An analysis of cohesive devices in reading texts in english 11

iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Page CANDIDATE’S STATEMENT ………………………………………………………… i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS……………………………………………………………… ii ABSTRACT…………………………………………………………………………… iii TABLE OF CONTENTS………………………………………………………………… iv ABBREVIATIONS……………………………………………………………………… vii LIST OF TABLES……………………………………………………………………… viii PART 1: INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………… 1 Rationale…………………………………………………………………………… Aims of the Study………………………………………………………………… Scope of the Study………………………………………………………………… Significance of the Study…………………………………………………………… Methods of the Study……………………………………………………………… Design of the Study………………………………………………………………… PART 2: DEVELOPMENT …………………………………………………………… CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW………………………………………… Discourse and Discourse Analysis………………………………………………… 1.1 The Concept of Discourse…………………………………………………… 1.2 Text and Discourse ………………………………………………………… 1.3 Spoken and Written Discourse……………………………………………… 1.4 Discourse Analysis…………………………………………………………… 1.5 Context in Discourse Analysis……………………………………………… 1.6 Register and Genre in Discourse Analysis………………………………… Cohesion…………………………………………………………………………… 2.1 The Concept of Cohesion…………………………………………………… 2.2 Cohesion vs Coherence……………………………………………………… 2.3 Aspects of Cohesion………………………………………………………… 2.3.1 Topical Cohesion………………………………………………… 2.3.2 Logical Cohesion………………………………………………… 2.4 Types of Cohesion…………………………………………………………… 10 2.4.1 Grammatical Cohesion …………………………………………… 10 v 2.4.1.1 Reference……………………………………………… 10 2.4.1.2 Substitution……………………………………………… 11 2.4.1.3 Ellipsis…………………………………………………… 12 2.4.1.4 Conjunction……………………………………………… 12 2.4.2 Lexical cohesion…………………………………………………… 13 2.4.2.1 Reiteration……………………………………………… 14 2.4.2.2 Collocation……………………………………………… 14 CHAPTER 2: METHODOLOGY 16 An Overview of the English Textbook 11………………………………………… 16 1.1 The Role of the English Textbook in English Language Teaching………… 16 1.2 Description of the English Textbook 11…………………………………… 16 Research Methodology …………………………………………………………… 17 Materials for Analysis……………………………………………………… 17 2.2 Methods of the Study……………………………………………………… 17 2.3 Data Collection Procedures………………………………………………… 19 2.4 Data Analysis Procedures…………………………………………………… 20 CHAPTER 3: MAJOR FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION………………………… 21 Grammatical Cohesion …………………………………………………………… 21 1.1 Reference …………………………………………………………………… 21 1.1.1 Anaphoric Reference……………………………………………… 22 1.1.2 Cataphoric Reference……………………………………………… 24 1.1.3 Exophoric Reference……………………………………………… 25 1.2 Substitution………………………………………………………………… 25 1.3 Ellipsis……………………………………………………………………… 26 1.4 Conjunction………………………………………………………………… 28 Lexical Cohesion…………………………………………………………………… 30 2.1 Reiteration…………………………………………………………………… 30 2.2 Collocation…………………………………………………………………… 33 2.2.1 Lexical Collocation………………………………………………… 33 2.2.2 Grammatical Collocation………………………………………… 35 Summary………………………………………………………………………… 36 PART 3: CONCLUSIONS ……………………………………………………………… 37 Conclusions ……………………………………………………………………… 37 vi Suggestions………………………………………………………………………… 38 2.1 Suggestions for English Teachers and Learners …………………………… 38 2.2 Suggested Cohesion Exercises for English Teachers and Learners………… 39 Limitations and Suggestions for Further Studies………………………………… 40 REFERENCES…………………………………………………………………………… 42 APPENDICES APPENDIX I …………………………………………………………………… I APPENDIX II …………………………………………………………………… VIII APPENDIX III…………………………………………………………………… XII APPENDIX IV…………………………………………………………………… XIII APPENDIX V…………………………………………………………………… XV APPENDIX VI…………………………………………………………………… XXVI APPENDIX VII…………………………………………………………………… XLI SOURCE OF DATA…………………………………………………………………… XLVI vii ABBREVIATIONS Adj: Adjective Adv: Adverb N: Noun Prep: Preposition Quant: Quantifier V: Verb viii LIST OF TABLES Page Table 1: The percentage of different types of reference 20 Table 2: The percentage of different types of reference words for anaphoric ties 21 Table 3: The percentage of different types of reference words for cataphoric ties 23 Table 4: The percentage of different types of reference words for exophoric ties 24 Table 5: The percentage of substitution in English 11 24 Table 6: The percentage of ellipsis in English 11 26 Table 7: The percentage of conjunction in English 11 27 Table 8: The percentage of reiteration in English 11 30 Table 9: The percentage of lexical collocation in English 11 33 Table 10: The percentage of grammatical collocation in English 11 34 PART 1: INTRODUCTION Rationale It is undeniable that English has become an international language and has been widely used in many countries in the world In Vietnam, English is regarded as the most important foreign language and taught as a compulsory subject in most schools throughout the country As a result, English has been paid much attention to by both English teachers and English learners English students nowadays have to master all four skills including reading, speaking, listening and writing Among these, reading is considered to be very important because it helps students to get materials such as new words, structures and background knowledge for other skills To learn reading well, it is necessary for students to comprehend sufficient language base, one of which is the cohesive devices in the text By mastering cohesive devices, students can even interpret the text with inadequate vocabulary Because of all reasons mentioned above, this small study on discourse analysis of cohesive devices is decided to be carried out with the source of data taken from reading texts in the English textbook 11 This research is hoped to help 11th grade students in learning reading in particular and in learning English in general Moreover, English teachers are also hoped to pay more attention to cohesive devices in their teaching process on account of its benefits Aims of the Study The study aims: - to describe and analyze lexical and grammatical cohesive devices in the new English textbook 11; - to give some suggestions for teaching reading skill for 11th grade students In order to achieve the aims stated, the study is meant to find out the answers to the two following research questions: What are the grammatical and lexical cohesive devices used in reading texts in English textbook 11? How can the findings help English teachers and 11th grade students to improve reading skill? Scope of the Study Because of the lack of time and the paper size, it is unable for all the issues of discourse to be analyzed The study focuses on the grammatical and lexical cohesive devices in reading texts in the new English textbook 11 The new English textbook “Tieng Anh 11”, which refers to “English 11” for convenience, is published by Educational Publisher firstly in 2006 English 11 contains sixteen units, in each of which, there are five parts: reading, speaking, listening, writing and language focus Reading is put at the beginning of each unit, this proves its importance In this minor study, sixteen reading passages in sixteen units are analyzed in terms of grammatical and lexical cohesive devices Then, some significant and practical suggestions for 11th grade English students and teachers are given with the hope to improve the reading learning and teaching process Significance of the Study This study aims at investigating cohesive devices of reading texts in English 11 in the light of discourse Hence, it contributes to verifying the correctness and significance related to linguistic theories in discourse analysis by analyzing discourse in one specific textbook In addition, the practical significance of the study is to help 11th grade students and teachers in reading skill by applying the knowledge of cohesion Because of the widely application of English 11 in education system throughout the country, the suggestions from this study are much more valuable Methods of the Study The descriptive, statistical and analytical methods are used in this study The descriptive method is used to describe theories related to cohesion and to build up a framework for the study Then the statistical method is applied in order to list and number the cohesive devices in sixteen reading passages in English 11 Finally, analytical method is restored to analyze the collected data in terms of grammatical and lexical cohesive devices Basing on the data analysis, necessary comments and suggestions are made Design of the Study The minor thesis consists of three parts: - Part is The Introduction which gives rationale, aims, scope, significance and methods of the study - Part is The Development which is divided into three chapters: + Chapter is Literature Review + Chapter is Methodology + Chapter is Major Findings and Discussions - Part is The Conclusion which states some conclusions of the study and several suggestions for English teachers and learners and gives recommendations for further research PART 2: DEVELOPMENT CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW Discourse and Discourse Analysis 1.1 The Concept of Discourse Discourse is defined in various ways by different scholars and authors The classical definition of discourse as derived from formalist assumptions is that discourse is “language above the sentence or above the clause” (Stubbs 1983: 1) Schiffrin, D (1994: 20) shares the same idea; he defines discourse in two ways: a particular unit of language and a particular focus In the other words, discourse is above sentences and it focuses on language use Crystal (1992: 25) defined discourse more clearly by stating that “discourse is a continuous stretch of language larger than a sentence, often constituting a coherent unit such as sermon, argument, joke or narrative.” David Nunan (1993: 5) also adds by writing that “discourse can be defined as a stretch of language consisting of several sentences which as perceived as being related not only in terms of the ideas they share but also in terms of the jobs they perform within the discourse That is, in terms of their functions.” Although there are a lot of different definitions of discourse, the definition given by Halliday and Hasan is regarded as the simplest and the clearest to follow According to Halliday and Hasan (1976: 38), discourse is language that is functional It means that discourse is “language in use” 1.2 Text and Discourse In the view of Brown and Yule (1983: 6), “text” is regarded as a technical term; it refers to the verbal record of a communicative act By this mean, the text may be differently presented in various forms of editions, with different types, on different papers’ size; however, it is still assumed to be the same text Halliday and Hasan define a text as a semantic unit which focuses on meaning instead of on its form In their view, a text does not consist of sentences; it is realized by, or encoded in, sentences To understand what a text is in the most detailed distinction, it is a good way to compare it with discourse Many linguists have defined text and discourse differently According to Widdowson (1979), text has cohesion while discourse has coherence or Cook (1989) see discourse as a process and text as a product Crystal (1992: 72) distinguishes text and discourse by its use, text should be used only for writing but discourse for speech On the other hand, many linguists think that text and discourse cannot be made a clear distinction In the view of Halliday and Hasan (1976: 23), “text” is employed to refer to “discourse”; they see “text” as a “semantic unit” characterized by cohesion They state: “A text is a passage of discourse which coherent in these two regards: it is coherent with respect to the context of situation and therefore consistent in register; and it is coherent with respect to itself, and therefore cohesive” Sharing the same ideas, Brown & Yule (1983) support that text is the representation of discourse and the verbal record of a communicative act In other words, they all view the notion of text is the representation of discourse, text is the form of discourse and they have a close relationship Although some linguists try to set “text” and “discourse” apart, it is undeniable that the term “text” and “discourse” refer to the same subject matter In this study, the term discourse will be used without difference from text They both refer to any written record for communicative functional purposes 1.3 Spoken and Written Discourse Spoken and written discourses are distinguished in terms of modes for expressing linguistic meaning and various functions Spoken and written discourses represent different modes for expressing linguistic meaning In the view of Cook (1989: 50), spoken discourse is changeable and less planed It can be produced and processed “on line” Receivers, by this way, are open to make an intervention to spoken discourse Written discourse, on the other hand, is well-structured and permanent In writing process, writers are unable to go back and change or restructure his words Spoken and written language can be also distinguished by different functions According to Brown and Yule (1983: 13), the function of spoken language is mainly to establish and maintain human relationship whereas written language has functions to store information from time and space and to permit words and sentences to be examined out of their original contexts In other words, spoken discourse is concerned with interactional use meanwhile the latter with the transactional use XLIV This speedy and secure service of transferring money can be useful A slow B hurried C careful D rapid If you want to send a document and not want to lose its original shape, send it by a fax machine A unique B outdated C changed D imaginative Exercise 6: Read the passage carefully and choose the correct answer A, B, C or D The Chinese New Year takes place sometime between January 21 and February 20 Like most other traditional Chinese festivals its date depends on the Chinese lunar calendar, and changes from year to year In China, the New Year is much seen as a time of new beginnings For this reason, people believe that all debts should be paid and arguments resolved before the festivities even begin Houses are also cleaned from top to bottom with particular attention being paid to the kitchen People believe that the kitchen god sends in a report to the “high authorities” on the family’s behaviour over the past year They want to encourage him to say nice things about them.At this time of year there are also thought to be a lot of evil spirits around, so people set off firecrackers and paste large pictures of fierce- looking gods on doors and gates to frighten them off Before New Year’s Eve people make their homes attractive by decorating them with flowers and plants, and hanging brightly- coloured decorations Then on the evening itself all the family members gather at home to enjoy a special dinner and see the New Year together Children are encouraged to stay awake until after midnight- the superstition is that if they go to sleep early they will have a short life On New Year’s Day all members of the family take a bath and put on new clothes Everyone greets each other with the words “Gon Xi Fa Cai”, which means “May prosperity be with you” Children are given gifts of money called “lucky money” in red and gold envelops These are sometimes put underneath their pillows the night before After enjoying the festival food, people visit their relatives and friends to wish them happy and prosperous New Year Which words means the same as “settled”? A resolved B lived C came What does “him” in the third paragraph refer to? D cleaned XLV A the owner of the house B the kitchen god C an evil spirit D a high authority What does “them” in the forth paragraph refer to? A fierce- looking gods B evil spirits C firecrackers D doors What does “These” in the final paragraph refer to? A children B money C food D envelops What does “them” in the final paragraph refer to? A people B relatives C.friends D relatives and friends Exercise 7: Choose the word or phrase with the same meaning as the underlined part Each nation has many people who voluntarily take care of others a bring along b get on with c keep up with d look after The construction work was carried out by the local contractor a continued b completed c done d run Some high school students take part in helping the handicapped a participate b compete c experience d support She had never imagined being able to visit such remote countries a foreign b faraway c friendly d desolate The lawn needs mowing again a repairing b making c bending d cutting A bank has promised a donation of $24 million toward the disaster fund a connection b addition c contribution d provision Teachers have been asked to concentrate on literacy and numeracy a the ability to read and write b basic skills in mathematics c good knowledge of literature d the ability to write books We were involved in the anti-drug campaign up until the last minute a included b affected c interested d taken part English classes will be set up for the disadvantaged children a built b started c chosen d taken 10 People are now raising money for flood victims a sending b collecting c paying d making XLVI SOURCES OF DATA List of Sixteen Reading Passages in English 11 UNIT 1: FRIENDSHIP Everyone has a number of acquaintances, but no one has many friends, for true friendship is not common, and there are many people who seem to be incapable of it For a friendship to be close and lasting, both the friends must have some very special qualities The first quality is unselfishness A person who is concerned only with his own interests and feelings cannot be a true friend Friendship is a two-sided affair; it lives by give-and-take, and no friendship can last long which is all give on one side and all take on the other Constancy is the second quality Some people not seem to be constant They take up an interest with enthusiasm, but they are soon tired of it and feel the attraction of the new object Such changeable and uncertain people are incapable of a lifelong friendship Loyalty is the third quality Two friends must be loyal to each other, and they must know each other so well that there can be no suspicions between them We not think much of people who readily believe rumours and gossip about their friends Those who are easily influenced by rumours can never be good friends Trust is perhaps the forth quality There must be mutual trust between friends, so that each can feel safe when telling the other his or her secrets There are people who cannot keep a secret, either of their own or of others’ Such people will never keep a friend long Lastly, there must be a perfect sympathy between friends - sympathy with each other’s aims, likes, joys, sorrows, pursuits and pleasures Where such mutual sympathy does not exist, friendship is impossible UNIT 2: PERSONAL EXPERIENCES MY MOST EMBARRASSING EXPERIENCE XLVII My most embarrassing experience happened a few years ago, when I was a grade student In those days, my biggest dream was a red hat- a floppy cotton hat like the one my pop star idol wore in her video clip I thought I would look great in it My father knew this, so on my birthday he gave me some money so that I could buy the hat for myself I was extremely excited and decided to go to the shop at once I got on the bus and sat down next to a schoolboy about my age The boy glanced at me and turned away There was a sneaky look on his face, but I didn’t think much about it I was busy imagining how I would look in the hat After a while, I turned around and noticed that the boy’s schoolbag was open Inside it, I saw a wad of dollar notes exactly like the ones my father had given me I quickly looked into my own bag - the notes had gone! I was sure that the boy was a thief He had stolen my money I didn’t want to make a fuss, so I decided just to tale my money back form the schoolboy’s bag, without saying a word about it So I carefully put my hand into the boy’s bag, took the notes and put them in my own bag With the money I bought the pretty hat of my dreams When I got home, I showed it to my father “How did you pay for it?” he asked “With the money you gave me for my birthday, of course, Dad” I replied “Oh? What’s that then?” he asked, as he pointed to a wad of dollar notes on the table Can you imagine how I felt then? UNIT 3: A PARTY A it is Lisa’s birthday She is seven years old today, and her family and friends are at her birthday party On the table is a birthday cake with seven candles, one for each year People sing “Happy birthday” to Lisa: Happy birthday to you! Happy birthday to you! Happy birthday, dear Lisa! XLVIII Happy birthday to you! When they finish singing, Lisa blows out the candles on the cake Then everybody eats cake and ice cream After that, Lisa opens her birthday cards and presents Her family and friends give her toys and clothes for her birthday In United States, people of all ages celebrate birthday But when an adult has a birthday, there are not a lot of candles on the birthday cake Many Americans over the age of 30 don’t like to talk about their age Some people joke every year, “I’m 29 years old today.” Perhaps they not want to get older B Rosa and Luis are having a party, too But it is not a birthday party It is an anniversary party Fifty years ago, Rosa and Luis got married Today their family and friends are giving them a party Everyone eats some cakes and says “Happy Anniversary!” to Rosa and Luis People also give cards and gifts to the anniversary couple Most married couples in the United States celebrate wedding anniversaries each year Husbands and wives give flowers or gifts to each other They often have a quiet dinner at home or at a restaurant They usually don’t have a big party But the 25th and the 50th wedding anniversaries are special People call the 25th the “silver anniversary” and the 50th the “golden anniversary.” These anniversaries mark the milestones of a happy and lasting relationship between married couples Rosa and Luis are happy to be together for their golden anniversary UNIT 4: VOLUNTEER WORK Each nation has many people who voluntarily take care of others For example, many high school and college students in the United States often spend many hours as volunteers in hospitals, orphanages or home for aged They read books for people in these places Sometimes the students just visit them, play games with them or listen to their problems Other young volunteers work in the homes of sick or old people They clean up their houses, their shopping or mow their lawns For boys who no longer have fathers, there is a voluntary organization called Big Brothers College students take these boys to baseball games and help them to get to know things that boys usually learn from their fathers XLIX Some high school students take part in helping disadvantaged or handicapped children They give care and comfort to them and help them to overcome their difficulties Young college and university students participate in helping the people who have suffered badly in wars or natural disasters During summer vocations, they volunteer to work in remote or mountainous areas to provide education for children Each city has a number of clubs where boys and girls can go to play games Some of these clubs organize short trips to the mountains, beaches or other places of interest Most of these clubs use a lot of high school and college students as volunteers because they are young enough to understand the problems of younger boys and girls Volunteers believe that some of the happiest people in the world are those who help to bring happiness to others UNIT 5: ILLITERACY By July 2000, sixty-one provinces and cities throughout Vietnam had completed the programmes of “Universalisation of Primary Education” and “Illiteracy Eradication” However, by that time, only 94% of the population was able to read and write This meant that more work had to be done to eradicate illiteracy in the country In the summer of 2000, the Vietnam Society of Learning Promotion started a campaign for illiteracy eradication In the campaign, six hundred ethnic minority students from the northern highlands were asked to provide reading and writing skills to 1,200 illiterate people living in their home villages In 2001, eight hundred volunteer students took part in the campaign The number of students receiving reading and writing lessons reached 4,623 This was an effective way to help people in remote and mountainous areas to read and write Those students who took part in the fight against illiteracy considered it an honorable job to help people in their home villages They voluntarily spent their summer vocations teaching illiterate people to read and write Some even prepared relevant materials for their classes They talked about new farming techniques and family planning Before they left, they promised to come back the next summer The fight against illiteracy continued in the summer of 2002 This time the Vietnam Society of Learning Promotion decided to expand its activities to the central mountainous provinces At present, the number of illiterate people in the remote and mountainous areas is gradually L decreasing It is hoped that illiteracy will soon be eradicated in our country as more and more people are taking part in the struggle against it UNIT 6: COMPETITIONS Last Saturday the representatives of three classes of my school took part in the annual final English Competition organized by our English teachers Its aim was to stimulate the spirit of learning English among students The competition was sponsored by the Students’ Parents Society Mrs Lien, our English teacher, explained the competition’s rules to the students “… To participate in the contest, you have to work in groups of three Each group must complete five activities in all On completion of each activity, you will have to answer the questions on the worksheets within two minutes The judges will observe and score your performance The maximum score for each activity is 15 points At the end of the competition, the judges will announce the total score of each group The group that gets the highest score will be the winner The winner will be awarded a set of CDs for studying English and an Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary Now, let’s start our competition.” Hung, Thu and Nga were the members of Group A they quickly read the questions and tried to find pout the answers At first, things went smoothly They almost completed the five activities But in Activity 5, Hung had difficulty reciting the poem He could not remember the last sentence Time was up, and the judges announced the results The winner was Group B, which got 70 points; Hung’s group got 65 points; and group C got 60 points Thu felt a bit disappointed Hung apologized for not being able to complete the poem But Nga made it better by saying “For me the most important thing was our participation in the competition and the enjoyment we had from it” UNIT 7: WORLD POPULATION The population of the world has been increasing faster and faster In 10,000 B.C., there were probably only 10 million people In A.D 1, there were 300 million It took 1,750 years for the world population to reach 625 million In 1850, only one hundred years later, the population reached the figure of 1,300 million In 1950, the figure had more than doubled to reach 2,510 million In 1985, only 35 years later, there were 4,760 million people In 2000, the world’s population was about 6.6 billion, and by 2015 it is expected to be over billion LI Does the Earth have enough resources to support this many people? Different scientists give different answers to this question Some say that there are enough resources to support billion people Others say that we must limit population growth because our resources are limited Only 10 percent of the earth’s land can be used for farming and another 20 percent for raising animals There is a limit to the water we can use There are also limits to the amounts of petroleum, iron, silver, gold, and other metals Research has show that the average Third World woman has more children than she wants Among the women who not think they have too many children, half of them not want any more However, although millions of women want to limit their size of their families, they know of no safe way to have fewer children Safe birth-control methods for family planning are not available to them It is time for governments and international organizations did something to help them so that the world population growth can start to decrease instead of continuing to increase UNIT 8: CELEBRATIONS Lunar New Year, or Tet, is Vietnam’s main holiday It is the grandest and most important occasion in the year which falls sometime between 19th January and 20th February on the Western calendar Tet marks the beginning of spring and, for agrarian people, the start of a new year Tet’s preparations and celebrations used to be spread over months, but nowadays the holiday is much shorter A great deal of excitement still builds up well before Tet, however Streets are decorated with colored lights and red banners Shops are full of goods People are busy buying gifts, cleaning and decorating their houses and cooking their traditional foods Homes are often decorated with plants and flowers at this time Peach blossom is traditional at Tet in the North while apricot blossom is traditional in the South The kumquat tree with its ripe deep orange fruits is popular throughout the country One of Tet’s most special food is banh chung, which is made from sticky rice, green beans and fatty pork Mut, which is candied fruit such as sugared apples, plums or tomatoes, is also popular On the days of Tet everyone tries to be nice and polite to each other People believe that what they on the first day of the year will influence their luck on during the whole year Thus, only positive comments should be made People visit other family members or friends, and they exchange New Year’s wishes Children receive their “lucky money” inside red LII envelopes Many people go to the pagoda to pray for a happy year for themselves and their family Both children and adults take part in games and various forms of entertainment Tet is really a time of fun and festivals throughout the country UNIT 9: THE POST OFFICE (Open daily from a.m to p.m.) Thanh Ba Post Office is equipped with advanced technology and has a spacious and pleasant front office We offer the best services with a well-trained staff, who are always thoughtful and courteous to customers Mail and Parcel Service You can choose to send your letters by air or surface mail We also have the Express Mail Service and your EMS mail will be delivered in the shortest possible time The maximum weight limit of a parcel is 31.5 kg We offer a very comparative rate for parcels under 15 kg Express Money Transfer Just imagine your relatives are living over one thousand kilometers away from you and you want to send them some money quickly This speedy and secure service for transferring money can be useful The money will be sent to your relatives in less than 24 hours Phone Calls and Faxes Besides the ordinary telephone call service, our Post Office provides the Messenger Call Service This service helps you to notify the recipient of the time and place to receive the call If you want to send a document and not want to lose its original shape, our facsimile service will help you Fax transmission has now become a cheap and convenient way to transmit texts and graphics over distances Press Distribution LIII Don’t bother to go out early to buy your daily newspapers Just subscribe to your favorite newspapers and magazines and we will have them delivered to your house early in the morning 10 UNIT 10: NATURE IN DANGER The human race is only one small species in the living world Many other species exist on this planet However, human beings have a great influence on the rest of the world They are changing the environment by building cities and villages where forests once stood They are affecting the water supply by using water for industry and agriculture They are changing weather conditions by cutting down trees in the forests And they are destroying the air by adding pollutants to it It can be said that human beings are changing the environment in all respects through their actions and by their habits This has resulted in two serious consequences The first is that many kinds of rare animals are killed The second is that the environment where these animals are living is badly destroyed As a result, the number of rare animals is decreasing so rapidly that they are in danger of becoming extinct In order to make sure that these rare animals not disappear, efforts have been made to protect the environments in which they live Scientists have made lists of endangered species and suggested ways to save them Many organizations have been set up and funds have been raised Thousands of national parks all over the world have been established to protect endangered animals Laws have been introduced to prohibit the killing of endangered animals and the destructions of the environments where these rare animals are living If people’s interference with the environment decreases, more species will survive and produce offspring The Earth will be happy planet where human beings, animals and plants peacefully co-exist 11 UNIT 11: SOURCES OF ENERGY At present, most of our energy comes from fossil fuels (oil, cold, and natural gas) However, such reserves are limited Because power demand is increasing very rapidly, fossil fuels will be exhausted within a relatively short time Therefore, people must develop and use alternative sources of energy LIV One alternative source is nuclear energy Nuclear energy can provide enough electricity for the world’s needs for hundreds years, but it can be very dangerous Another alternative source of energy is geothermal heat, which comes from deep inside the earth Scientists use this heat to make energy However, this energy is available only in a few places in the world The sun, water, and the wind are other alternative sources of energy The wind turns windmills and move sailboats It is a clean source of energy, and there is lots of it Unfortunately, if the wind does not blow, there is no wind energy When water moves from a higher place to a lower place, it makes energy This energy is used to create electricity Water power gives energy without pollution However, people have to build dams to use this energy And as dams cost a lot of money, so water energy is expensive The sun releases large amounts of energy every day This energy can be changed into electricity Many countries use solar energy for their daily life Solar panels on the roofs of houses can create enough energy to heat or cool an entire house Solar energy is not only plentiful and infinite but also clean and safe Although there are some disadvantages, the potential of alternative sources of energy is great However, how to make full use of the sources of energy is a question for researchers all over the world 12 UNIT 12: THE ASIAN GAMES The Asian Games, which take place every four years, are held for the purpose of developing intercultural knowledge and friendship within Asia In this multi-sport event, young people from over Asia gather together to compete It is an occasion when strength and sport skills are tested; friendship and solidarity are built and promoted During five-decade history, the Asian Games have been advancing in all aspects The number of participants has been increasing The quality of athletes, officials and sports facilities has been developing through time New sports and traditional sports have been introduced and added to the Games The 1st Asian Games were held in New Delhi, India in 1951 Only 489 athletes from 11 nations took part in the Games The six sports events at the first Games were basketball, cycling, football, aquatic sports, athletics and weightlifting Boxing, shooting and wrestling were added at the 2nd Asian Games in Manila, the Philippines in 1954; and tennis, volleyball, table tennis and hockey were added at 3rd Asian Games in Tokyo, Japan in 1958 LV Squash, rugby, fencing and mountain biking were introduced for the first time at 13th Asian Games in Bangkok, Thailand in 1998 The 14th Asian Games, which were held in Busan, Korea in 2002, attracted 9,919 participants from 44 countries The athletes competed in 38 different sports and won 427 gold medals The Vietnamese participants took part in this event with great enthusiasm Their efforts were much appreciated when they won gold medals in bodybuilding and billiards, and other in women’s karatedo It is hoped that in the near future, Vietnam will become a host country and receive more medals in a variety of sports events 13 UNIT 13: HOBBIES There are a number of things I like to in my free time They are my hobbies The hobby I like most is playing my guitar My uncle, who is an accomplished guitarist, taught me how to play Now I can play a few simple tunes I have even begun to sing while playing the guitar, but I have not been very successful at this My uncle tells me that all I need is to practice regularly and I should be able to it He is very good at accompanying people singing with his guitar and I admire him very much Another hobby of mine is keeping fish I have a modest little glass fish tank where I keep a variety of little fish Some of them were bought from the shop while some others were collected from the rice field near my house They look so beautiful swimming about in the tank I love watching them and my mother loves watching them, too I keep stamps, too However, I would not call myself an avid stamp collector Actually, I just collect the stamps from discarded envelopes that my relatives and friends give me Mostly I get local stamps Once in a while, I get stamps from places like Russia, the USA, Britain, Australia, China and others I keep the less common ones inside a small album: the common ones I usually give away to others or if no one wants them I simply throw them away There are other hobbies that I indulge in for a while, but they are not as interesting as the ones I’ve been talking about They really keep me occupied and I am glad I am able to them 14 UNIT 14: RECREATION LVI “All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy”, goes an English saying Recreation and entertainment are important to people anywhere in the world However forms of popular entertainment are different in different countries In Britain, the most common leisure activities are home based Watching television is by far the most popular pastime, and nearly all households have a television set Over 51 percent of households have two or more television sets and average viewing time for population aged four and over is 25 hours a week Other pursuits including listening to music, reading, do-ityourself home improvements and gardening British people are also very interested in watching and taking part in sports Walking and swimming are two most popular sporting activities, being almost equally undertaken by men and women Snooker, pool and darts are the nest most popular sports among men The most popular spectator sports are football and rugby in winter, and cricket and athletics in summer In the last few years in Britain, a new trend has been developing, i.e., taking weekend or holiday courses There is an enormous range of courses on offer The course can be as simple as bricklaying or as sophisticated as making your own stock market decisions For people who are interested in art, there are courses in painting or drawing People who like music can take a course in karaoke singing Courses like shoemaking or glass engraving provide people practical skills they can with their hands Those who want to improve their minds can take a course of “Living with more meaning” Entry qualifications to weekend courses are generous, that is, generally no qualifications are necessary, apart from an ability to pay the fees, which may be quite high 15 UNIT 15: SPACE CONQUEST At 9.07 a.m Moscow time on 12th April, 1961, Yuri Gagarin lifted off into space aboard the Vostok Approximately 12 minutes later, the first human being was in orbit around the Earth at a speed of more than 17.000 miles per hour His flight lasted 108 minutes The 27-year-old Soviet cosmonaut became the first person to eat and drink in weightlessness From his window into space, Gagarin was able to view the Earth in a way that no human beings had done before The first words spoken from space were: “I see the Earth It’s so beautiful!” LVII Before Gagarin’s historic flight, there were still enormous uncertainties No one knew precisely what would happen to human being into space How would the body react to the extreme changes in temperature? How would the mind dealt with the psychological tension? If there was a technical failure, Gagarin might never get back to the Earth The success of Gagarin’s flight attracted worldwide attention and made him a hero In a telegram to Moscow, U.S President John F Kennedy wrote, “The people of the United States share with the people of the Soviet Union their satisfaction for the sage flight of the astronaut in man’s first venture into space We congratulate you and the Soviet scientists and engineers who made this feat possible….” Gagarin could have made another space flight if a tragic accident had not occurred He died in a plane crash on a routine training flight in March 1968 After his death, his hometown of Gzhatsk was renamed Gagarin, and the Cosmonaut Training Centre at Star City, Russia, was given the name of his national hero 16 UNIT 16: THE WONDERS OF THE WORLD THE GREAT PYRAMID OF GIZA The Great Pyramid of Giza was built by the Egyptian pharaoh Khufu around the year 2560 BC The purpose of this huge stone pyramid was to serve as a tomb when he died and to protect the burial chamber from the weather and from the thieves who might try to steal the treasures and belongings there The Great Pyramid is believed to have been built over a 20year period First, the site was prepared and then the huge blocks of stone were transported and put in their places When it was built, the Great Pyramid was 147 metres high on a base of 230 metres squares It ranked as the tallest structure on earth for more than 43 centuries, only to be surpassed in height in the nineteenth century AD The structure consisted of approximately million blocks of stone, each weighing about 2.5 tons It has been suggested that there are enough blocks in three pyramids to build a 3-metre high, 0.3-metre-thick wall around France Although is is not known how the blocks were put in place, several theories have been proposed One theory involves the construction of a straight or spiral ramp that was raised as the construction proceeded A second theory suggests that the blocks were lifted and placed using thousands huge weight arms LVIII Today, the Great Pyramid of Giza was closed, together with the other pyramids in the tourist region of the Giza Plateau on the west bank of the River Nile Also in the area is the museum housing the mysterious Sun Boat, only discovered in 1954 near the south side of the pyramid The boat is believed to have been used to carry the body of Khufu in his last journey on earth before being buried inside the pyramid ... study of grammatical cohesive devices in English 10, 11 and 12 - The study of lexical cohesive devices in English 10, 11 and 12 - The study of cohesive devices in reading texts in English 10, 11 and... hope to improve the reading learning and teaching process Significance of the Study This study aims at investigating cohesive devices of reading texts in English 11 in the light of discourse Hence,... of data taken from reading texts in the English textbook 11 This research is hoped to help 11th grade students in learning reading in particular and in learning English in general Moreover, English