Bridge Engineering Handbook © 2000 by CRC Press LLC Bridge Engineering Handbook Edited by Wai-Fah Chen Lian Duan CRC Press Boca Raton London New York Washington, D C © 2000 by CRC Press LLC Acquiring Editor: Project Editors: Marketing Managers: Cover design: Manufacturing: Nora Konopka Carol Whitehead, Sylvia Wood Barbara Glunn, Jane Lewis, Arline Massey, Jane Stark Jonathan Pennell Carol Slatter Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Chen, Wai-Fah, Duan, Lian Bridge engineering handbook / edited by Wai-Fah Chen, Lian Duan p cm Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 0-8493-7434-0 (alk paper) Bridges—Design and construction I Chen, Wai-Fah, 1936 - II Duan, Lian TG145 - B85 1999 624’-2 d21c 99-3175 CIP This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources Reprinted material is quoted with permission, and sources are indicated A wide variety of references are listed Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and the publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or for the consequences of their use Neither this book nor any part may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or by any information storage or retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from the publisher All rights reserved Authorization to photocopy items for internal or personal use, or the personal or internal use of specific clients, may be granted by CRC Press LLC, provided that $.50 per page photocopied is paid directly to Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923 USA The fee code for users of the Transactional Reporting Service is ISBN 0-8493-7434-0/00/$0.00+$.50 The fee is subject to change without notice For organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged The consent of CRC Press LLC does not extend to copying for general distribution, for promotion, for creating new works, or for resale Specific permission must be obtained in writing from CRC Press LLC for such copying Direct all inquiries to CRC Press LLC, 2000 Corporate Blvd., N.W., Boca Raton, Florida 33431 Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation, without intent to infringe © 2000 by CRC Press LLC No claim to original U.S Government works International Standard Book Number 0-8493-7434-0 Library of Congress Card Number 99-3175 Printed in the United States of America Printed on acid-free paper © 2000 by CRC Press LLC Foreword Among all engineering subjects, bridge engineering is probably the most difficult on which to compose a handbook because it encompasses various fields of arts and sciences It not only requires knowledge and experience in bridge design and construction, but often involves social, economic, and political activities Hence, I wish to congratulate the editors and authors for having conceived this thick volume and devoted the time and energy to complete it in such short order Not only is it the first handbook of bridge engineering as far as I know, but it contains a wealth of information not previously available to bridge engineers It embraces almost all facets of bridge engineering except the rudimentary analyses and actual field construction of bridge structures, members, and foundations Of course, bridge engineering is such an immense subject that engineers will always have to go beyond a handbook for additional information and guidance I may be somewhat biased in commenting on the background of the two editors, who both came from China, a country rich in the pioneering and design of ancient bridges and just beginning to catch up with the modern world in the science and technology of bridge engineering It is particularly to the editors’ credit to have convinced and gathered so many internationally recognized bridge engineers to contribute chapters At the same time, younger engineers have introduced new design and construction techniques into the treatise This Handbook is divided into seven sections, namely: • • • • • • • Fundamentals Superstructure Design Substructure Design Seismic Design Construction and Maintenance Special Topics Worldwide Practice There are 67 chapters, beginning with bridge concepts and aesthestics, two areas only recently emphasized by bridge engineers Some unusual features, such as rehabilitation, retrofit, and maintenance of bridges, are presented in great detail The section devoted to seismic design includes soil-foundationstructure interaction Another section describes and compares bridge engineering practices around the world I am sure that these special areas will be brought up to date as the future of bridge engineering develops May I advise each bridge engineer to have a desk copy of this volume with which to survey and examine both the breadth and depth of bridge engineering T Y Lin Professor Emeritus, University of California at Berkeley Chairman, Lin Tung-Yen China, Inc © 2000 by CRC Press LLC Preface The Bridge Engineering Handbook is a unique, comprehensive, and state-of-the-art reference work and resource book covering the major areas of bridge engineering with the theme “bridge to the 21st century.” It has been written with practicing bridge and structural engineers in mind The ideal readers will be M.S.-level structural and bridge engineers with a need for a single reference source to keep abreast of new developments and the state-of-the-practice, as well as to review standard practices The areas of bridge engineering include planning, analysis and design, construction, maintenance, and rehabilitation To provide engineers a well-organized, user-friendly, and easy-to-follow resource, the Handbook is divided into seven sections Section I, Fundamentals, presents conceptual design, aesthetics, planning, design philosophies, bridge loads, structural analysis, and modeling Section II, Superstructure Design, reviews how to design various bridges made of concrete, steel, steel-concrete composites, and timbers; horizontally curved, truss, arch, cable-stayed, suspension, floating, movable, and railroad bridges; and expansion joints, deck systems, and approach slabs Section III, Substructure Design, addresses the various substructure components: bearings, piers and columns, towers, abutments and retaining structures, geotechnical considerations, footings, and foundations Section IV, Seismic Design, provides earthquake geotechnical and damage considerations, seismic analysis and design, seismic isolation and energy dissipation, soil–structure–foundation interactions, and seismic retrofit technology and practice Section V, Construction and Maintenance, includes construction of steel and concrete bridges, substructures of major overwater bridges, construction inspections, maintenance inspection and rating, strengthening, and rehabilitation Section VI, Special Topics, addresses in-depth treatments of some important topics and their recent developments in bridge engineering Section VII, Worldwide Practice, provides the global picture of bridge engineering history and practice from China, Europe, Japan, and Russia to the U.S The Handbook stresses professional applications and practical solutions Emphasis has been placed on ready-to-use materials, and special attention is given to rehabilitation, retrofit, and maintenance The Handbook contains many formulas and tables that give immediate answers to questions arising from practical works It describes the basic concepts and assumptions, omitting the derivations of formulas and theories, and covers both traditional and new, innovative practices An overview of the structure, organization, and contents of the book can be seen by examining the table of contents presented at the beginning, while an in-depth view of a particular subject can be seen by examining the individual table of contents preceding each chapter References at the end of each chapter can be consulted for moredetailed studies The chapters have been written by many internationally known authors from different countries covering bridge engineering practices, research, and development in North America, Europe, and the Pacific Rim This Handbook may provide a glimpse of a rapidly growing trend in global economy in recent years toward international outsourcing of practice and competition in all dimensions of engineering In general, the Handbook is aimed toward the needs of practicing engineers, but materials may be reorganized to accommodate undergraduate and graduate level bridge courses The book may also be used as a survey of the practice of bridge engineering around the world © 2000 by CRC Press LLC The authors acknowledge with thanks the comments, suggestions, and recommendations during the development of the Handbook by Fritz Leonhardt, Professor Emeritus, Stuttgart University, Germany; Shouji Toma, Professor, Horrai-Gakuen University, Japan; Gerard F Fox, Consulting Engineer; Jackson L Durkee, Consulting Engineer; Michael J Abrahams, Senior Vice President, Parsons, Brinckerhoff, Quade & Douglas, Inc.; Ben C Gerwick, Jr., Professor Emeritus, University of California at Berkeley; Gregory F Fenves, Professor, University of California at Berkeley; John M Kulicki, President and Chief Engineer, Modjeski and Masters; James Chai, Senior Materials and Research Engineer, California Department of Transportation; Jinrong Klang, Senior Bridge Engineer, URS Greiner; and David W Liu, Principal, Imbsen & Associates, Inc We wish to thank all the authors for their contributions and also to acknowledge at CRC Press Nora Konopka, Acquiring Editor, and Carol Whitehead and Sylvia Wood, Project Editors Wai-Fah Chen Lian Duan © 2000 by CRC Press LLC Editors Wai-Fah Chen is a George E Goodwin Distinguished Professor of Civil Engineering and Head of the Department of Structural Engineering, School of Civil Engineering at Purdue University He received his B.S in civil engineering from the National Cheng-Kung University, Taiwan, in 1959, M.S in structural engineering from Lehigh University, Bethlehem, Pennsylvania in 1963, and Ph.D in solid mechanics from Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island in 1966 Dr Chen’s research interests cover several areas, including constitutive modeling of engineering materials, soil and concrete plasticity, structural connections, and structural stability He is the recipient of numerous engineering awards, including the AISC T.R Higgins Lectureship Award, the ASCE Raymond C Reese Research Prize, and the ASCE Shortridge Hardesty Award He was elected to the National Academy of Engineering in 1995, and was awarded an Honorary Membership in the American Society of Civil Engineers in 1997 He was most recently elected to the Academia Sinica in Taiwan Dr Chen is a member of the Executive Committee of the Structural Stability Research Council, the Specification Committee of the American Institute of Steel Construction, and the editorial board of six technical journals He has worked as a consultant for Exxon’s Production and Research Division on offshore structures, for Skidmore, Owings and Merril on tall steel buildings, and for World Bank on the Chinese University Development Projects A widely respected author, Dr Chen’s works include Limit Analysis and Soil Plasticity (Elsevier, 1975), the two-volume Theory of Beam-Columns (McGraw-Hill, 1976–77), Plasticity in Reinforced Concrete (McGraw-Hill, 1982), Plasticity for Structural Engineers (Springer-Verlag, 1988), and Stability Design of Steel Frames (CRC Press, 1991) He is the editor of two book series, one in structural engineering and the other in civil engineering He has authored or coauthored more than 500 papers in journals and conference proceedings He is the author or coauthor of 18 books, has edited 12 books, and has contributed chapters to 28 other books His more recent books are Plastic Design and Second-Order Analysis of Steel Frames (Springer-Verlag, 1994), the two-volume Constitutive Equations for Engineering Materials (Elsevier, 1994), Stability Design of Semi-Rigid Frames (Wiley-Interscience, 1995), and LRFD Steel Design Using Advanced Analysis (CRC Press, 1997) He is editor-in-chief of The Civil Engineering Handbook (CRC Press, 1995, winner of the Choice Outstanding Academic Book Award for 1996, Choice Magazine), and the Handbook of Structural Engineering (CRC Press, 1997) © 2000 by CRC Press LLC Lian Duan is a Senior Bridge Engineer with the California Department of Transportation, U.S., and Professor of Structural Engineering at Taiyuan University of Technology, China He received his B.S in civil engineering in 1975, M.S in structural engineering in 1981 from Taiyuan University of Technology, and Ph.D in structural engineering from Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana in 1990 Dr Duan worked at the Northeastern China Power Design Institute from 1975 to 1978 Dr Duan’s research interests cover areas including inelastic behavior of reinforced concrete and steel structures, structural stability and seismic bridge analysis and design He has authored or coauthored more than 60 papers, chapters, and reports, and his research has focused on the development of unified interaction equations for steel beam-columns, flexural stiffness of reinforced concrete members, effective length factors of compression members, and design of bridge structures Dr Duan is also an esteemed practicing engineer He has designed numerous building and bridge structures Most recently, he has been involved in the seismic retrofit design of the San Francisco-Oakland Bay Bridge West spans and made significant contributions to the project He is coeditor of the Structural Engineering Handbook CRCnetBase 2000 (CRC Press, 2000) © 2000 by CRC Press LLC Contributors Michael I Abrahams Michel Bruneau Mingzhu Duan Parsons, Brinckerhoff, Quade & Douglas, Inc New York, New York Department of Civil Engineering State University of New York Buffalo, New York Quincy Engineering, Inc Sacramento, California Mohamed Akkari Chun S Cai California Department of Transportation Sacramento, California Florida Department of Transportation Tallahassee, Florida Fadel Alameddine James Chai California Department of Transportation Sacramento, California California Department of Transportation Sacramento, California Masoud Alemi Hong Chen California Department of Transportation Sacramento, California J Muller International, Inc Sacramento, California S Altman California Department of Transportation Sacramento, California Rambabu Bavirisetty California Department of Transportation Sacramento, California David P Billington Department of Civil Engineering and Operations Research Princeton University Princeton, New Jersey Michael Blank U.S.Army Corps of Engineers Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Simon A Blank California Department of Transportation Walnut Creek, California © 2000 by CRC Press LLC Kang Chen MG Engineering, Inc San Francisco, California Wai-Fah Chen School of Civil Engineering Purdue University West Lafayette, Indiana Nan Deng Bechtel Corporation San Francisco, California Robert J Dexter Department of Civil Engineering University of Minnesota Minneapolis, Minnesota Ralph J Dornsife Washington State Department of Transportation Olympia, Washington Lian Duan California Department of Transportation Sacramento, California Jackson Durkee Consulting Structural Engineer Bethlehem, Pennsylvania Marc O Eberhard Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering University of Washington Seattle, Washington Johnny Feng J Muller International, Inc Sacramento, California Gerard F Fox HNTB (Ret.) Garden City, New York John W Fisher Department of Civil Engineering Lehigh University Bethlehem, Pennsylvania Kenneth J Fridley Washington State University Pullman, Washington John H Fujimoto California Department of Transportation Sacramento, California Mahmoud Fustok California Department of Transportation Sacramento, California Ben C Gerwick, Jr Ben C Gerwick, Inc Consulting Engineers San Francisco, California Floating Bridge See Figure 67.38 FIGURE 67.38 The 2377-m-long Lacey V Murrow Floating Bridge across Lake Washington near Seattle is composed of hollow concrete pontoons The depth of water, 45.7 m, precludes piers, but there are some bridge spans over shallow water near the shore that can pass small vessels It was designed by Charles Andrew and Clark Elkridge in 1940 The bridge is listed on the National Register of Historic places (Courtesy of American Society of Civil Engineers.) 67.6 The Interstate Era The Federal System of Interstate and Defense Highways following World War II gave another boost to highway and bridge building The system designed to be nonstop, separated, and controlled access requires many bridges in order to function as planned Old-time bridge engineers had a difficult time trying to adapt Their experience up until then had been to bridge the low spot in valleys crossing over waterways Now, bridge engineers found themselves building bridges over dry land, at ridges, and over the highways themselves Several new innovations were spawned during this prolific period Composite steel, concrete box girders, and prestressed concrete became routine © 2000 by CRC Press LLC Concrete Box Girders This superstructure type, developed by Jim Jurkovich of the California Division of Highways, has good torsional stability and provides exceptional wheel load distribution across the girders Concrete structures evolved into the preferred types, starting in California California has an abundant source of aggregates and cement Contractors learned to build them at costs competitive with steel (Figures 67.39 and 67.40) FIGURE 67.39 The Four Level Interchange in downtown Los Angeles, built in 1950, is the first multilevel interchange of two freeways It is a reinforced concrete box girder, a type developed by, and to become the hallmark of, the California Division of Highways (Courtesy of California Department of Transportation.) © 2000 by CRC Press LLC FIGURE 67.40 Mission Valley Viaduct sweeps Interstate Route 805 over the San Diego River floodplain in southern California (Courtesy of California Department of Transportation.) © 2000 by CRC Press LLC Prestressed Concrete Prestressed concrete is a natural evolution of concrete girders It makes the best use of the compressive qualities of concrete and the tensile properties of steel Prestressing allows shallower structure depth, and a tremendous savings in approach roadway earthwork for interstate separations Prestressed concrete can be either pretensioned or post-tensioned, precast or cast in place All of these options have their place under different situations The California Division of Highways pioneered this system in the 1940s and has since made extensive use of cast-in-place post-tensioned concrete box girders The type has become so prevalent that construction contractors are able to build them for the same or less cost than normal reinforced concrete structures (Figures 67.41 and 67.42) FIGURE 67.41 The Interstate Routes 105/110 Interchange in Los Angeles, California, is a massive forest of concrete columns supporting intertwined roadways The Smithsonian Magazine highlighted the edifice as an artistic concrete creation in their January 1994 cover story It was designed by Elweed Pomeroy of the California Department of Transportation (Courtesy of Smithsonian Institution.) © 2000 by CRC Press LLC FIGURE 67.42 Kellogg Central Business District Viaduct in Wichita, Kansas, designed by Howard Needles Tamman Bergendoff, won a Portland Cement Association award in 1996 (Courtesy of Howard Needles Tamman Bergendoff.) © 2000 by CRC Press LLC Composite Steel Composite steel girders, where a concrete deck is attached to the top flange of a steel girder through mechanical connectors, utilizes the best advantages of the compressive properties of concrete and the tensile properties of steel While concrete was dominating the California and western bridge scene, steel remained the primary building material in the eastern and midwestern states (Figures 67.43 and 67.44) FIGURE 67.43 The South Fork of the Eel River Bridge in Northern California exemplifies the virtues of composite steel structures This 1958 bridge won an AISC award that year (Courtesy of California Department of Transportation.) © 2000 by CRC Press LLC FIGURE 67.44 The Cuyahoga River Valley Bridge built in 1980 for the Ohio Turnpike Authority earned an AISC award that year It was designed by Howard Needles Tamman Bergendoff (Courtesy of American Institute of Steel Construction.) © 2000 by CRC Press LLC A Resurgence of Steel As the Interstate Highway program began to utilize more and more concrete structures, during the 1960s, the steel and welding industry struggled to maintain its share of the bridge market Many innovations were introduced for the use of steel through this campaign, by the development of exotic steels, distribution of design aids and examples, and conducting of design contests Steel Girders See Figures 67.45 and 67.46 FIGURE 67.45 The Eugene A Doran Memorial (San Mateo Creek–Crystal Springs Reservoir) Bridge is a prizewinning bridge in a park setting Sloping exterior facia plates provide web stiffening and aesthetic treatment This welded plate steel girder bridge, built in 1970, was designed by Bob Cassano of the California Division of Highways (Courtesy of California Department of Transportation.) © 2000 by CRC Press LLC FIGURE 67.46 The Sacramento River Bridge at Elkhorn is a steel girder utilizing high-strength steel Built in 1970 for Interstate Route 5, the bridge earned an AISC award that year It was designed by Bert Bezzone of the California Division of Highways (Courtesy of California Department of Transportation.) © 2000 by CRC Press LLC Steel Box Girders and Orthotropic Steel Decks See Figures 67.47 through 67.49 FIGURE 67.47 The Klamath River crossing at Orleans in Northern California is a picturesque setting on a back road There have been seven structures at this site, one burned and five have been washed away during major floods The current steel box girder suspension span has lasted longer than any of its predecessors Built in 1967, it was designed by Bert Bezzone of the California Division of Highways (Courtesy of California Department of Transportation.) © 2000 by CRC Press LLC FIGURE 67.48 San Mateo–Hayward Bridge over the San Francisco Bay, not only has composite steel approach spans, but the main span has an orthotropic steel deck Listed among distinctive bridges, it won an American Institute of Steel Construction prize in 1968 It was designed by the California Division of Bay Toll Crossings (Courtesy of California Department of Transportation.) FIGURE 67.49 The Coronado Island Bridge over San Diego Bay in Southern California is a steel box girder It earned an AISC award in 1970 It was designed by the California Division of Bay Toll Crossings (Courtesy of California Department of Transportation.) © 2000 by CRC Press LLC 67.7 Era of the Signature Bridge With the energetic vision of the great Interstate Era virtually complete, and the ensuing rush of the Seismic Retrofit Age winding down, bridge engineers turned their imaginative minds toward the building of great monuments Segmental Prestressed Bridges Advanced technology of high-strength concrete and prestressing allows the cantilevering of structures out over deep valleys and bodies of water (Figures 67.50 and 67.51) FIGURE 67.50 The California Department of Transportation experimented with and built its only segmental bridge, on Interstate Route over Pine Valley in San Diego County in 1974 Bert Bezzone was the design engineer The bridge received an American Society of Civil Engineers award in 1974 (Courtesy of California Department of Transportation.) © 2000 by CRC Press LLC FIGURE 67.51 This graceful arch by Figg Engineering, carries the historic Natchez Trace over the park in Tennessee It is the first and longest, 317 m, precast segmental arch It received a design award of excellence in 1996 (Courtesy of Figg Engineering.) © 2000 by CRC Press LLC Cable-Stayed Bridges See Figures 67.52 and 67.53 FIGURE 67.52 The new cable-stayed Sunshine Skyway, built in 1987, clearly a signature bridge, makes a bright statement over the entrance to Tampa Bay, Florida This structure by Figg Engineering replaced the former Sunshine Skyway truss brought down by an errant barge that weighed more than that bridge The new piers are protected by caissons as big and heavy as that barge (Courtesy of Figg Engineering.) FIGURE 67.53 The Cheasapeake and Delaware Canal Bridge owned by Delaware Department of Transportation was designed by Figg Engineering It received an Excellence in Design Award in 1996 (Courtesy of Figg Engineering.) © 2000 by CRC Press LLC Composites The new definition of composite bridges has nothing to with steel or concrete Composites in modern usage refer to groups of organic chemical polymers commonly known as plastics These are still experimental materials as far as bridges are concerned, but have been used successfully in other industries for some time now Composites are now being used with fiber-wrap bridge columns as a seismic retrofit technique The California Department of Transportation is currently designing an experimental span which will be concrete-filled composite tube girders with a composite deck FIGURE 67.54 Laurel Lick Bridge is the second all-composite bridge to be completed It is owned by the West Virginia Department of Highways and was built experimentally in conjunction with West Virginia University, in 1997 (Courtesy of West Virginia Department of Highways.) 67.8 Epilogue All superstructure types are seen in combination, and with many variations Even though seemingly prevalent during evolving eras, type periods greatly overlap, with type selections being more dependent upon crossing length and foundation conditions In fact, every superstructure type is still being built today in response to various needs Let us all admire and learn from those Americans who have contributed, pioneered, and those who have consistently created award-winning structures of which all in the bridge-building profession can be proud These include Squire Whipple, James Eads, Theodore Cooper, Gustav Lindenthal, Othmar Amman, David Steinman, Ralph Modjeski, Leon Moisseiff, John and Washington Roebling, Joseph Strauss, John Waddell, Conde McCullough, T.Y Lin, Eugene Figg, the California Department of Transportation, and Howard Needles Tamman Bergendoff © 2000 by CRC Press LLC ... Cataloging-in-Publication Data Chen, Wai- Fah, Duan, Lian Bridge engineering handbook / edited by Wai- Fah Chen, Lian Duan p cm Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 0-8493-7434-0 (alk paper) Bridges—Design.. .Bridge Engineering Handbook © 2000 by CRC Press LLC Bridge Engineering Handbook Edited by Wai- Fah Chen Lian Duan CRC Press Boca Raton London New York Washington, D C © 2000 by CRC Press... Editors Wai- Fah Chen Lian Duan © 2000 by CRC Press LLC Editors Wai- Fah Chen is a George E Goodwin Distinguished Professor of Civil Engineering and Head of the Department of Structural Engineering,