Everyday arguments a guide to writing and reading effective arguments katherine j mayberry

E V E R Y DAY ARGUMENTS This page intentionally left blank E V E R Y DAY ARGUMENTS A Guide to Writing and Reading Effective Arguments THIRD EDITION KATHERINE J MAYBERRY Rochester Institute of Technology HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY Boston New York Publisher: Patricia Coryell Editor-in-Chief: Carrie Brandon Sponsoring Editor: Lisa Kimball Marketing Manager: Tom Ziolkowski Senior Development Editor: Kathy Sands Boehmer Senior Project Editor: Rosemary Winfield Art and Design Manager: Jill Haber Cover Design Manager: Anne Katzeff Photo Editor: Jennifer Meyer Dare Composition Buyer: Chuck Dutton New Title Project Manager: Priscilla Manchester Associate Editor: Sarah Truax Marketing Associate: Bettina Chiu Cover Image: Blue Rhapsody © Diana Ong / Superstock Credits continue on page 427, which constitutes an extension of the copyright page Copyright © 2009 by Houghton Mifflin Company All rights reserved No part of this work may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying and recording, or by any information storage or retrieval system without the prior written permission of Houghton Mifflin Company unless such copying is expressly permitted by federal copyright law With the Exception of nonprofit transcription in Braille, Houghton Mifflin is not authorized to grant permission for further uses of copyrighted selections reprinted in this text Permission must be obtained from the selections’ individual copyright owners as identified herein Address inquiries to College Permissions, Houghton Mifflin Company, 222 Berkeley Street, Boston, MA 02116-3764 Printed in the U.S.A Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 2007932698 – EB – 11 10 09 08 07 ISBN 10: 0-618-98675-8 ISBN 13: 978-0-618-98675-0 Brief Contents CONTENTS vii PREFACE xix PART I WRITING ARGUMENTS An Introduction to Argument Where Writing Begins: Motives and Audience 14 The Claim 24 An Argument’s Support 43 Supporting Your Arguments Honestly and Effectively 68 Making Reasonable Arguments: Formal and Informal Logic 86 Arguing Facts 103 Arguing Cause 119 Arguing Evaluations 144 10 Arguing Recommendations 170 11 Writing and Image 192 12 Introductions and Conclusions 204 13 Revising 216 v vi BRIEF CONTENTS PART II READING ARGUMENTS 233 14 Today’s College Student 235 15 The Internet 265 16 Sports 299 17 Earning Your Living 340 18 Diet 365 19 Reading Popular Culture 389 CREDITS 427 INDEX 431 Contents PREFACE xix PART I WRITING ARGUMENTS An Introduction to Argument AN EXTENDED DEFINITION THE CLASSES OF ARGUMENT ARGUMENT THROUGH IMAGE THE ARGUMENT PROCESS Forming the Argument Supporting the Claim Reviewing the Argument READING ARGUMENTS 10 Reading as Evaluation Additional Hints for Reading Critically CONCLUSION 10 11 11 Summary: An Introduction to Argument 12 Suggestions for Writing (1.1) 12 Where Writing Begins: Motives and Audience MOTIVES FOR WRITING 14 14 The Value of Dissonance Writing Arguments That Are Meaningful to You Activities (2.1) 17 vii 15 16 viii CONTENTS THE IMPORTANCE OF AUDIENCE Who Is the Audience? 17 17 Activities (2.2) 19 Why Will the Audience Read the Argument? 20 Activities (2.3) 20 What Should the Audience Be Able to Do After Reading the Argument? 21 Activities (2.4) 22 Summary: Where Writing Begins 22 Suggestions for Writing (2.5) 22 The Claim HOW CLAIMS WORK Finding a Claim Keeping Your Working Claim Flexible 24 24 25 27 Activities (3.1) 28 Positioning the Claim Claim Stated Up Front Claim Stated at the End of the Argument Unstated Claim in an Argument 29 29 30 30 Activities (3.2) 31 CLASSIFYING YOUR CLAIM Factual Claims 31 31 Activities (3.3) 33 Causal Claims 33 Activities (3.4) 34 Evaluations 35 Activities (3.5) 37 Recommendations 37 Activities (3.6) 38 Combination Claims 39 Activities (3.7) 40 Summary: The Claim 41 Suggestions for Writing (3.8) 42 An Argument’s Support SOME VARIETIES OF SUPPORT Secondary Claims Activities (4.1) 45 43 44 44 CONTENTS Comparisons Appeals to Authority Appeals to Audience Needs and Values ix 45 45 46 Activities (4.2) 46 Addressing the Counterargument SUPPORTING YOUR ARGUMENT VISUALLY Charts 46 48 49 Pie Chart 49 Bar/Column Chart 50 Line Graphs 51 When Is a Chart Appropriate? 52 What Is the Best Type of Chart to Use? 53 Using Charts Responsibly 53 Tables Pictorial Images 54 56 Diagrams 56 Cartoons and Drawings 57 Photographs 58 Activities (4.3) 59 ARRANGING YOUR ARGUMENT’S SUPPORT 59 Activities (4.4) 60 DEFINITIONS When to Define Types of Definitions 61 62 63 Activities (4.5) 66 Summary: An Argument’s Support 66 Suggestions for Writing (4.6) 67 Supporting Your Arguments Honestly and Effectively 68 PLAGIARISM AND WRITTEN ARGUMENTS Guidelines for Avoiding Plagiarism 69 70 Quotations 70 Paraphrases 70 Summaries 71 Primary or Secondary Sources? 71 Facts 71 Internet Material 72 Plagiarism Illustrated Plagiarism 72 Plagiarism 73 Plagiarism 73 72 426 CHAPTER 19 READING POPULAR CULTURE sums of money raked in by psychic hotlines, where people subsume their own judgments to the whimsy of strangers, should certainly concern us if the callers are not that wealthy Credulous thinking normally leads to poor decision making When ordinary citizens are no longer able or willing to think critically, complex thought itself can become a realm reserved for “experts.” They can make the decisions while we just watch TV Our inability or reluctance to understand science and scientific practice and our readiness to simply accept it makes us vulnerable to rummy thinking of all sorts Superstition is the easy way to live, but the more we give in to the seductive pull of faulty reasoning, the less control we actually have over our lives and our society Source: Howard Fienberg, “Nonsense Watch,” The American Prospect May 3, 2002 DISCUSSION QUESTIONS This article argues a variety of claims Identify and classify each of them Be sure to distinguish between primary claims and secondary, supporting claims In the second paragraph, the author gives a dictionary definition of “superstition.” Do you find this definition useful to the article? Why or why not? For what audience you think this argument was written? What audience you think would likely be most opposed to the views presented here? Most receptive? How would the argument’s approach need to change in order to convince the opposing audience you identify? Can you create a Toulmin diagram of the major claim of this argument? Of any of the minor claims? Identify three to four unsupported factual claims in this essay SUGGESTIONS FOR WRITING (19.6) In Par 6, Fienberg refers to “studies published in the Annals of Emergency Medicine, the Journal of Emergency Nursing and Psychological Report.” Choose one of these three journals and see if you can find the study Write a brief summary of the search tactics you used Write a four- to five-page paper (based on personal or second- or third-party experience) that argues a causal link between a superstitious belief and a negative outcome Write a four- to five-page paper in defense of superstition Find the “new report from the National Science Foundation” referred to in Par Write a 250-word abstract of the report Search for a psychic website and evaluate how the “image” of the website supports or detracts from the legitimacy of the subject matter Credits Text Credits pages 47–48 Excerpt from “Letter from Birmingham Jail” is reprinted by arrangement with The Heirs to the Estate of Martin Luther King Jr., c/o Writers House as agent for the proprietor New York, NY Copyright 1963 Martin Luther King Jr.; copyright renewed 1991 Coretta Scott King page 57 Harold Orlans, “The Future of the Past,” from Change: The Magazine of Higher Learning January/February 2004, p Reprinted by permission of the author pages 77–84 Adam Gismondi, “The Downside of the Internet: Cheating and Technology in Higher Education,” Journal of College and Character, Vol VII, No 5, June 2006 Reprinted by permission of Adam Gismondi pages 100–102 Leslie Knowlton, “Eating Disorders in Males,” from Psychiatric Times, XII, September 1995 Reprinted by permission of the author pages 117–118 Dan Mitchell, “‘Vonnegut Speech’ Circulates on Net,” from Wired News, www.wired.com Copyright © Wired Digital, a Lycos Network site All rights reserved pages 140–142 Dorsett Bennett, “I, Too, Am a Good Parent,” Newsweek, July 4, 1994 All rights reserved Reprinted by permission page 155 Excerpt from “From Sweet Anarchy to Stupid Pet Tricks” from Civilization, December 1996/January 1997, Vol 3, No Reprinted by permission of the author pages 189–190 Pamela J Hsu, “The Side Effects of Affirmative Action,” Detroit News, Sunday, 22 May 1994 Reprinted with permission page 212 Excerpt from “Cutting Into Cholesterol” by B Kinosian and John Eisenberg, Journal of American Medical Association, April 15, 1988, 259: 2249–54 Reprinted by permission of the American Medical Association pages 228–231 Christopher Denice, “Emphasize Teaching, Not Technology” adapted from New Comm Ave Reprinted by permission of New Comm Ave pages 236–241 Excerpt from When Hope and Fear Collide by Arthur Levine Copyright © 1998 by Arthur Levine Reprinted with permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc pages 243–248 Kate Zernike, “College, My Way,” from New York Times, 4/23/06, © 2006 The New York Times All rights reserved Used by permission and protected by the Copyright Laws of the United States The printing, copying, redistribution, or retransmission of the Material without express written permission is prohibited pages 249–250 Peter Francese, “Super Egos,” Marketing Tools, August 1997 Reprinted by permission of the author pages 251–255 Celeste M Condit, “Theory, Practice, and the Battered (Woman) Teacher,” in Teaching What You’re Note: Identity Politics in Higher Education, Katherine J Mayberry, ed New York University Press, 1996, pp 156–162 Reprinted by permission of New York University Press pages 256–260 Sara Rimer, “A Lost Moment Recaptured,” New York Times, January 9, 2000 Copyright © 2000 by the New York Times Co Reprinted by permission pages 261–263 Richard Flacks, “Students Behaving Badly,” New York Times, January 9, 2000 Copyright © 2000 by the New York Times Co Reprinted by permission pages 266–277 David S Bennahum, “Daemon Seed,” from Wired Magazine, May 1999 Reprinted by permission of the author 427 428 CREDITS pages 278–283 James Gleick, “Stop Me Before I Shop Again,” The New Yorker, May 24, 1999, pp 42–47 © James Gleick Reprinted by permission of Carlisle & Company pages 284–288 Tracy Mitrano, “Thoughts on Facebook,” Cornell University, copyright 2006 Reprinted with permission pages 289–291 “The Real Digital Divide,” The Economist, March 10, 2005 Copyright 2005 by The Economist Reproduced with permission of The Economist in the format Textbook via Copyright Clearance Center pages 292–295 “Information Literacy: The Web is Not an Encyclopedia” written by Lida L Larsen © 1996, University of Maryland Reprinted with permission pages 296–297 Extended definition of the term “digital divide” taken from Wikipedia on September 2006 pages 300–308 From Little Girls in Pretty Boxes by Joan Ryan, copyright © 1995 by Joan Ryan Used by permission of Doubleday, a division of Random House, Inc pages 309–312 Stephen D Mosher, “Where Have All the Heroes Gone?” Ithaca College Quarterly, Winter 1998 Reprinted by permission pages 313–325 Gary Smith, “The Chosen One,” courtesy of Sports Illustrated, December 23, 1996 Copyright 1996 Time Inc All rights reserved pages 326–329 Memo to Presidents of Boards of Education and Superintendents of Public Schools entitled “Public Use of Native American Names, Symbols and Mascots” by Richard P Mills, dated February 5, 2001 Reprinted by permission of the State Education Department/ The University of the State of New York, Albany pages 330–332 John Feinstein, “Sometimes, a Game Means Much More than the Score,” AOL Sports, December 2, 2004 Reprinted by permission of International Creative Management, Inc Copyright © 2004 by John Feinstein pages 333–338 Harvey Araton, “Bizball,” New York Times Sunday Magazine, October 18, 1998 Copyright © 1998, Harvey Araton Reprinted by permission pages 341–346 “Why I Write,” from Such, Such Were the Joys, by George Orwell, copyright 1953 by Sonia Brownell Orwell and renewed 1981 by Mrs George K Perutz, Mrs Miriam Gross, and Dr Michael Dickson, executors of the Estate of Sonia Brownell Orwell, reprinted by permission of Harcourt, Inc pages 351–352 Lars Eighner, “On Dumpster Diving,” from Travels with Lizbeth by Lars Eighner Copyright © 1993 by Bedford/St Martin’s Reprinted by permission of Bedford/ St Martin’s pages 353–356 Scott M Fisher, “Lessons from Ghosts,” Chronicle of Higher Education, June 14, 1996, p A56 Scott Fisher teaches English at Rock Valley College in Rockford, Illinois Reprinted by permission pages 357–360 Daniel H Pink, “Revenge of the Right Brain (Wired magazine 2/2005 1st serial adaptation)”, copyright © 2005 by Daniel H Pink, from A Whole New Mind by Daniel Pink Used by permission of Riverhead Books, an imprint of Penguin Group (USA) Inc pages 361–363 Richard Reeves, “The Stress Myth,” from Happy Mondays: Putting the Pleasure Back into Work Copyright © 2001 Pearson Education Limited Reprinted by permission pages 366–373 Donald Dale Jackson, “The Art of Wishful Shrinking Has Made a Lot of People Rich,” Smithsonian, November 1994 Reprinted by permission of the author pages 374–380 Evelyn Tribole & Elise Resch, Intuitive Eating by Evelyn Tribole & Elise Resch Copyright © 1995 by Bedford/St Martin’s Reproduced by permission of Bedford/ St Martin’s CREDITS 429 pages 381–382 Fred Chappell, “Include Me Out: A Reflection on ‘Ice Tea’,” from Gastronomica Reprinted by permission of the author pages 383–384 Daniel M Slosberg, “My Story,” is reprinted by permission of the author pages 385–387 K.D Elliott, “Bed Confessions,” is reprinted by permission of HealthGate DataCorp, Burlington, MA pages 390–401 Kenneth Myers, “Popular Culture and the Family.” Reprinted with permission from Family Policy, July–August 1998, © 1998 by the Family Research Council, Washington, D.C pages 402–412 Malcolm Gladwell, “Listening to Khakis,” The New Yorker, July 28, 1997 Reprinted by permission of the author pages 413–419 Daniel Harris, “The Contents of Women’s Purses,” Salmagundi: A Quarterly of the Humanities & Social Sciences, 1997, pp 122–131 Daniel Harris is the author of The Rise and Fall of Gay Culture and Cute, Quaint, Hungry and Romantic: The Aesthetics of Consumerism Reprinted by permission page 420 “Truisms,” a Photostat by Jenny Holzer from page 279 of MoMA Highlights: 350 Works from The Museum of Modern Art, New York © 1999, 2004 Reprinted with permission of The Museum of Modern Art, New York pages 422–423 Stephen King, “Why We Crave Horror Movies.” Reprinted with permission © Stephen King All rights reserved Originally appeared in Playboy (1982) pages 424–426 Reprinted with permission from Howard Fienberg, “Nonsense Watch,” The American Prospect Online: May 03, 2002 The American Prospect, 2000 L Street NW, Suite 717, Washington, DC 20036 All rights reserved Photo Credits page 56 © 2003 U.S News & World Report, L.P Reprinted with permission page 57 (cartoon) © Sessler/SIS page 58 (left) Courtesy of Helen Johnson page 58 (right) Courtesy of Krista Larson and Ted Milardo page 245 C J Gunther/The New York Times/Redux page 420 Digital Image © The Museum of Mondern Art/Licensed by SCALA/Art Resource, NY This page intentionally left blank Index Absolute statements, 109 Abstract ideas, 32 Abstracts defined, 211–212 terminology, 62, 64 Ad hominem argument, 96 Ad populum argument, 96 Advantages of Matlab, 114–117 Aesthetic evaluations, 154–156 Affirming the consequent, 90 Agreements, method of, 124–125, 129 All Gods’ Children (Myers), 390 “All Things Considered”, 390 American Heritage Dictionary, The, 103 American Prospect, The, 424 “Americans Bigger By the Day” (Bjork), 136–140 Analogies defined, 196 false, 97 risks of, 198 Anderson, Robert, 276 Anecdotes, 205 Animal Farm (Orwell), 341 Annan, Kofi, 117 Anorexia nervosa, 383 Anthony, Carmello, 45 APA See Publication of the American Psychological Association, The Araton, Harvey, 333 Arguments audience response to, 21 causal (See Causal arguments) classes, 5–6 coherence, 219 definition of, 3–5 effective, defining qualities, 10–11 ethical, 5, 154 evaluative (See Evaluations) facts in, 31–33 factual (See Factual arguments) focusing, 24 forming, 7–8 hybrid, through image, 6–7 informal fallacies in, 95–99 meaningful, writing, 16–17 opinion versus, 4–5 organization, 218–219 process, 7–9 reading, 10–11, 233–234 revision, speculative, 60 supporting (See Support of argument) Aristotelian logic, 93–94 Aristotle ethos of, 193–194 logic of, 86–88 works, 57 Arrangements, 59–61 Assertions, 104 Assumptions audience’s views, 40 needs, 180–182 values, 180–182 Attachment, sentimental, 156–157 Audience See also Readers captive, 20 identification, 17–20 importance of, 8, 17–22 needs, appeals to, 46 psychology, 19 response, 21 values, appeals to, 46 voluntary, 20 Authority, appeals to, 45 Average number, 112 Backing, 124 Bar/column charts, 50–51 Beckham, 299 “Bed Confessions” (Elliott), 385–387 Behavioral principle, 125 Beliefs, 18–20 Bennahum, David, 266–267 Bennett, Dorsett, 140 431 432 Bifurcation, 97 Binge eating, 383 “Bizball” (Araton), 333–338 Bjork, Cassandra, 136 “Black and White Truth About Basketball, The” (Greenfield), 200–201 Blogs, 75 Blue Suede Shoes (Myers), 390 Body Project, The: An Intimate History of American Girls (Brumberg), 58–59 Bonds, Barry, 299 “Book of Job”, 64 Booth, Wayne C., 205 Borges, Luis, 58 “Boring from Within” (Booth), 205 Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community (Putnam), 25 Brainstorming, 120–121 Brown, David, 205, 236 Browning, Robert, 206 Brumberg, Joan Jacobs, 58 Bulimia nervosa, 383 Bureau of Labor Statistics, 347 Burke, Kenneth, 201 Captive audience, 20 Carlson, Allan, 391 Carrie (King), 422 Carter, Jimmy, 36 Cartoons, 57–58 Causal analyses, 121–122 Causal arguments acceptable motivation in, 129 brainstorming for, 120–121 characterization, contributing factors, 127–128 effective, defining qualities, 11 facts in, 129 function of, 119–120 goal of, 119 interpretations with, 158 necessary causes, 121–122 qualifying, 131 samples, 136–137 secondary claims, 44 sufficient causes, 122–126 validation process in, 129–131 Causal chains in argument of effects, 134 slippery slope fallacy in, 98 in sufficient causes, 126–127 Causal claims commonness of, 33–34 function, 33, 103 identifying, 34 INDEX speculative nature of, 158 supporting, 128–132 Causality principles, 133–134 Chappell, Fred, 381 Charts appropriateness, 52 bar/column, 50–51 best type of, 53 line graphs, 51–52 pie, 49–50 responsible use of, 53–54 variants, 52 Cheung, King-Kok, 212 Chicago Manual of Style, The, 76 “Chosen One, The” (Smith), 313–325 Chronicles of Higher Education, 75, 353 Churchill, Winston, 21 Circular argument, 96 Citation forms, 76–77 Citizen Kane, 146 Claims arguments of effect, 132–135 audience and, 18–19 causal (See Causal claims) classifying, 31–41 combination, 39–40 comparable, 45 context, 39 crystal-clear, 24–25 delaying, 30 developing, developing, process of, 25–27 double, 40 evaluations, 35–36 factual, 31–33, 104–105 function, 24 interpretive, 36 logical support for, 91–92 main, 44 positioning, 29 proving, statistics and, 112 recasting, 39 recommendations, 37 reputable support for, 71–76 secondary, 44–45 sources, 68 stating, 29–30 supporting, 8–9 unstated, 30–31 warrant, 93–94 working, flexibility in, 27–29 Clarity, 61–62 Coherence, 219 INDEX Coincidence, 160–161 “College, My Way” (Zernike), 243–248 College students See Today’s college students Color Purple, The (Walker), 212 Column/bar charts, 51 Combination claims, 39–40 Commentaries “College, My Way” (Zernike), 243–248 “Daemon Seed” (Bennahum), 266–269 “Diet Biz, The” (Jackson), 367 “Little Girls in Pretty Boxes” (Ryan), 300–301 “Popular Culture and the Family: How Mass-Mediated Culture Weakens the Ties That Bind” (Myers), 391–392 “Retreat From Intimacy” (Levine, Cureton), 236–237 “Why I Write” (Orwell), 341–342 Common knowledge, 32, 106 Communist Manifesto (Marx, Engels), 15 Comparable claims, 45 Comparisons in argument of effects, 134–135 in evaluations, 152 understanding and, 64 Computer technology See also Internet narrowing topic by, 26–27 writing and, 220 Conclusions function of, 208–209 general closing, 210–211 laboring over, 9–10 in recommendations, 209–210 results, 209 summary versus, 211–214 Condit, Celeste M., 251 Conditional syllogisms, 90 Connotations, 199 Connotative language, 199–200 “Contents of Women’s Purses, The: An Accessory in Crisis” (Harris), 413–419 Context claims, 39 Contributing factors, 127–128 Controversial terms, 63 Copyright, 77 Counterarguments, 18, 46–48 Critical reading, 10–11 Crystal-clear claims, 24–25 Cultures, 152 Cureton, Jeanette S., 236 Customer satisfaction, 172 “Cutting into Cholesterol” (Kinosian, Eisenberg), 212 433 “Daemon Seed” (Bennahum), 266–277 Data in line graphs, 51–52 reporting, 106 responsible use of, 53–54 in tables, 54–55 in Toulmin model, 93–94 values, 50 David Copperfield (Dickens), 15 Davis, Miles, 144 Declaration of Independence, 14 Deductive reasoning basic form, 88 premises, 88–89 samples, 87 Toulmin model, 93–95 using, 91–92 validity and truth distinction, 89–90 Definitions description by, 64 evaluative terms, 145–149 evolution of, 63 importance of, 61–62 types of, 63–66 De gustibus non est disputandum, 154 Denotations, 199 Descriptors, 27 Diagrams, 56 Diary of a Young Girl (Frank), 14 Dickens, Charles, 15 Dickinson, Emily, 160 “Diet Biz, The” (Jackson), 367–373 Diets “Bed Confessions” (Elliott ), 385–387 “Diet Biz, The” (Jackson), 367–373 “Eating Disorders in Males”, 100–102 etymology, 365 “Include Me Out: A Reflection on ‘Ice Tea’” (Chappell), 381–383 “Intuitive Eating” (Tribole, Resch), 374–379 literature of, 365–366 “My Story: Bob” (Chappell ), 383–384 universality of, 366 Dillard, Annie, 196 Direct refutation, 47–48 Disjunctive syllogisms, 90–91 Dissonance in recommendations, 171 term, use of, 14 value of, 15–16 Distraction, 96 Dogmatism, 194 Double claims, 40 434 “Downside of the Internet, The: Cheating and Technology in Higher Education”, 77–83 Drafts, 216, 218 Drawings, 57–58 Drowned and the Saves, The (Levi), 36 Eastman Kodak, 43 Eating disorders, 383 “Eating Disorders in Males”, 100–102 Ebert, Roger, Economist.com, 289 Editing, 216–217 Edmundson, Mark, 155–156 Effects identification of, 151–152 independence of, 125 predicting, 34 probable, Effects, argument of applying causality principles, 133–134 causal chains in, 135 claims in, stating, 132–133 comparable situations in, 134–135 concerns of, 132 recommendations, 179–180 “Effects of Computers on Traditional Writing, The”, 72 Eighner, Lars, 351 Eisenberg, John M., 212 Either-or argument, 97 Either-or syllogisms, 90–91 Electronic addresses, 75 Electronic research, 74–76 Elias, Norbert, 299 Eliot, T S., 391 Elliott, K D., 385 E-mail, 268 Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 146 Emotive language, 98 “Emphasize Teaching, Not Technology”, 221–231 Endnotes, 76 Enthymeme, 92 Ephron, Nora, 274 Essay exams, 25 Ethical evaluations, 152–154 Ethics, 5, 154 Ethos, 193–195 Etymological definition, 64 Etymology, 64 Euphony, 200 Evaluations aesthetic, 154–156 INDEX appeal to authority, 152 arguing, 149–150 categories, 152–162 characterization, claims introducing, 36 comparison, 152 ethical, 152–153 explanatory, 36 functional, 156–157 identification of effect, 151–152 reading and, 10–11 in recommendations, 174–175 testing through syllogism, 151 value judgments in, 35–36 Evaluative terms, definition of arguing, 147 establishing, 145 ground work for, 144–145 presenting, 146–147 ranking qualities, 148–149 Evidence appropriate, presenting, for generalizations, 108–109 Evolution, 63 Examples, 64 Executive summaries, 213–214 Expert opinion, 60 Explanatory evaluations, 36 Extended stipulative definitions, 65–66 Extensive interpretations, 159 Extra Life: Coming of Age in Cyberspace (Bennahum), 267 Fable (Faulkner), 144 Facts in causal arguments, 129 definitions, 103–104 establishing, 129 generalizations, 107–111 imposter, 104 misrepresenting, 174 roles of, 31–32 statistics, 110–112 supporting, 105–106 types of, 32 unambiguous, 104 Factual arguments characterization, 5–6 samples, 114–118 support, 60 Factual claims categories, 104–105 most common, 32 primary, 44, 104–105 purpose of, 31 INDEX roles of, 31–32 secondary, 44, 104–105 Factual generalizations, 32 Fallacies, informal, 95–99 Fallacy of the excluded middle, 97 False analogy, 97 False premises, 89 “Fastest Growing Occupations” (Hecker), 347–350 Faulkner, William, 144 Feldman, Joan Fienberg, Howard, 424 Figures of speech, 196–198 Film indexes, 27 Findings, 209 First drafts attitudes and, 217 changes required, 216 original purpose in, 218 revising guidelines, 218–220 writing introduction after, 207–208 Fisher, Scott M., 353 Flacks, Richard, 261 Focusing, 24 Footnotes, 76 Formal logic deduction, 88–93 induction, 87–88 modern variant of, 93–95 principles, 86, 91 Formal voice, 193 Francese, Peter, 249 Frand, Jason L., 106 Frank, Anne, 14 Fredkin, Edward, 197 Free Agent Nation (Pink), 357 Freud, Sigmund, 159 Friedman, Milton, 74 “From Sweet Anarchy to Stupid Pet Tricks” (Edmundson), 155 Functional definitions, 64 Functional evaluations definition of ideal standards in, 157 impact of, 156–157 samples, 162–169 “Future of the Past, The”, 57–58 Future, probable, 133–135, 170 Future, recommendations emphasizing, 176–183 arguing, 179–180 assumptions, 180–181 effective, 176 implementation, 181–182 presenting, 176–177 Toulmin model, 182–183 435 Gallup poll, 111 Gastronomica, 381 Gates, Bill, 33 Generalizations absolute statements, 109 conclusions from, 109–110 credible, 108 evidence for, 109 factual, 32, 107–111 hasty, 97 in inductive reasoning, 107–108 introduction by, 205–206 samples, 109–110 Gismondi, Adam, 77 Gitlin, Todd, 392 Gladwell, Malcolm, 402 Gleick, James, 278 “Global Information Infrastructure” (Gore), 265 Global village concept, 196, 198 Google, 75 Gore, Al, 265 Gould, Stephen Jay, 106 Graphs and their Uses (Ore), 52 Graves, Robert, 17 Greenfield, Jeff, 200–201 Gruber, Jeremy, 272 Hamlet (Shakespeare), 14, 158 Happy Mondays (Reeves), 361 Hardy, Thomas, 158 Harris, Daniel, 413 Harris poll, 111 Hasty generalizations, 97 Hecker, Daniel E., 347 “History as Mirror” (Tuchman), 197 Holzer, Jenny, 420 Hostility, neutralizing, 18 Hsu, Pamela J., 189 Hybrid arguments, Identification audience, 17–20 cause, 129 claims, 34 determination methods, 129–131 effects, 151–152 motivation, 129 sources, 70–71 sufficient causes, 122–123 If-then syllogism, 90 Image arguments through, 6–7 concept of, 192 ethos in, 193–195 Imposter facts, 104 436 INDEX Incomplete syllogisms, 92 Inductive leap, 87 Inductive reasoning process, 87–88 samples, 108–110 source of, 107–108 using risks of, 87–88 Informal fallacies, 95–99 Informal voice, 193 “Information Literacy: The Web is not an Encyclopedia”, 292–296 Internet “Daemon Seed” (Bennahum), 266–277 dominance of, 265–266 Extra Life: Coming of Age in Cyberspace (Bennahum), 267 “Information Literacy: The Web is not an Encyclopedia”, 292–296 material, evaluating, 74–76 material, plagiarism of, 72 misinformation on, 75 “Real Digital Divide, The”, 292–296 research, 74–76 searching on, 424 sources, reliability of, 75 “Stop Me Before I Shop Again” (Gleick), 278–284 “Thoughts on Facebook” (Mitrano), 284–289 “‘Vonnegut Speech’ Circulates on Net”, 75, 117–118 Internet World, 266 Interpretations defining terms in, 158–160 documenting, 161 establishing coincidence, 160–161 extensive, 159 multiple, 161 purpose of, 158 Interpretive claims, 36 Introductions evaluative arguments, 36–37 by generalization, 205–206 general suggestions about, 207–208 importance, 204 laboring over, 9–10 by narrative, 205 in professional writing, 206–207 by quotation, 206 strategies for, 205–206 “Intuitive Eating” (Tribole, Resch), 374–379 “I, Too, Am A Good Parent” (Bennett), 140–142 Jackson, Donald, 366 Jargon, 62 Jessen, John, 267, 274 Johnson, Lyndon B., 57 Jordan, Michael, 45 Journal of the American Medical Association, 366 Judgments, 35–36 Jung, Carl, 197 Keywords, 27 King, Martin Luther, Jr., 47–48 King, Stephen, 27, 422 Kingston, Maxine Hong, 212 Kinosian, Bruce P., 212 Knowledge See Common knowledge Knowlton, Leslie, 100 Language See also Terms; Words abstract, 197 clarity of, 61–62 connotative, 199–200 emotive, 98 music of, 200–202 nonspecific, 62 “Lessons From Ghosts” (Fisher), 353–356 “Letter from Birmingham Jail” (King), 47–48 Levarie, Norma, 57 Levine, Arthur, 236 Levi, Primo, 36 Lincoln, Abraham, 74 Line graphs, 51–52 “Listening to Khakis” (Gladwell), 402–412 Literacy, spread of, 57–58 “Little Girls in Pretty Boxes” (Ryan), 302–309 Logic Aristotelian, 87–88 defined, 86 fallacies in, 95–99 formal, 86–95 “Lost Moment Recaptured, A” (Rimer), 256–261 Major premise, 88–89 “Males and Eating Disorders”, 383 Marketing Tools, 249 “Mars Hill Tapes”, 390 Marx Brothers, 155–156 Mean, 112 Median, 112 Melville, Herman, 36, 64 Messner, Mike, 210 Metaphors, 196, 197 Microsoft, 268–269 Mill, John Stuart, 124–125, 129 Mills, Richard P., 326 Minor premise, 88–89 Mismeasure of Man, The (Gould), 106 INDEX Mitrano, Tracy, 284 Moby Dick (Melville), 36, 64 MOMA Highlights, 420 Monthly Labor Review, 347 Mosher, Stephen, 309 Motivation acceptable, identifying, 129 positive, 7–8 writing, 14–17 Museum of Modern Art, 420 Music of language, 200–202 Myers, Kenneth, 390–391 “My Story: Bob” (Chappell), 383–384 Narrative, introduction by, 205 National Dictionary of Addresses and Telephone Numbers, 75 National Enquirer, 74, 104 National Public Radio, 390 Necessary causes, 121–122 Needs appeals to, 46 assumption of, 180–182 recommendations and, 171–174 Negation, 64–65 New England Journal of Medicine, 74, 366 New Left Journal, 18–19 New Yorker, The, 57, 402 New York Times, claims positioning, example, 29 leads in, 20 source documentation by, 70 New York Times Magazine, 333 Nixon, Richard, 57 “Nonsense Watch” (Fienberg), 425–426 Non sequitur, 98 Nonspecific language, 62 “Old Testament”, 14 “On Dumpster Diving” (Eighner), 351–352 Online Writing Labs (OWLs), 76 Opinions arguments versus, 4–5 bases, expert, 60 Orwell, George about, 341 on corrupt language, 210–211 stylistic rules, 195 OWLS See Online Writing Labs (OWLs) “Particle Accelerator Test Cosmological Theory”, 209–211 Parallelism, 201 437 Paraphrases, 70–71 Pawn to Queen Four (Eighner), 351 Peer review, People magazine, 107 Perrine, Laurence, 64 Personally experienced facts, 32 Personal taste, 35 Pet Cemetery (King), 422 Photographs, 58–59 Pictorial images cartoons, 57–58 diagrams, 56 drawings, 57–58 photographs, 58–59 Pie charts, 49–50 Pink, Daniel H., 357 Plagiarism avoiding, guidelines, 70–72 causes, 69–70 defined, 68 forms of, 69 illustrated, 72–73 Pleasure Back into Work (Reeves), 361 Political cartoons, 49 “Politics and the English Language” (Orwell), 195, 210–211, 219 Polling organization, 111 Popular culture “Contents of Women’s Purses, The: An Accessory in Crisis” (Harris), 413–419 “Listening to Khakis” (Gladwell), 402–412 “Nonsense Watch” (Fienberg), 425–426 “Popular Culture and the Family: How MassMediated Culture Weakens the Ties That Bind” (Myers), 392–401 reading, 389–390 role of, 390 “Truisms” (Holzer), 420 “Why We Crave Horror Movies” (King), 422–423 “Popular Culture and the Family: How MassMediated Culture Weakens the Ties That Bind” (Myers), 392–401 Post hoc, ergo propter hoc, 98 Predictions, 88 Premises false, 89 major, 88–89 minor, 88–89 Primary sources, 71 Probable cause, 34 Prohibition, 134 “Proposal for a Computer Facility in Marshall Dormitory, A”, 185–188, 209–210 Proposals See Recommendations 438 Psychology, 19 “Public Use of Native American Names, Symbols, and Mascots” (Mills), 326–329 Publication of the American Psychological Association, The, 76–77 Publications of the Modern Language Association (PMLA), 19 Putnam, Robert, 25 Qualifier, 94 Qualifying arguments, 131 Qualities, ranking, 148–149 Quotations, 70, 206 Random samples, 111 Readers expectations, 21 hooking, 20 perspective, values, writers versus, 171–174 Reading careful, benefits of, 233–234 critical, 10–11 impact, expectations, 21–22 popular culture, 389–390 “Real Digital Divide, The”, 292–296 Really Simple Syndication (RSS) Service, 75 Reasonable thinking, 9, 86 Recommendations acceptance, 182 characterizations, claims, sample, 38–39 conclusions, 209–210 effects, arguing, 179–180 effects, judging, 180–182 emphases, 37–38 emphasizing future, 176–184 emphasizing present, 174–175, 183–184 evaluative elements, 174–175 function of, 170 goals of, 37 implementation, 181–182 needs and, 171–174 needs assumptions, 180–182 presenting, 176–177, 179 Toulmin model, 175–176, 182–183 undesirable effects, 181 values and, 171–174, 180–182 Red herring, 96 Reeves, Richard, 361 Refutations, 18, 47–48 Repetition, 201 Representative samples, 111 Resch, Elyse, 374 INDEX Research advantages, 43 electronic, 74–76 samples, 111 traditional, 74 “Retreat from Intimacy” (Levine, Cureton), 237–243 “Revenge of the Right Brain” (Pink), 357–360 Revisions editing versus, 216–217 example, 221–231 process, purpose, 216 “Retreat from Intimacy”, 237–243 suggestions, 217–220 Rhythm, 200 Rieff, Philip, 391 Rimer, Sara, 256 Rise and Fall of Gay Culture, The (Harris), 413 Roeper, Richard, Roosevelt, Franklin Delano, 39 RSS See Really Simple Syndication (RSS) Service Ryan, Joan, 70–71 Salmagundi, 413 Schmich, Mary, 117 Scott, Janny, 30 Secondary claims, 44–45, 62 Secondary sources, 71, 105 Sentence definitions, 63, 65 Shakespeare, William, 14, 158 Shapiro, Norman, 276 Shining, The (King), 27, 422 Shorthand definitions, 63 “Side Effects of Affirmative Action” (Hsu), 189 Similes, 196 Slanting, 199–200 Slippery slope fallacy, 98 Slosberg, Daniel, 383 Smith, Gary, 313 Smithsonian magazine, 366 Socrates, 48 “Some Schools Won’t Take No for an Answer”, 29–30 Sound and Sense (Perrine), 64 Sources citation forms, 76–77 claims, 68 electronic, 74–76 external, 68 identifying, 70–71 primary, 71 reputable, finding, 71–76 secondary, 71, 105 text, 74 INDEX Speculative arguments, 60 Speech, figures of, 196–198 Sports “Bizball” (Araton), 333–338 “Black and White Truth About Basketball, The” (Greenfield), 200–201 “Chosen One, The” (Smith), 313–325 defined, 299 high profile, 300 “Little Girls in Pretty Boxes” (Ryan), 302–309 “Public Use of Native American Names, Symbols, and Mascots” (Mills), 326–329 “Sports and the Politics of Inequality” (Messner), 210 ubiquity of, 300 “Where Have All the Heroes Gone?” (Mosher), 309–313 “Sports and the Politics of Inequality” (Messner), 210 Sports Illustrated, 8, 313 Spreadsheets, 56 Statements, 109 Statistical Assessment Service (STATS), 424 Statistics derivation, 110 reliability of, 110–111 use of, 111–112 Stereotypes, 88 Stipulative definitions, 65–66, 146 “St Mary’s Medical Center Memorandum”, 163–168 “Stop Me Before I Shop Again” (Gleick), 276–284 Stowe, Harriet Beecher, 14 Strawperson argument, 98–99 “Stress Myth, The” (Reeves), 362–363 “Students Behaving Badly” (Flacks), 261–263 Style image and, introductions, 204 parallelism, 201 reviewing, 219–220 Sufficient causes agreement, method of, 124–125 difference, method of, 125 distinguishing among, 124–125 function, 122 identifying, 122–123 proportional correlation, method of, 125 Summaries abstracts, 211–212 conclusions versus, 211 defined, 71 executive, 213–214 “Super Egos” (Francese), 249–251 Supporting facts, 105–106 439 Support of argument See also Claims arrangement, 59–61 authority, appeals to, 45 claims, 8–9 classes of, 43–44 comparable claims, 45 counterarguments, addressing, 46–48 definitions, 43, 61–66 generic tactics, 44 reputable sources, finding, 71–76 secondary claims, 44–45 varieties of, 44–48 visuals, 48–59 Syllogisms conditional, 90 disjunctive, 90–91 incomplete, 92 sample, 89–90 testing evaluation through, 151 validity, checking, 92 Syntax, 206 Tables, 54–56 Technique analysis, 233 Terms See also Words abstract, 62 comparing, 64 controversial, defining, 63 denotation of, 199 evaluative, 145–149 interpretive arguments and, 159 sounds of, 192 unfamiliar, 62, 64 usage, 63 Tess of the d’Urbervilles (Hardy), 158 Thought, 69, 86 “Thoughts on Facebook” (Mitrano), 284–289 Today’s college students changes in, 235–236 “College, My Way” (Zernike), 243–248 “Lost Moment Recaptured, A” (Rimer), 256–261 “Students Behaving Badly” (Flacks), 261–263 “Super Egos” (Francese), 249–251 “Who is a Teacher” (Condit), 249–251 Toulmin model advantages of, 94 applying, 94, 123–124 backing in, 124 data in, 93–94 deductive reasoning and, 93–95 development, 93–94 future, recommendations emphasizing, 182–183 recommendations, 175–176, 182–183 440 INDEX Toulmin, Stephen, 93 Traditional research, 74 Travels with Lizbeth (Eighner), 351 Tribole, Evelyn, 374 “Truisms” (Holzer), 420 Truth, validity versus, 89 Tuchman, Barbara, 197 Tufte, Edward, 52 Unambiguous facts, 104 Uncle Tom’s Cabin (Stowe), 14 Unfamiliar terminology, 62, 64 United States Olympic Committee, 268 Unit of supports, 59–60 University of Maryland website, 292 USA Today, 107 Validation process of, 129–131 Validity and truth distinction, 89–90 Validity, truth versus, 89 Value judgments, 35–36 Values appeals to, 46 audience, 18–20 customer satisfaction, 172 data, 50 readers, 171–175 Visual Display of Quantitative Information, The (Tufte), 52 Visual support charts, 49–54 pictorial images, 56–59 tables, 54–56 using, 48–49 Vocabulary, visual, 53 Voice, role of, 193 Voluntary audience, 20 “‘Vonnegut Speech’ Circulates on Net”, 75, 117–118 Wales, Jimmy, 76 Walker, Alice, 212 Warrant, 93–94 Web logs See Blogs Websites eating disorders, 383 eBay, 276 Economist.com, 289 for health issues, 385 sources, 75 Stephen Mosher, 309 University of Maryland, 292 Wikipedia, 76, 296 Wells, David, 391 When Dreams and Heroes Died (Levine), 236 When Hope and Fear Collide (Levine), 236 “Where Have All the Heroes Gone?” (Mosher), 309–313 Whitman, Walt, 219 “Who is a Teacher” (Condit), 251–256 Whole New Mind, A (Pink), 357 “Why I Write” (Orwell), 342–346 Wikipedia, 76, 296 Wikis, 76 Wired Magazine, 266–267 Woman Warrior, The (Kingston), 212 Woods, Tiger, 74, 313 Word processors, 220 Words See also Terms absolute, 109 defining, 64 denotation of, 199 etymology, 64 negative, 199 revising, 218 sounds of, 200 transitional, 219 Wordsworth, William, 26 Work “Fastest Growing Occupations” (Hecker), 347–350 “Lessons From Ghosts” (Fisher), 353–356 “On Dumpster Diving” (Eighner), 351–352 “Revenge of The Right Brain” (Pink), 357–360 “Stress Myth, The” (Reeves), 362–363 uncertainty of, 340 “Why I Write” (Orwell), 342–346 Working claims, 27–29 World Wide Web See Internet Writing See also Revision for audience, 17–22 connotative language, 199–200 ethos, importance of, 193–195 figures of speech, 196–198 first drafts, 216, 218 meaningful arguments, 16–17 motives for, 14–17 plain, 195–196 slanting, 199–200 sound in, 200–202 thinking and, 69 voice, role of, 193 Writing Life, The (Dillard), 196 Yarusso, Tony, 75 You’ve Got Mail, 268, 274 Zernike, Kate, 243 ... (and rewriting) full and partial arguments PREFACE xxi PART II, READING ARGUMENTS Organization of Part II The readings in Part II of Everyday Arguments are divided into six topic areas— “Today’s...E V E R Y DAY ARGUMENTS This page intentionally left blank E V E R Y DAY ARGUMENTS A Guide to Writing and Reading Effective Arguments THIRD EDITION KATHERINE J MAYBERRY Rochester Institute... plans to argue Sure, he knows he wants to attack television sports coverage, but he will soon find that such a goal is too vague and too emotional to inform what must be a clear and reasonable