Data-Capture Techniques 673
Index 675
(15)Contents xiii
FIELD NOTE INDEX
Page Figure Title
38 2.15 Leveling field notes and arithmetic check (data from Figure 2.14) 43 2.19 Profile field notes
44 2.21 Cross-section notes (municipal format) 45 2.22 Cross-section notes (highway format) 50 2.28 Survey notes for three-wire leveling 82 3.21 Taping field notes for a closed traverse 83 3.22 Taping field notes for building dimensions 103 4.6 Field notes for angles by repetition (closed traverse)
139 5.17 Field notes for total station graphics descriptors—MicroSurvey Software Inc codes 141 5.18 Field notes for total station graphics descriptors—SOKKIA codes
159 6.3 Field notes for open traverse 160 6.4 Field notes for closed traverse 217 7.17 Station visibility diagram 220 7.18 GPS Field Log
246 8.3 Topographic field notes (a) Single baseline (b) Split baseline 247 8.4 Original topographic field notes, 1907 (distances shown are in chains) 357 9.25 Field notes for control point directions and distances
358 9.26 Prepared polar coordinate layout notes 471 13.5 Property markers used to establish centerline
556 17.1 Example of the method of for recording sodding payment measurements 557 17.2 Field notes for fencing payment measurements
558 17.3 Example of field-book entries regarding removal of sewer pipe, etc 559 17.4 Example of field notes for pile driving
606 D.1 Field book layout
607 D.2 Sample field notes for Project (taping field notes building dimensions) 609 D.3 Sample field notes for Project (traverse distances)
611 D.4 Sample field notes for Project (differential leveling) 613 D.5 Sample field notes for Project (traverse angles) 614 D.6 Sample field notes for Project (topography tie-ins) 615 D.7 Sample field notes for Project (topography cross sections) 617 D.9 Sample field notes for Project (topography by theodolite/EDM) 618 D.10 Sample field notes for Project (topography by total station) 621 D.11 Sample field notes for Project (building layout)
(16)(17)PART I Surveying Principles
Part I, which includes Chapters 1–9, introduces you to traditional and state-of-the-art techniques in data collection, layout, and presentation of field data Chapter covers surveying fundamentals Elevation determination is covered in the chapters on leveling (Chapter 2), total stations (Chapter 5), and satellite positioning (Chapter 7) Distance measurement, using both conventional taping techniques and electronic distance measurement (EDM), is covered in Chapter Data presentation is covered in Chapters and Angle measurements and geometric analysis of field measurements are covered in Chapters 4–6 Horizontal positioning is covered in Chapter 7, and control for both data-gathering and layout surveys is covered in Chapter
Although most distance measurements are now done with EDM techniques, many applications still exist for steel taping on the short-distance measurements often found in construction layouts Taping correction techniques can be found in Chapter and Appendix F
(18)Chapter 1
Surveying
Fundamentals
2
1.1 Surveying Defined
Surveyingis the art and science of taking field measurements on or near the surface of the
Earth Survey field measurements include horizontal and slope distances, vertical dis-tances, and horizontal and vertical angles In addition to measuring distances and angles, surveyors can measure position as given by the northing, easting, and elevation of a survey station by using satellite-positioning and remote-sensing techniques In addition to taking measurements in the field, the surveyor can derive related distances and directions through geometric and trigonometric analysis
Once a survey station has been located by angle and distance, or by positioning tech-niques, the surveyor then attaches to that survey station (in handwritten or electronic field notes) a suitable identifier or attribute that describes the nature of the survey station In Chapter 8, you will see that attribute data for a survey station can be expanded from a sim-ple descriptive label to include a wide variety of related information that can be tagged specifically to that survey station
Since the 1980s, the term geomaticshas come into popular usage to describe the computerization and digitization of data collection, data processing, data analysis, and data output Geomatics includes traditional surveying as its cornerstone, but it also reflects the now-broadened scope of measurement science and information technology Figure 8.1 shows a computerized surveying data model This illustration gives you a sense of the diversity of the integrated scientific activities now covered by the term geomatics
The vast majority of engineering and construction projects are so limited in geographic size that the surface of the Earth is considered to be a plane for all X (easterly) and
Y(northerly) dimensions Zdimensions (height) are referred to a datum, usually mean sea level Surveys that ignore the curvature of the Earth for horizontal dimensions are called
(19)Sec 1.1 Surveying Defined 3
boundary surveys—must have corrections made to the field measurements so that these measurements reflect the curved (ellipsoidal) shape of the Earth These surveys are called
geodetic surveys The Zdimensions (orthometric heights) in geodetic surveys are also
ref-erenced to a datum—usually mean sea level
In the past, geodetic surveys were very precise surveys of great magnitude, for example, national boundaries and control networks Modern surveys (data gathering, control, and layout) utilizing satellite-positioning systems are geodetic surveys based on the ellipsoidal shape of the Earth and referenced to the geodetic reference system (GRS80) ellipsoid Such survey measurements must be translated mathematically from ellipsoidal coordinates and ellipsoidal heights to plane grid coordinates and to orthomet-ric heights (referenced to mean sea level) before being used in leveling and other local surveying projects
Engineering or construction surveys that span long distances (e.g., highways, railroads) are treated as plane surveys, with corrections for the Earth’s curvature being applied at regular intervals (e.g., at 1-mile intervals or at township boundaries) Engineering
surveyingis defined as those activities involved in the planning and execution of surveys for
the location, design, construction, maintenance, and operation of civil and other engineered projects.* Such activities include the following:
1 Preparation of surveying and related mapping specifications
2 Execution of photogrammetric and field surveys for the collection of required data, including topographic and hydrographic data
3 Calculation, reduction, and plotting (manual and computer-aided) of survey data for use in engineering design
4 Design and provision of horizontal and vertical control survey networks
5 Provision of line and grade and other layout work for construction and mining activities
6 Execution and certification of quality control measurements during construction Monitoring of ground and structural stability, including alignment observations,
set-tlement levels, and related reports and certifications
8 Measurement of material and other quantities for inventory, economic assessment, and cost accounting purposes
9 Execution of as-built surveys and preparation of related maps, plans, and profiles upon completion of the project
10 Analysis of errors and tolerances associated with the measurement, field layout, and mapping or other plots of survey measurements required in support of engineered projects
Engineering surveying does not include surveys for the retracement of existing land own-ership boundaries or the creation of new boundaries These activities are reserved for licensed property surveyors—also known as land surveyors or cadastral surveyors
(20)4 Chap Surveying Fundamentals
1.2 Surveying: General Background
Surveys are usually performed for one of two reasons First, surveys are made to collect data, which can then be plotted to scale on a plan or map (these surveys are called
preliminary surveysor preengineering surveys); second, field surveys are made to lay
out dimensions taken from a design plan and thus define precisely, in the field, the location of the proposed construction works The layouts of proposed property lines and corners as required in land division are called layout surveys; the layouts of proposed construction features are called construction surveys Preliminary and construction surveys for the same area must have this one characteristic in common: Measurements for both surveys must be referenced to a common base for X,Y, and Zdimensions The establishment of a base for horizontal and vertical measurements is known as a control survey
1.3 Control Surveys
Control surveys establish reference points and reference lines for preliminary and construc-tion surveys Vertical reference points, called benchmarks, are established using leveling surveys (Chapter 2) or satellite-positioning surveys (Chapter 7) Horizontal control surveys (Chapter 9) use any of a variety of measuring and positioning techniques capable of providing appropriately precise results; such surveys can be tied into (1) state or provincial coordinate grids, (2) property lines, (3) roadway centerlines, and (4) arbitrarily placed base-lines or grids When using positioning satellites to establish or re-establish ground positions, the always-available satellite systems themselves can be considered as a control net—thus greatly reducing the need for numerous on-the-ground reference stations At present, the only fully deployed satellite-positioning system is the United States’ Global Positioning System (GPS); the Russian system, called GLONASS, is about halfway to full deployment; and others plan to have positioning systems deployed within the next five or ten years—for exam-ple, Europe’s Galileo System, China’s Compass System, and an Indian positioning system
1.4 Preliminary Surveys
Preliminary surveys (also known as preengineering surveys, location surveys, or data-gathering surveys) are used to collect measurements that locate the position of natural features, such as trees, rivers, hills, valleys, and the like, and the position of built features, such as roads, structures, pipelines, and so forth Measured tie-ins can be accomplished by any of the following techniques
1.4.1 Rectangular Tie-Ins
,