Motivation in learning english speaking of the second year tourism major students at tourism and foreign language department, sao do college of industry

Motivation in learning english speaking of the second year tourism major students at tourism and foreign language department, sao do college of industry

Chapter 1: Introduction1.1 Rationale for the study

We are living in the global world in which English language has rapidly become aninternational language To meet this requirement, English has been taught almosteverywhere in Vietnam, especially in schools, colleges, universities, English is acompulsory subject.

However, how to speak English well is a problem for many learners of English,especially for the students of colleges and universities Despite the fact that most of thestudents have been learning English since they were at secondary or high school, they aredeficient in English speaking.

As a teacher of Tourism & Foreign language Department, Sao Do College ofIndustry SCI, HaiDuong, from our observation and our own teaching experience, we seethat during the speaking lesson classroom interaction is restricted Only some students getinvolved in the activities conducted by the teacher while others keep silence or do otherthings Thus, one of the challenges to the teacher is to find out the answer to the question“Why don’t many students of English get involved actively in speaking lesson?”

To find the answer to this question it is necessary to investigate what motivates andde-motivates students in English learning in general and in speaking in particular Manyteachers and researchers now believe that motivation is one of the most important factorsthat determine the rate and success of L2 attainment: it provides the primary impetus toinitiate learning the L2 and later the driving force to sustain the long and often tediouslearning process Without sufficient motivation, even individuals with the most remarkableabilities cannot accomplish long-term goals, and there are no appropriate curricula andgood teaching to ensure student achievement

For the mentioned reasons, we would like to conduct a study on “Motivation inLearning English Speaking of the Second Year Tourism-Major Students at Tourismand Foreign Language Department, Sao Do College of Industry” The study is to

investigate what motivates and de-motivates students in English speaking learning We dohope that this study will help the teacher of speaking in some ways to find appropriatemethods to motivate their students.

1.2 Aims of the study

The study aims at investigating the motivation in English speaking learning amongthe second year tourism-major students at Tourism and Foreign Language Faculty, Sao DoIndustrial College The four main purposes of the study are summarized below:

1 To examine kinds of motivation possessed by the second year tourism majorstudents at Tourism and Foreign Department, Sao Do College of Industry.

2 To examine methods and techniques used by teachers of speaking to motivatetheir learners in speaking activities.

3 To investigate factors de-motivating students in English speaking learning? 4 To suggest motivational strategies and techniques, which can be applied tostimulate learners in teaching speaking skill.

1.3 Scope and significance of the study:

There are many factors affecting the success or failure of learning a foreignlanguage, in which motivation is one of the key factors The focus of this study is onmotivation as a separate factor in English speaking learning The results of the study willbe applied to improve the speaking skills of second tourism major students of Tourism &Foreign Language Department, SCI It can not be said that the results are general to allstudents in Vietnam.

1.4 Design of the study

The study is designed with 3 chapters.

Chapter one presents the rationale for study, aims of the study, research questions

as well as the scope of the study.

Chapter two displays the background of motivation and speaking teaching In the

chapter, the main approaches to motivation and de-motivation in foreign language teachingare discussed The main theories of foreign language speaking teaching are also presentedin the chapter.

Chapter three presents the methodology performed in the study The chapter also

deals with documentation, data analysis The analysis and discussion on the data is basedon the survey questionnaire, interview and classroom observation

Chapter four summarizes the findings, implication, recommendations and future

directions for future research are also provided in the last chapter

Chapter 2: Literature review

This chapter is concerned with the conceptions of motivation, motivation in foreignlanguage learning, and the theoretical backgrounds of speaking skills.

2.1 Theoretical background of motivation2.1.1 Conceptions of motivation

Many researches have been undertaken and there is much in the research literatureregarding the definition of motivation All the motivation theories in general want toexplain the fundamental question of why humans behave as they do, and therefore wecannot assume any simple and straightforward answer.

Motivation is described as the impetus to create and sustain intentions and goalseeking acts (Ames & Ames, 1989).

Burden, (1997:119) assumed that “from a cognitive perspective, motivation isconcerned with such issues as why people decide to act in certain ways and what factorsinfluence the choice they make It also involves decisions as to the amount of effect peopleare prepared to expand in attempting to achieve their goals The role of the teacher thusbecomes one of helping and enabling learners to make suitable decisions”

Dornei (2001:613) defined motivation as “a general ways of referring to theantecedents (i.e the causes and the origins” He also stated that “motivation explains whypeople decide to do something, how hard they are going to pursue it and how long they arewilling to sustain the activities” (2001:7) The author mentioned two dimensions of human

behavior: direction and magnitude (intensity) which motivation concerns

Motivation, “the process whereby goal-directed activity is instigated and sustained”(Pintrich& Schunk, 2002).

From the above, it can be deduced that motivation is a psychological trait whichleads people to achieve a goal Motivation is what drives you to “behave” in a certain wayor to take a particular action Simply, it can be understood that motivation is your “WHY”

2.1.2 Motivation in foreign language learning

In recent years, motivation has become a familiar term in second language learning.Motivation in foreign language learning has been defined in different ways.

According to Dornyei, 1988, motivation refers to the efforts learners make to learna foreign language Motivation is one of the keys that influence the rate and success oflanguage learning

Park (2002:2) believes that motivation is shaped as “ sets of belief about languagelearning, the target culture, their culture, the teacher, the learning task, ect.”

Holt (2001:1), referring to Cookes and Schmidt (1991), defines motivation as“ the learner’s orientation with regard to the goal of learning a second language”.

Motivation in this context can be understood as one relating to attitude and viceversa with both having an influence on learning and acquisition Gardner (1985) as as cited

in Dornyei, (2001), assumed that motivation involved desire to learn a language, intensityof effort to achieve this, and attitudes toward learning the language.

According to the framework by Dornyei (1994), motivation consists of 3 mainlevels which are language level, learner level and learning situation level.

Language level refers to integrative motivational subsystem and instrumentalmotivational subsystem.

Learner level depends on need for achievement, self-confidence which is languageuse anxiety, perceived L2 competence, casual attributions and self-efficacy

Learning situation level refers to course specific motivational components, teacherspecific motivational components and group specific motivational components

Below is Dornyei’s (1994) framework of L2 motivation.

Table 1: Dornyei’s (1994) framework of L2 motivation (Adapted from Dornyei, 2001)

Language level Integrative motivational subsystemInstrumental motivational subsystem

+ Language use anxiety + Perceived L2 competence + Casual attributions + Self-efficacyLearning situation level

Course specific motivational

Relevant (of the course to one’s needs)Expectancy (of success)

Satisfaction (one has in the outcome)

Teacher specific motivational

Authority type

Direct socialization of student motivation - Modeling

- Task presentation - Feedback

Group specific motivationalcomponents

Goal-orientednessNorm and reward systemGroup cohesion

Classroom goal structure

Another comprehensive attempt to summarize the motivational components that arerelevant to L2 instruction has been made by Marion and Bob Burden (1997) as a part of alarger overview of psychology for language teachers The motivational componentssummarized consist of internal factors and external factors The components of thesefactors are displayed in the framework below.

Table 2: William and Burden’s (1997) framework of L2 motivation

(Adapted from Dornyei, 2001)

Intrinsic interest of activity- arousal of curiosity

- optimal degree of challenge

Significant others:- parents

- teachers- peersPerceived value of activity

- Personal relevance

- anticipated value of outcome

- intrinsic value attributed to the activity

The nature of interaction with significantothers

- mediated learning experiences- the nature and amount of feedback- rewards

- the nature and amount of appropriatepraise

- punishments, sanctionsSense of agency

- locus of causality

- locus of control RE process andoutcomes

- ability to set appropriate goals

The learning environment- comfort

- societal expectations and attitudesSelf-concept

- realistic awareness of personal strengthsand weaknesses in skills required

- personal definitions and judgments ofsuccess and failure

- self-worth concern-learned helplessnessAttitudes

- to language learning in general- to the target language

- to the target community and cultureOther affective states

- confidence- anxiety, fear

Developmental age and stageGender

In conclusion, motivation is one variable, which, combined with other factors,influences a learner’s success.

2.1.3 Types of motivation in foreign language learning

Motivation can be classified in different ways In some studies, motivation is

categorized into two types: intrinsic and extrinsic motivation

Tracing the word “intrinsic” down to its roots, it means “innate” or “within”, thusintrinsic motivation originates in the individual itself Concerning learning it can be saidthat the drive or stimulation to learn comes from within the students, hence, the teacher orinstructor does not have to ‘manipulate’ the student in any way in order to make him learn.It is an inner desire of the student to fulfill a positive learning outcome Intrinsicmotivation itself is goal related, therefore, it is independent of any kind of external value

Extrinsic motivation can be regarded as the opposite of intrinsic motivation Thegoal connected with intrinsic motivation is a positive learning effect that lasts a long time,but the goal of an extrinsic motivated student is completely different “When individualsare extrinsically motivated, they hold some desired outcome as a goal (e.g., getting a goodgrade or avoiding punishment), they recognize that a certain way of behaving is anexpedient means to that goal, and they make plans to modify their behavior in such amanner that they are likely to experience the desired outcome”

However, motivation in foreign language learning is more broadly categorized into

two types: integrative and instrumental motivation

In a pioneering study, Gardner and Lambert (1972: 132) highlighted “integrativemotivation” which stresses “a sincere and personal interest in the people and culturerepresented by the other group” and “instrumental motivation” which stresses “thepractical value and advantages of learning a new language” Gardner’s later socio-educational model (1982) adds three aspects of student motivation: effort (time and drive),desire (extent of language proficiency wished for) and effect (emotional reactions tolanguage study) Integrative motivation is the desire on the part of the student to feel anaffinity with the people, the society and the culture of the language that is learned, and isusually referred to in the context of living in the target language community (Falk 1978,and Finnegan, 1999)

Instrumental motivation, on the other hand, concerns the practical and concreterewards that student’s desire (Hudson, 2000) This relates to achievement purposes forinstance passing an exam or getting a degree A student’s opinion of a given language issignificantly shaped by its perceived usefulness and relevance to future career goals(Chambers, 1999)

2.1.4 Main de-motivating factors affecting motivation in learning foreign language2.1.4.1 Conceptions of de-motivation

Dornyei (2005: 143) defined de-motivation as “specific external forces that reduceor diminish the motivational basis of a behavioral intention or an ongoing action”

Deci and Ryan (1985) used a similar term “a-motivation”, which means “therelative absence of motivation that is not caused by a lack of initial interest but rather bythe individual’s experiencing feelings of incompetence and helplessness when faced withthe activity.”

Dornyei pointed out that de-motivation does not mean that all the positiveinfluences that originally made up the motivational basis of a behavior have been got ridof It only means that a strong negative factor restrains the present motivation with someother positive motives still remain ready to be activated

2.1.4.2 De-motivating factors affecting motivation in learning foreign language.

According to Dornyei, factors de-motivating students’ learning are as follows.1 The teacher (personality, commitment, competence, teaching method);

2 Inadequate school facilities (group is too big or not the right level, frequent changeof teachers);

3 Reduced self-confidence (experience of failure or lack of success); 4 Negative attitude towards the L2;

5 Compulsory nature of L2 study;

6 Interference of another foreign language being studied; 7 Negative attitude towards L2 community;

8 Attitudes of group members; 9 Course-book

Basing on Dornyei’s study, factors affecting students’ motivation can be classifiedinto learner’s factors, teacher’s factors, environment factors, and teaching and learningconditions.

2.1.4.2.1 Learner’s factors

a Intelligence:

Intelligence is the term referring to performance on certain kinds of tests

( Lightbown & Spada), 1999:52) Through these tests, teachers are able to classifysuccessful or unsuccessful students in the class performance While some studies have

reported that there is a link between intelligence measured by IQ tests and second languagelearning, some students, in fact, whose academic performance is weak, are successful in L2learning.

b Aptitude:

Aptitude refers to the special ability involved in second language learning (Douglaset al 1995) The relationship between aptitude and second language learning success is avery important one and various studies, such as Gardner (1980) and Skehan (1989) havereported that aptitude is a major factor determining the level of success of second languagelearning (Douglous et al 1995) Students can have a “good aptitude for learning” This caninfer various things, such as:

 The understanding of the function of words in sentences  The ability to understand and use grammatical rules

 Memory of key words, what they mean and how to use them

An important point regarding aptitude and second language learning is thatsuccessful learners may not be strong in all the components of aptitude and can stillsucceed at learning a second language For example, some individuals may have strongmemories but only average abilities in the other components of aptitude (Spada 1999).

c Personality

Learners’ emotional states have a powerful influence on their behavior andperformance in the classroom and other learning situations There are various theories thatclaim that personality factors are important predictors of success in second languagelearning Personality traits such as extroversion, introversion, risk-taking, independenceand empathy have been the basis of discussions and disputes relating to this topic (Ellis1986).

d Learning strategies

As in all school topics, learning strategies are a factor of second language learning.One definition of learning strategies is: “Steps or actions taken by learners to improve thedevelopment of their language skills” (Gass et al 1993: 265) Different learning strategieswork best for different people when learning a second language For example, one studentmay learn vocabulary through writing and practicing the vocabulary using cue cards,whereas another student may only read the vocabulary and learn that way.

e Leaners’ belief

Most learners have strong belief about how languages are learnt, how theirinstruction should be divided “These beliefs are usually based on previous learningexperiences and the assumption (right or wrong) that a particular type of instruction is thebest way for them to learn ( Lightbrown, 1999:59)

f Age of acquisition

Age is another characteristic of learners which affects learners’ success in secondlanguage learning It is believed that children are better than adults at acquiring a secondlanguage It is also often claimed that there is a critical period for second languageacquisition ends around puberty or even earlier.

2.1.4.2.2 Factors related to learning environment

Learning environment involves physical conditions and classroom atmosphere The

former refers to the classroom size, chairs, desk, tables, lights, boards and even bulletinboards Harmer, J (1992), replicated by Nguyen Mai Nhung (2003), confirms that suchconditions had great influence on students’ learning as well as their attitudes toward thesubject matter These conditions, therefore, affected students’ motivation either positivelyor negatively The other factor related to learning environment is a pleasant and supportiveatmosphere in the classroom as Lightbown, P.M & Spada, N (1999) claim that thesupportive and non-threatening atmosphere makes a contribution to learners’ motivation.

a Enthusiasm

An American psychologist, Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi conducted a survey into thequestion "Who have been your most influential teachers?” He then addressed in a thought-provoking (1997) that it was the enthusiastic ones It is teachers' love; dedication andpassion together will commitment toward the subject matter that instills in students awillingness to pursue knowledge.

Also, teachers should clearly identify their reasons for loving and being interestedin the subject matter or L2, and then share these reasons with their students (Good &Brophy, 1994).

b Commitment to the students' progress

Teachers should show commitment towards their students' learning and progress, atthe same time they should care for what their students have learnt and succeeded (Dornyei,2001).

In order to express commitment towards the students, teachers should:+ offer concrete assistance

+ offer to meet students individually to explain things+ respond immediately when help is requested

+ correct tests and papers promptly

+ send learners copies of relevant interesting articles+ arrange extra-curricular instructional programs

+ encourage extra- assignments and offer to assist with these+ Show concern when things are not going on

+ allow students to call at home when they have a problem+ be available for overtime

Furthermore, if teachers treat their students "as if they already are eager learners,they are likely to become eager learners" (Brophy, 1998: 170).

c.Teachers' expectations

In an experiment in educational psychology, an intelligence test to primary schoolchildren, Rosenthal and Jacobson (1968) came to a conclusion that if teachers had highexpectations about how well students could study, their students would probably be able toreach high level of achievement.

Students tend to perform at a level which is consistent with the teacher'sexpectations Particularly, when the teacher sets high expectations, they are likely toperform better at the subject matter and even feel more competent (Good & Brophy, 1987).

d Good relationship with the students

- Acceptance: three linchpins of the humanistic psychology; namely; acceptance,empathy and congruence, are of great influence in the development of student-centeredteaching.

- Ability to listen and pay attention to students: listening to a person is the singlemost powerful transaction that occurs between ourselves and another person (Wlodkowski,1986: 28).

Following are several gestures which can convey personal attention by Burden(1995) and Paffini (1996):

+ Greet students and remember their names+ Smile at them

+ Notice interesting features of their appearance+ Ask them about their lives outside school+ Show interest in their hobbies

+ Move around in class

+ Send notes to absent students

2.1.4.2 4 Teaching and learning conditions

a Physical conditions

Physical conditions in the classroom refer to the classroom size, chairs, desks,tables, boards and even bulletin boards Jeremy Harmer (1992) confirmed that suchphysical condition had great impact on students' learning as well as their attitude towardsthe subject matter These affect students' motivation either positively or negatively.

L2 teachers should be reminded that the classroom is not only a psychological but& physical environment The decoration: posters, flowers, funny objects influence stronglythe atmosphere More importantly, teachers should create the ownership of the class amongstudents He stated "Personalizing the classroom can be seen as students exercisingincreasing control over their environment" (Dornyei, 2001: 42).

b A pleasant and supportive atmosphere in the classroom

Language learning is considered one of the most face-threatening school subjects.Language anxiety has been found to be a powerful factor that hinders L2 learningachievement (Maclntyre, Young, 1999) Thus, it is the teacher's task to create a pleasantand supportive classroom atmosphere.

A number of various components contribute to make up the ideal classroom climatesuch as the teacher's rapport with the students, the students' relationship with each otherand the norm of tolerance; which helps students feel safe and comfortable taking risks It isvery important to make students that mistakes are a natural part of learning, and to ensurethat they will not be criticized if they make mistakes.

Moreover, humor is a very potent factor to improve the classroom atmosphere Theuse of humor helps students feel at ease without tension in the air Scheidecker andFreeman (1991: 138) had a summary on the essence of the ideal classroom climate: "Whenone watches students enter such a classroom, one classroom, one gets an overwhelmingsense that the students shed emotional baggage at the doorway This is an emotional safezone."

2.1.5 Characteristics of motivated learners

Ellis (1985: 122) replicated findings from studies by Rubin (1975) and Naiman etal (1978), and drew on a number of characteristics and the qualities of the good languagelearners According to them, a good language learner would:

- be able to respond to the group dynamics of the learning situation so as todevelop negative anxiety and inhibition.

- seek out all opportunities to use the target language.

- make maximum use of the opportunities afforded to him and to others.

- supplement the learning that derives from direct contact with speakers of the L2with

- Learning derived from the use of study techniques.- be an adolescent or an adult.

- possess sufficient analytic skills to perceive, categorize, and store the linguisticfeatures of the L2.

- possess a strong reason for learning the L2.- be prepared to experiment by taking risks.

- be capable of adapting to different learning conditions.

Naiman et al (1978) also mentioned certain typical characteristics associated withmotivation, which are displayed by successful learners, namely;

- Positive task orientation - Ego-involment

- Need for achievement - High aspirations- Goal orientation- Perseverance

- Tolerance of ambiguity

In short, motivation which is affected by a number of factors on both the part of theteacher and the part of the learner, has been considered to play an important role in L2teaching and learning It is, moreover, of significance in teaching and learning L2speaking The following part will deal with several features of L2 speaking activities Thebelow parts also suggests some ways to motivate learners in learning English speakingskills.

2.2 Theoretical backgrounds of teaching speaking skills2.2.1 What does speaking involve?

Learning to speak a foreign language requires more than knowing languagefeatures, its grammatical and semantic rules" Learners must also acquire knowledge ofhow native speakers use the language in socially constructed interactions, which involvesmany factors

Hymes (1971) assumes that L2 learners need to know not only the knowledge butalso the culturally acceptable ways of interacting with others in different situations andrelationships His theory of communicative competence (1971) consists of the interactionof grammatical, psycholinguistic, sociolinguistic and probabilistic language components.Built on Hymes’ theory, Canale and Swain (1980) propose that communicativecompetence includes grammatical sociocultural competence - later developed in discoursecompetence socio-cultural competence (Canale, 1983) and strategic competence Based onthis framework, we will portray tine abilities underlying speaking proficiency.

Lexis and grammar, the use of a number of common lexical, especially to perform

certain language functions such as agreeing, disagreeing, expressing surprise, approval,etc.

Connected speech: i.e common phenomenon in spoken interactions in which so are

modified (assimilation), omitted (elision), added (linking r) or weak (through contractionsand stress patterning) Effective speakers thus need to be not only producing individualphonemes (as I would have gone) but also to connected speech (I'd've gone).

Expressive devices: native speakers of English change pitch and stress of paretic

parts of utterances, or vary volume and speed to convey meanings beyond words,especially in face-to-face communication Students need to recognize deploy some of suchfeatures and if they are to be Effie -communicators.

Compensating language: effective speaking benefits from the language of

negotiation that we use to seek clarification and to show the structure of what we aresaying

Language processing: effective speakers need to be able to process language in

their own heads and put it into coherent order so that it comes out in forms that are notonly comprehensible but also convey the meaning that are intended One of the mainreasons for including speaking activities in language lessons is to help students develophabits of rapid language processing in English.

Interacting with others: most speaking involves interaction with one or more

participants This means that effective speaking involves a good deal of listening andunderstanding of how the other participants are feeling and a knowledge of howlinguistically to take turns or allow others to do so.

Real item information processing: the ability to process the information others tell

us the moment we get it The longer it takes, the less efficient we are.

Sociolinguistic knowledge: knowledge of language alone does not adequately

prepare learners for effective and appropriate use of the target language Learners musthave competence which involves knowing what is expected socially and culturally by usersof the target language Understanding the sociolinguistic side of language helps learnersknow what comments are appropriate, know how to ask questions during interaction, andknow how to respond nonverbally according to the purpose of the talk.

2.2.2 Communicative language teaching (CLT) approach

Communicative language teaching (CLT) is an approach to the teaching of secondand foreign languages that emphasizes interaction as both the means and the ultimate goalof learning a language It is also referred to as “Communicative approach to the teaching of

foreign languages” or simply the “Communicative Approach” As an extension of thenotional-functional syllabus, CLT also places great emphasis on helping students use thetarget language in a variety of contexts and places great emphasis on learning languagefunctions Unlike the ALM, its primary focus is on helping learners create meaning ratherthan helping them develop perfectly grammatical structures or acquire native-likepronunciation This means that successfully learning a foreign language is assessed interms of how well learners have developed their communicative competence, which canloosely be defined as their ability to apply knowledge of both formal and sociolinguisticaspects of a language with adequate proficiency to communicate.

CLT is usually characterized as a broad approach to teaching, rather than as ateaching method with a clearly defined set of classroom practices As such, it is most oftendefined as a list of general principles or features One of the most recognized of

These lists are David Nunan’s (1991) five features of CLT:

1 An emphasis on learning to communicate through interaction in the targetlanguage

2 The introduction of authentic texts into the learning situation 3 The provision of opportunities for learners to focus, not only on language butalso on the learning process itself.

4 An enhancement of the learner’s own personal experiences as importantcontributing elements to classroom learning.

5 An attempt to link classroom language learning with language activities Outside the classroom.

These five features are claimed by practitioners of CLT to show that they are veryinterested in the needs and desires of their learners as well as the connection between thelanguage as it is taught in their class and as it used outside the classroom Under this broadumbrella definition, any teaching practice that helps students develop their communicativecompetence in an authentic context is deemed an acceptable and beneficial form ofinstruction Thus, in the classroom CLT often takes the form of pair and group workrequiring negotiation and cooperation between learners, fluency-based activities thatencourage learners to develop their confidence, role-plays in which students practice anddevelop language functions, as well as judicious use of grammar and pronunciationfocused activities.

2.2.3 Aspects of speaking skills in CLT class.2.2.3.1 Teaching interactional skills

In the light of CLT approach, the goal of language study is to communicatecompetently in that language Richard, Platt and Weber (1985), (replicated in Nuna., 1999)characterize four dimensions of communicative competences as follows:

- Knowledge of the Grammar and Vocabulary of the language

- Knowledge of the rules of speaking (e.g knowing how to begin and endconversations, knowing what topics can be talked about in different types of speech events,knowing which address forms should be used with different persons one speak to and indifferent situations;

- Knowing how to use and respond to different types of speech acts such asrequests, apologies, thanks, and invitations;

- Knowing how to use language appropriately.

Nunan, D., 1999, p.226

Accordingly, in the speaking class, teachers need provide their students withinteractional skill, for example, how to open and close conversations, how to make turnsand interrupt, and how to respond appropriately, ect.

2.2.3.2 Integrating pronunciation teaching

For many teachers and students, pronunciation is one of the most difficult areasbecause of mother tongue interfere and feelings of awkwardness, inhibition,embarrassment, fear or losing face Hedge, T (2000) claims that it is teachers’responsibility to decide when to focus on pronunciation, and on which aspects It is nowagreed that in CLT class, pronunciation can be integrated into speaking lessons, eitherthrough activities which prepare for speaking tasks or through follow-up activities.Individual sounds, words stress, sentence stress, and various types of linking can be drawnout of many classroom activities Likewise, intonation can be picked out from dialogues intextbook materials to show students its importance in indicating attitudes and emotion inconversation.

2.2.3.3 Accuracy and fluency

According to Hedge, T (2000:261), “as communicative approaches havedeveloped, teachers have been concerned to ensure that students not only practice speakingin a controlled way in order to produce features of pronunciation, vocabulary, and structureaccurately, but also practice using these features more freely in purposefulcommunication” Teachers will therefore need to design both accuracy-based and fluencybased activities.

* Accuracy: When we say someone speaks English with accuracy, we mean they

speak English without or with few errors in grammar, vocabulary and pronunciation.

Grammar: The student uses correct word order, tenses, agreement, etc The student

does not leave out articles, prepositions, or difficult tenses.

Vocabulary: the student has a range of vocabulary that corresponds to the syllabus

year list and uses words you have taught the student uses a wide range of vocabulary.

Pronunciation: When the student speaks most people will understand The message

that the student is trying to get across is clear because of good pronunciation.

* Fluency: Fluently speaking means being able to communicate one's ideas without

having to stop and think too much about what one is saying

Lack of undue hesitation: the student speaks smoothly, at a natural speed She

doesn't hesitate long and it is easy to follow what she is saying.

Length: the student can put ideas together to form a message or an argument; she

can make not only the simplest of sentence patterns but also complex ones to complete thetask.

Independence: when the student is lost for a word or cannot express an idea in

English, she finds a way around the problem, re-expressing what she wants to say in | adifferent or simpler way The student can keep talking and asks questions, etc to keep theconversation going She is independent of the teacher The student does not give up tryingwhen she cannot find the right word The student does not let the conversation break downor is not dependent on others to keep talking

2.2.4 Principles of teaching speaking

The teaching of speaking is closely bound up with receptive skill work They feedoff each other in a number of ways:

Output and input: when students produce a piece of language, feedback from their

interlocutor will act as input based on that they modify their output Such input can comefrom the teacher as feedback or prompters

Texts: texts offer students a model to follow, especially when they are working on

specific functions of language like agreeing, apologizing, refusing, and so on Texts canalso act as stimuli as a lot of language production grows out of texts that we see or hear Acontroversial reading passage may be the springboard for a discussion (Listening to a tapein which speakers tell a story or opinion may provide necessary I stimuli for students torespond based on their own experience.

Reception as part of production: in many situations, production can only continue

in combination with the practice of receptive skills Thus conversation between two peopleis a blend of listening and speaking; comprehension of what is said is necessary for whatthe participant says next

Production enables reception: when students try to speak in certain situations or

within certain genres, they are better attuned to understanding other people speaking in thesame context In this case, oral production works in a way that helps students with theirlistening comprehension (Harmer, 2001)

To motivate students in English speaking lessons, it is suggested that the belowprinciples should be apllied

- Give students practice with both fluency and accuracy:

Communicating effectively in a language requires both the knowledge of thelanguage as well as the ability to use tine language in real time interaction Thus, theteacher should provide students with form-focused speaking, meaning-focused I speakingand activities that aim at fluency development (Brown & Nation, 1997)

- Plan communicative tasks that are based on the concept of information gap

In all too many English classes, teacher pupil exchanges have little communicative(value because there is no real information being exchanged In a traditional, grammaroriented class, for example, teachers often spend a large proportion of class time askingquestions for which they and the students already know the answers; thus, there is no

information gap to fill Typically, a teacher asks a "display" question (that is, a question theteacher knows the answer to), an individual student answers, the teacher evaluates orcorrects the answer, and then the cycle begins again with another student and anotherquestion that everyone already knows the answer to (Liao, 2001).

- Provide opportunities for students to talk by using group work or pair work,and limiting teacher talk

Research has repeatedly demonstrated that teachers do approximately 50 to 80percent of the talking time in classrooms Using pair or group work will help increase theamount of time that learners get to speak in the target language Moreover, with teachersremoved from the conversation, learners can take up roles normally filled by teachers (e.g.posing questions, asking for clarification)

- Plan tasks that involve negotiation of meaning

Research suggests that learners make progress by communicating in the targetlanguage because interaction necessarily involves trying to understand and make yourselfunderstood This process is called negotiation of meaning which involves checking to seeif you've understood what someone has said, clarifying your understanding and confirmingthat someone has understood you By asking for clarification, repetition, or explanationduring conversation, learners get those they are speaking with to address them withlanguage at the level they can learn from and understand.

- Design classroom activities that involve guidance and practice in bothtransactional and interactional speaking

Interactional speech is communicating with, someone for social purposes Itincludes both establishing and maintaining social relationships Transactional speechinvolves communicating to get something done, including the exchange of goods and orservice

Conversations are relatively unpredictable and can range over many topics withparticipants taking turns and commenting freely while transactional encounters of a fairlyrestricted kind, in contrast, will usually contain highly predictable patterns (e.g.telephoning for a taxi) Interactional speech is much more unpredictable than transactionalspeech Speaking activities in classroom thus need to embody both types since learners willhave to speak the target language in both interactional and transactional settings.

2.2.5 Classroom activities2.2.5.1 Communicative drills

A communicative drill is "one in which the type of response is controlled but thestudent provides his or her own content or information" (Richard, Plart, and Platt, 1992,p.223) In communicative drills the teacher controls the learners' speech primarily byensuring that they produce short utterances Here are three suggestions:

1 Practical situations: Students can practice requesting and providing information

such as asking for directions in a city and ordering meals in a restaurant.

2 Guessing games: Students can do guessing games in pairs or groups There are

many variations For example, one student chooses a famous person, and the others askyes-no questions until the identity of the person is determined Or, one student draws apicture of a fruit or object and turns it over on the desk; the partner guesses what the itemis by asking, "Do you have a ?" until the correct answer is found ‘Another variation is forthe teacher to provide a short, incomplete story plot for students to discuss and guess’s theway it ends

3 Information gathering activity involves conducting surveys, interviews and

searches in which students were required to use their language to collect information.Students can practice a set of structures and language repeatedly but in a meaningful way.

4 Jigsaw activity: in a jigsaw activity, each partner lias one or a few pieces of the

"puzzle," and the partners must cooperate to fill all the pieces into a whole picture.

2.2.5.2 Communicative activities

In real life, conversation takes place before people have some information that theywant to get across Speaking activities in classroom that aim at communicative thereforeshould satisfy the following criteria (Harmer, ibid):

- Speaker should have a desire to communicate.- Speakers should have a purpose to communicate.- They should attend to content not form.

- They should use a variety of language structures.

- The teacher will not intervene to stop the activity and there is no control on whatspecific language forms should be used.

Here are three examples of communicative activities that provide practice speakingin a social context

1 A Role-play involves the teacher giving role cards to students for pair work In

the following role-play, paired students are asked to provide sustained speech for specificpurpose of persuading each other-without causing offense.

Three characteristics for role-plays to work out by Ken Jones (in Harmer, ibid,p.274)

- Reality of function: student must not think of themselves as real participant in thesituation

- A simulated environment: a classroom is thought of as a social place

- Structure: students must see how the activity is constructed and be givennecessary information to carry out simulation effectively.

Harmer (ibid) also suggests that the teacher should create the right kindenvironment for such activity We need to give clear instruction and make sure thatstudents know what they need to do Using role cards is a good support especially! Forstudents at lower levels as cards help they remember their role A whole classbrainstorming can be helpful as well to help them predict what vocabulary, grammar, andidiomatic expressions they might use Finally, design follow-up activities whose focus canbe either on the content (what they get out of tine activity or language (feedback onpronunciation and grammar problems the teacher catch or both.

2 A discussion activity: students are given a topic that usually provokes more thanone opinion Students are asked to discuss the issue in group and give their opinion and thereasons why they think so.

One of the reasons why discussion fails is that students are reluctant to give opinionin front of the whole class, particularly when they have nothing to say and are notconfident of the language they may use to say it "Buzz group" can help teachers avoidsuch difficulty Students will have chance to quickly share their ideas within small groupand in many way rehearse the language to express the ideas before they are asked to speakin public.

3 An Opinion sharing activity involves identifying and articulating a personal end,feeling, or attitude The activity may require using factual information, nulating arguments,and justifying one's opinions For some topics, there may be 3 right or wrong responsesand no reason to expect the same answers or responses (different individuals or differentgroups For example, the teacher divides the students into several groups that will discuss

or describe a common object from different activities After all groups finish, the teacherasks the groups to report to the rest of the class.

4 A reasoning gap activity involves deriving some new information from giveninformation through the process of inference or deduction and the perception ofrelationships or patterns The activities necessarily involve comprehending and eyinginformation For example, working out a teacher's time table on the basis of given classtimetables '

5 Prepared talks: a popular kind of activity in which students make a presentationon the topic of their own choice with or without agreement with the teacher Such talks arenot designed for spontaneous conversation and more "writing-like" Prepared talksrepresent a defined and useful genre of speaking and if properly organized, can beinteresting for both listeners and speakers.

2.3 Summary

In summary, the chapter has reviewed different view points on motivation ingeneral and particularly focused on foreign language learning motivation The two maintypes of motivation in foreign language learning motivation which are integrative andinstrumental are investigated

The chapter has also reviewed the main de-motivating factors affecting students’motivation in learning process as well as the characteristics of motivated learners Besides,the characteristics of the teaching of speaking, its principles and classroom activities arepresented

The following chapter intends to display the methodology of the study.