Mapping Psychology 1 - Dorothy Miel
Mapping Psychology We would like to dedicate this course to the memory of Brenda Smith, Psychology Staff Tutor and member of the course team, who died during the final year of the course’s production She had been a Psychology Staff Tutor since 1995, first in Scotland and then most recently in Ireland, but her close association with the Open University stretches back much further than this She was an Open University student herself and then later returned to teach and was a tutor who enthused and supported very many students throughout their social science studies At her funeral one of these students spoke very movingly of her warmth and energy and of the fact that she had really ‘made a difference’ to their lives She certainly also made a difference to our DSE212 course team, where her commitment to education for mature students was clear in everything that she said and did, and her immensely hard work influenced many of our plans for the teaching and learning strategy of the course and the content of the texts She contributed enormously at both a professional and personal level, particularly to the early work of the course team, and we hope that her influence on the course will shine through, helping it in turn to ‘make a difference’ to the lives of all the students who will study it in the coming years Mapping Psychology Edited by Dorothy Miell, Ann Phoenix and Kerry Thomas c The Open University Walton Hall, Milton Keynes MK7 6AA First published 1999 First published as an e-book 2002 Copyright © 1999, 2002 The Open University All rights, including copyright, in the content of this e-book are owned or controlled for these purposes by The Open University In accessing this e-book, you agree that you may only download the content for your own personal non-commercial use You are not permitted to copy, broadcast, download, store (in any medium), transmit, show or play in public, adapt or change in any way the content of this e-book for any other purpose whatsoever without the prior written permission of The Open University Edited, designed and typeset by the Open University Originally printed and bound in the United Kingdom by Alden Press Ltd, Osney Mead, Oxford, OX2 0EF This text forms part of an Open University course A211 Philosophy and the Human Situation Details of this and other Open University courses can be obtained from the Course Reservations Centre, PO Box 724, The Open University, Milton Keynes MK7 6ZS, United Kingdom: tel (00 44) 1908 653 231 For availability of this or other course components, contact Open University Worldwide Ltd, The Berrill Building, Walton Hall, Milton Keynes MK7 6AA, United Kingdom: tel (00 44) 1908 858 585, fax (00 44) 1908 858 787, e-mail ouwenq@open.ac.uk Alternatively, much useful course information can be obtained from the Open University’s website http://www.open.ac.uk SUP-71661-1 Contents INTRODUCTION Psychology in the 21st century Ann Phoenix and Kerry Thomas CHAPTER Identities and diversities 43 Ann Phoenix How to use the commentaries 97 Commentary 99 CHAPTER Evolutionary psychology 105 Brenda Smith and Richard Stevens Commentary 159 CHAPTER Three approaches to learning 165 Karen Littleton, Frederick Toates and Nick Braisby Commentary 217 CHAPTER Biological processes and psychological explanation 223 Frederick Toates Commentary 283 CHAPTER The individual differences approach to personality 289 Kerry Thomas Commentary 341 Index 347 Acknowledgements 356 DSE212 course team Open University staff Dr Dorothy Miell, Senior Lecturer in Psychology, Faculty of Social Sciences (Course Team Chair) Dr Paul Anand, Lecturer in Economics, Faculty of Social Sciences Peter Barnes, Lecturer in Centre for Childhood, Development and Learning, Faculty of Education and Language Studies Pam Berry, Key Compositor Dr Nicola Brace, Lecturer in Psychology, Faculty of Social Sciences Dr Nick Braisby, Lecturer in Psychology, Faculty of Social Sciences Maurice Brown, Software Designer Sue Carter, Staff Tutor, Faculty of Social Sciences Annabel Caulfield, Course Manager, Faculty of Social Sciences Lydia Chant, Course Manager, Faculty of Social Sciences Dr Troy Cooper, Staff Tutor, Faculty of Social Sciences Crystal Cunningham, Researcher, BBC/OU Shanti Dass, Editor Sue Dobson, Graphic Artist Alison Edwards, Editor Marion Edwards, Software Designer Jayne Ellery, Production Assistant, BBC/OU Dr Linda Finlay, Associate Lecturer, Faculty of Social Sciences, co-opted member of course team Alison Goslin, Designer Professor Judith Greene, Professor of Psychology (retired), Faculty of Social Sciences Professor Wendy Hollway, Professor of Psychology, Faculty of Social Sciences Silvana Ioannou, Researcher, BBC/OU Dr Amy Johnston, Lecturer in Behavioural Neuroscience, Faculty of Science Dr Adam Joinson, Lecturer in Educational Technology, Institute of Educational Technology Sally Kynan, Research Associate in Psychology Andrew Law, Executive Producer, BBC/OU Dr Martin Le Voi, Lecturer in Psychology, Faculty of Social Sciences Dr Karen Littleton, Lecturer in Centre for Childhood, Development and Learning, Faculty of Education and Language Studies Dr Bundy Mackintosh, Lecturer in Psychology, Faculty of Social Sciences Marie Morris, Course Secretary Dr Peter Naish, Lecturer in Psychology, Faculty of Social Sciences Daniel Nettle, Lecturer in Biological Psychology, Departments of Biological Sciences and Psychology John Oates, Senior Lecturer in Centre for Childhood, Development and Learning, Faculty of Education and Language Studies Michael Peet, Producer, BBC/OU Dr Ann Phoenix, Senior Lecturer in Psychology, Faculty of Social Sciences Dr Graham Pike, Lecturer in Psychology, Faculty of Social Sciences Dr Ilona Roth, Lecturer in Psychology, Faculty of Social Sciences Brenda Smith, Staff Tutor, Faculty of Social Sciences Dr Richard Stevens, Senior Lecturer in Psychology, Faculty of Social Sciences Colin Thomas, Lead Software Designer Dr Kerry Thomas, Senior Lecturer in Psychology, Faculty of Social Sciences Dr Frederick Toates, Reader in Psychobiology, Faculty of Science Jenny Walker, Production Director, BBC/OU Dr Helen Westcott, Lecturer in Psychology, Faculty of Social Sciences Dr Clare Wood, Lecturer in Centre for Childhood, Development and Learning, Faculty of Education and Language Studies Christopher Wooldridge, Editor External authors and critical readers Dr Koula Asimakopoulou, Tutor Panel Debbie Balchin, Tutor Panel Dr Peter Banister, Head of Psychology and Speech Pathology Department, Manchester Metropolitan University Clive Barrett, Tutor Panel Dr Kevin Buchanan, Senior Lecturer in Psychology, University College, Northampton Dr Richard Cains, Tutor Panel Professor Stephen Clift, Tutor Panel Linda Corlett, Associate Lecturer, Faculty of Social Sciences Victoria Culpin, Tutor Panel Dr Tim Dalgleish, Research Clinical Psychologist, Brain Sciences Unit, Cambridge Dr Graham Edgar, Tutor Panel, Research Scientist, BAE SYSTEMS Patricia Fisher, Equal Opportunities critical reader David Goddard, Tutor Panel Dr Dan Goodley, Lecturer in Inclusive Education, University of Sheffield Victoria Green, Student Panel Dr Mary Hanley, Senior Lecturer in Psychology, University College, Northampton Dr Jarrod Hollis, Associate Lecturer, Faculty of Social Sciences Rob Jarman, Tutor Panel Dr He´le`ne Joffe, Lecturer in Psychology, University College London Dr Helen Kaye, Associate Lecturer, Faculty of Social Sciences Professor Matt Lambon-Ralph, Professor of Cognitive Neuroscience, University of Manchester Rebecca Lawthom, Senior Lecturer in Psychology, Manchester Metropolitan University Kim Lock, Student Panel Patricia Matthews, Tutor Panel Dr Elizabeth Ockleford, Tutor Panel Penelope Quest, Student Panel Susan Ram, Student Panel Dr Alex Richardson, Senior Research Fellow in Psychology and Neuroscience, Imperial College of Medicine, London, also Research Affiliate, University Laboratory of Physiology, Oxford Dr Carol Sweeney, Tutor Panel Dr Annette Thomson, Associate Lecturer, Faculty of Social Sciences Dr Stella Tickle, Tutor Panel Carol Tindall, Senior Lecturer in Psychology, Manchester Metropolitan University Jane Tobbell, Senior Lecturer in Psychology, Manchester Metropolitan University Martin Treacy, Associate Lecturer, Faculty of Social Sciences Professor Aldert Vrij, Professor in Applied Social Psychology, University of Portsmouth External assessors Professor Martin Conway, Professor of Psychology, Durham University Professor Anne Woollet, Professor of Psychology, University of East London I N T R O D U C T I O N Psychology in the 21st century Ann Phoenix and Kerry Thomas Contents Orientation 1.1 Psychology has wide appeal 1.2 Psychology has social impact 1.3 The diversity of psychology 1.4 Exploring psychology: context and history 11 The breadth of psychological research 12 2.1 Researching ourselves 13 2.2 A brief look at different kinds of data 15 2.3 A brief look at psychological methods 19 2.4 Ethical considerations 26 Mapping psychology 36 3.1 Navigating your way through the chapters in this book 36 3.2 Issues and debates in psychology: the editorial commentaries 40 References 41 MAPPING PSYCHOLOGY Orientation Psychological ideas are popular in everyday life because the subject matter of psychology is people and, hence, ourselves Even if you have never studied any psychology before, it is likely that you will have encountered psychological ideas in the media or in discussions with other people Psychological research findings and their practical and professional application are regularly in the newspapers, on television, radio, and on the Internet For example, the possible evolutionary origins of behaviour, emotions, consciousness and the brain, and the impact of various therapies, are all recurrent debates in the media in many countries These public debates help to make psychology a very visible part of everyday life and culture Yet, all this media coverage can confuse anyone wanting to find out what psychology is about because psychological knowledge is presented in a variety of ways For example, ‘common-sense’ psychological ideas have long been presented in the media A good illustration of this kind of common sense might be the topic of ‘leadership’, something that is commonly talked about in everyday language Television, radio and newspapers often raise questions or offer un-researched opinions on leadership qualities, failures of leadership, why a historical figure was a charismatic leader or why some people seem to have the power to influence cults to engage in dramatic and often self-destructive behaviours The media also can present rather dubious interpretations of psychology drawn upon largely to support the arguments journalists wanted to make in the first place, as when reporters contact psychologists hoping to get a ready quote about why holidays are stressful or why men hate shopping More recently, however, and for our purposes more usefully, in many countries there are now books, articles, radio programmes and quite substantial television series dealing in a serious manner with psychological research and debate Activity Try to think of examples of psychological topics you have encountered recently in the media Write these down Note your reactions to the way they were presented Do you think they were handled in a serious, balanced way, giving relevant evidence, or were they treated in a superficial and perhaps journalistic manner? Have another look at these notes when you reach the end of this introductory chapter and see if you have changed your views INTRODUCTION PSYCHOLOGY IN THE 21st CENTURY As you work through this book you may find support for some of your ideas about psychology, but find that others are challenged because, not surprisingly, psychology is not entirely as it is portrayed in the media We would like to welcome you to the study of psychology, and hope that by the time you have read this book you will be able to evaluate commonly presented psychological issues in an informed way Those of us who have written this book are excited by our subject matter You will see as you go through the chapters that we have different areas of expertise and interest within psychology One of the major aims of the book is to introduce you to that diversity and to invite you to share our enthusiasm A discipline that encompasses such diversity and continues to be dynamic in producing new knowledge and new ways of looking at the world and human beings has much to offer 1.1 Psychology has wide appeal Some people will be doing this psychology course to consolidate earlier study and experience and to build a career Others will be quite new to psychology as a formal research-based discipline Some will have been stimulated to take a course in psychology by the well-publicized examples of research findings or psychologists at work that are presented in the media Some will be coming to this course because of experiences in their own personal lives This may be because they have been touched by especially difficult circumstances which they want to come to terms with, or because they feel the need to understand psychological topics such as identity, personality, relationships, intergroup relations or unconscious motivations Others may have become curious about basic psychological questions such as how we perceive, the nature of memory, why we forget, and how we can understand the processes of learning Psychologists working professionally, whether doing research or in their psychotherapeutic practices, can help us to think about such everyday issues Whilst no psychology course can promise definitive answers to all the questions in which you personally may be interested, the material in this first book, and the rest of the course, will increase your knowledge and your awareness, and provide ways of thinking about psychological issues of many kinds In this introductory chapter we want to indicate how we have arrived at the contemporary, multifaceted discipline of twenty-firstcentury psychology and discuss some of the issues which psychologists debate and study MAPPING PSYCHOLOGY Activity Consider the suggestions we made about why people might be starting this course and then list your own reasons for studying psychology Think about this question in some depth; don’t stop at just one reason Try to bring into mind anything that might be of relevance to you, especially at this particular point in your life If you can, keep these notes until you reach the end of the course and then consider if, and how, the psychology you have studied has illuminated these original goals 1.2 Psychology has social impact The relevance of psychology to everyday concerns, and the ease with which it can be popularized and used, mean that psychological knowledge – some of it dubious, some of it accurate – is continually absorbed into culture and often incorporated into the very language we use Examples of psychological concepts that have entered popular discourse include the notion that we are predisposed, both through evolution and through the functioning of our brains and nervous systems, to behave in certain ways and to have intellectual and emotional capacities and limitations In many cultures psychoanalytic ideas are commonplace; for example, the centrality of sexuality and its repression, and the idea that Freudian ‘slips’ – mistakes of action – reveal unconscious motivation Many people speak of having short-term and long-term memories and recognize that they use different strategies for remembering details of recent and more distant events And a lot of people now know that it is possible to be fooled into perceiving illusions as real and that things as routine as face-recognition or behaviourin-groups are extremely complex Many people have absorbed and take for granted the psychological notion that what happens to us in childhood has an influence on our psychological functioning over the rest of our lives Ideas about the importance of parenting and parental styles of child rearing have also become part of ordinary talk, with the result that some children now complain about not getting enough ‘quality time’ with their parents These examples demonstrate also how psychological concepts have an impact on the ways in which we think life should, ideally, be lived Such ideas, and many others, have been influenced by psychological research, even when they are ideas that are not widely recognized as psychological Furthermore, psychologists are increasingly being called on to give expert evidence on questions as disparate as legal decisions and design issues It would, therefore, be true to say that psychology has an impact on our beliefs about ourselves and how life ought to be lived as well as on our everyday behaviours ... Canada: 18 90 Belgium: 18 91 Switzerland: 18 91 United Kingdom: 18 91 (British Psychological Society founded in 19 01) Netherlands: 18 92 Source: adapted from Zimbardo et al., 19 95, p.6 10 MAPPING PSYCHOLOGY. .. mentioned in later chapters Charles Darwin, 18 09? ?18 82 Wilhelm Wundt, 18 32? ?19 20 William James, 18 42? ?19 10 Sigmund Freud, 18 56? ?19 39 MAPPING PSYCHOLOGY In 18 77, Charles Darwin, the biologist who later... T I O N Psychology in the 21st century Ann Phoenix and Kerry Thomas Contents Orientation 1. 1 Psychology has wide appeal 1. 2 Psychology has social impact 1. 3 The diversity of psychology 1. 4 Exploring