Foodborne Infections and Intoxications Fourth Edition This page intentionally left blank Foodborne Infections and Intoxications Fourth Edition Edited by J Glenn Morris, Jr Emerging Pathogens Institute University of Florida FL, USA Morris E Potter Public Health Consultant Atlanta, Georgia, USA AMSTERDAM • BOSTON • HEIDELBERG • LONDON NEW YORK • OXFORD • PARIS • SAN DIEGO SAN FRANCISCO • SINGAPORE • SYDNEY • TOKYO Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier 32 Jamestown Road, London NW1 7BY, UK 225 Wyman Street, Waltham, MA 02451, USA 525 B Street, Suite 1800, San Diego, CA 92101-4495, USA Fourth edition 2013 Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Inc All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of the publisher Permissions may be sought directly from Elsevier’s Science & Technology Rights Department in Oxford, UK: phone (+44) (0) 1865 843830; fax (+44) (0) 1865 853333; email: permissions@elsevier.com Alternatively, visit the Science and Technology Books website at www.elsevierdirect.com/rights for further information Notice No responsibility is assumed by the publisher for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions or ideas contained in the material herein Because of rapid advances in the medical sciences, in particular, independent verification of diagnoses and drug dosages should be made British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress ISBN : 978-0-12-416041-5 For information on all Academic Press publications visit our website at elsevierdirect.com Typeset by MPS Limited, Chennai, India www.adi-mps.com Printed and bound in the United States of America 13 14 15 16 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Contents List of Contributors xxiii Preface xxix Preface to the Third Edition xxxi Dedication xxxiii SECTION 1 FOODBORNE DISEASE: EPIDEMIOLOGY AND DISEASE BURDEN CHAPTER 1 Estimates of Disease Burden Associated with Contaminated Food in the United States and Globally Elaine Scallan, Martyn Kirk, and Patricia M Griffin Introduction Estimates of foodborne disease in the United States Major known pathogens Unspecified agents Estimation in other countries 11 Global efforts 13 Methodological considerations 14 Conclusions 15 References 16 CHAPTER 2 The Foods Most Often Associated with Major Foodborne Pathogens: Attributing Illnesses to Food Sources and Ranking Pathogen/Food Combinations 19 Michael B Batz Introduction 19 Integrated measures of disease burden 19 Methods of foodborne illness source attribution 20 Analysis of US outbreak data for food source attribution 24 Assessing the applicability of outbreak-derived attribution estimates 26 Ranking pathogen/food combinations 27 Acknowledgments 30 References 30 v vi Contents CHAPTER Microbial Food Safety Risk Assessment 37 Anna Lammerding Introduction 37 Background .38 Managing microbial food safety risks 42 The risk assessment framework 43 Hazard identification 43 Exposure assessment 43 Hazard characterization 44 Risk characterization 45 Risk assessment approaches 45 Summary 49 References 49 CHAPTER 4 Development of Risk-based Food Safety Systems for Foodborne Infections and Intoxications 53 Julie A Caswell Introduction 53 Building blocks for a risk-based food safety system 54 Elements of a risk-based food safety system .55 Step 1: Strategic planning 55 Step 2: Public health risk ranking 58 Step 3: Targeted information gathering and consideration of other factors 59 Step 4: Analysis and selection of interventions 60 Step 5: Design of intervention plans 61 Step 6: Monitoring and review 61 The overall risk-based decision process 61 Challenges in implementing risk-based food safety systems 61 Summary 62 References 63 SECTION FOODBORNE INFECTIONS: BACTERIAL CHAPTER Pathogen Updates: Salmonella 67 Tine Hald Introduction 67 The disease in man 67 Symptoms and sequelae 67 Incidence and burden of human salmonellosis 68 Epidemiology and disease transmission in humans 71 Contents Microbiology 72 Classification 72 Characterization and virulence 73 Typing methods for tracing the sources of human infections 73 Source attribution: approaches and discussion of studies 75 Source attribution using microbial subtyping 75 Source attribution using outbreak data 79 Source attribution using systematic review of case-control studies 82 Other approaches for source attribution 83 Discussion of sources of human salmonellosis 86 Prevention and control 88 Prevention and control at the farm level 89 Control and prevention post harvest 90 Conclusions 90 References 91 CHAPTER Clostridium perfringens Gastroenteritis 99 Ronald G Labbé and V.K Juneja Introduction 99 Clinical features 99 Symptoms associated with foodborne illness 99 Mode of action of C perfringens enterotoxin 99 Microbiology 100 Taxonomy 100 Location of CPE 100 Factors affecting growth 101 Growth during cooling 101 Sporulation 102 Enterotoxin formation during sporulation 102 Spore heat resistance 103 Spore germination 103 Detection of the organism and enterotoxin 103 Molecular methods 105 Exposure pathways 106 Reservoirs 106 Points of entry .106 Infectious dose 106 Prevention and control 107 References 107 vii viii Contents CHAPTER Vibrios 113 Anita C Wright and Valerie J Harwood Introduction 113 Clinical features 113 Disease manifestations 113 Host susceptibility 115 Microbiology 116 Genetics and evolution of pathogenic Vibrios 116 Diagnosis and species identification 118 Detection of virulence factors 119 Molecular and genomic typing 119 Exposure pathways 120 Reservoirs and entry into the food supply 120 Approaches to food attribution 121 Prevention and control 121 Hazard analysis of critical control points 121 Vibrio monitoring 121 Post-harvest processing 122 Conclusions 122 References 122 CHAPTER Escherichia coli 129 Teresa Estrada-Garcia, Kim Hodges, Gail A Hecht, and Phillip I Tarr Introduction 129 Enterohemorrhagic E coli (EHEC) 130 Clinical features of EHEC infections 131 Microbiology of EHEC infections 131 Exposure pathways for EHEC infections 132 Prevention and control of EHEC infections 133 Enterotoxigenic E coli (ETEC) 134 Clinical features of ETEC infections 134 Microbiology of ETEC infections 134 Exposure pathways for ETEC infections 135 Prevention and control of ETEC infections 136 Enteropathogenic E coli (EPEC) 136 Clinical features of EPEC infections 138 Microbiology of EPEC infections 138 Exposure pathways for EPEC infections 139 Prevention and control of EPEC infections 139 Contents Enteroaggregative E coli (EAEC) 139 History 139 Clinical features of EAEC infections 140 Microbiology of EAEC infections 141 Exposure pathways for EAEC infections 143 Prevention and control of EAEC infections 143 Enteroinvasive E coli (EIEC) 143 Clinical features of EIEC infections 144 Microbiology of EIEC infections 144 Exposure pathways for EIEC infections 144 Prevention and control of EIEC infections 145 Diffusely adhering E coli (DAEC) 145 Clinical features of DAEC infections 145 Microbiology of DAEC infections 145 Exposure pathways for DAEC infections 145 Prevention and control of DAEC infections 146 The 2011 Escherichia coli O104:H4 outbreak 146 Acknowledgments 147 References 148 CHAPTER Campylobacter 165 Guillermo Ignacio Perez-Perez and Sabine Kienesberger Introduction 165 The acute clinical illness 165 Sequels of infection 167 Genetics, characteristics and evolution 168 Diagnosis and identification 169 Diagnosis 169 Identification 170 Typing schemes 170 Exposure pathways—risk factors for human illness .171 Poultry consumption 171 Commercially prepared foods 172 Unpasteurized milk 172 Water 173 Zoonotic transmission 173 Foreign travel 173 Treatment indication and antimicrobial usage 173 Point of entry into the food supply and prevention 174 Processing controls 174 ix References [30] Smith DeWaal C 2007 Personal notes on Swedish National Food Authority site visit in Uppsala on June 1, 2007 [31] USDA (US Department of Agriculture) Complete text of the federal meat inspection act as amended by the wholesome meat act of 1967 Public Law 90-201 81 Stat 584 1967 Last updated April 28, 2011 Available at: http://www.fsis.usda.gov/Regulations_&_ Policies/Federal_Meat_Inspection_Act/index.asp; 2011 [accessed 26.12.12] [32] USDA (US Department of Agriculture) Complete text of the poultry products inspection act as amended by the wholesome poultry products act of 1968 Public Law 90-492 82 Stat 791 1968 Last updated May 2, 2011 Available at: http://www.fsis usda.gov/Regulations_&_Policies/Poultry_Products_Inspection_Act/index.asp; 2011 [accessed 26.12.12] [33] USDA (US Department of Agriculture) Complete text of the egg products inspection act of 1970 Public Law 91-597 84 Stat 1620 1970 Available at: http://www.fsis.usda gov/Regulations_&_Policies/Egg_Products_Inspection_Act/index.asp; December 23, 2009 [accessed 26.12.12] [34] Seafood inspection act Public Law 346 49 Statutes at Large Chapter 739 49 Stat 871 1935 [35] Food additives amendment of 1958 Public Law 85-929 72 Stat 1784 1958 [36] Color additive amendments of 1960 Public Law 86-618 74 Stat 397 1960 [37] Pesticide residue amendment of 1954 Public Law 518 68 Statutes at Large Chapter 559 68 Stat 511 1954 [38] EPA (Environmental Protection Agency) Complete text of federal insecticide, fungicide, and rodenticide act of 1947 (FIFRA) Public Law 104 61 Statutes at Large Chapter 125 1947 as added by Public Law 92-516, Sec 2, 86 Stat 973 1972 Last updated September 28, 2012 Available at: http://www.ag.senate.gov/download/fifra; 2012 [accessed 26.12.12] [39] EPA (Environmental Protection Agency) 1996 food quality protection act implementation plan p 11 1997 Available at: http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/regulating/laws/ fqpa/impplan.pdf; 1997 [accessed 26.12.12] [40] FDA (Food and Drug Administration) Current edition of the fish and fisheries products hazards and controls guide—fourth edition is available at: http://www.fda.gov/ downloads/Food/GuidanceComplianceRegulatoryInformation/GuidanceDocuments/ Seafood/UCM251970.pdf; 2011 [accessed 26.12.12] [41] FDA (Food and Drug Administration) Hazard analysis and critical control point (HAACP); procedures for the safe and sanitary processing and importing of juice; final rule Federal register vol 66 no 13 at: http://www.fda.gov/Food/FoodSafety/ HazardAnalysisCriticalControlPointsHACCP/JuiceHACCP/ucm073594.htm; 2001 [accessed 26.12.12] 527 This page intentionally left blank Index A “An Act Against Selling Unwholesome Provisions”, 512 Acute gastroenteritis hospitalization definition of, 10 mean annual rate of, 10–11 unspecified deaths due to, 10–11 Aeromonas clinical features of extraintestinal infections, 230 gastroenteritis, 229–230 host susceptibility, 230–231 clinical syndrome, 232 exposure pathways, 233–234 food attribution for infections by, 234 isolation of, 232 microbiology of, 231–233 prevention and control of, 234–235 Aflatoxicosis, 410–411 Ageratum conyzoides, 430–431 Albendazole, chemotherapies, 349 Alzheimer’s disease, 361 Amnesic shellfish poisoning (Asp), 427–428 diagnosis/clinical symptoms/treatment, 427–428 Analysis of interventions, in risk-based food safety system, 60 Antimicrobial-resistant Salmonella, 71 Appropriate level of protection (ALOP), 39 Aspergillus species, 411, 413 Astroviruses (AstV), 293 contamination of shellfish, 297t exposure pathways, 295–297 in human disease, 298 illness, clinical features of, 293 microbiology, 293–295 diagnosis/detection, 295 phylogenetic tree of, 294f prevention/control, 297–298 B Bacillus botulinus, 371 Bacillus cereus, 403–404 characteristics of, 403–404 growth/survival, 403–404 identification of, 404 clinical features of, 401–403 diarrheal syndrome, 401–402 emetic syndrome, 402–403 infection, symptoms of, 405 presence of, 404 treatment/prevention, 405 Bioburden (BB), 455–456 Botulinum neurotoxins (BoNTs), 371, 373, 375 Botulism, 373 Brucellosis clinical features of, 239–241 exposure pathways, 244–246 microbiology of, 241–244 prevention and control of, 246–249 Burden of foodborne disease estimation of, benefits of, 12 methodological considerations, 14–15 “Burden-of-illness pyramid” approach, 15 estimation in United States, 4–11 illness estimation, 4–8 C CaliciNet, 264–265 Caliciviridae virus family, 263, 314 Campylobacter acute clinical illness, 165–167 CDC estimation on infection cases, 165 characteristics of, 168–169 diagnosis of culture, 169–170 polymerase chain reaction (PCR), 170 entry point into food supply and its prevention, 174–176 evolution of, 168–169 exposure pathways poultry consumption, 171–172 preparation of food commercially, 172 through foreign travel, 173 through water consumption, 173 unpasteurized milk, 172 zoonotic transmission, 173 genetics of, 168–169 identification of, 165–167 other species of, 176–177 sequels of infection, 167–168 treatment indication and antimicrobial usage, 173–174 handling of food, 175 processing controls for, 174–175 zoonosis prevention, 175 529 530 Index Campylobacter (Continued) typing schemes lior scheme, 170–171 penner scheme, 170–171 Campylobacter fetus, 176 Campylobacter hyointestinalis, 177 Campylobacter lari, 176 Campylobacter upsaliensis, 177 Capture ELISAs (cELISA), 348 Carnivorism, T gondii transmission, 328 Case-control studies, 22 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), United States, 4, 6–7, 130, 261, 343, 481–484 Cerebral vascular accidents (CVAs), 373 Chemotherapies, albendazole, 349 Chick-Watson’s model, 469, 471–472 Cholera and other vibrio illness surveillance (COVIS) system, 6–7 Cholera toxin (CT), 116, 117f Chronic wasting disease (CWD), 354–355 Ciguatera fish poisoning (CFP), 420–425 ciguatoxins (CTXs), 424–425 diagnosis of, 424–425 treatment for, 425 Clostridium argentinense, 373–375 Clostridium botulinum, 371, 468 botulism, disease characteristics, 371–373 botulinum neurotoxins (BoNTs) by C botulinum, 371 diagnosis of, 373 exposure pathways, 378–381 food attribution, 380–381 infectious dose, 379–380 reservoirs, 378–379 history of, 371 microbiology, 373–378 BoNT structure, 376–377 characteristics, 373–375, 374t genetics/evolutionary considerations, 375–376 ha+/orf X- and ha−/ orf X+ botulinum neurotoxin gene clusters, 375f isolation/identification, 377 prevention/control, 381–384 growth inhibition, 382–384 spore destruction, 381–382 thermal destruction, 382 Clostridium perfringens cause of foodborne disease, 99 clinical features of mode of action, 99–100 symptoms of foodborne disease, 99 exposure pathways infectious dose, 106–107 points of entry in food preparation area, 106 in reservoirs, 106 growth of during cooling, 101 factors affecting, 101 microbiology of enterotoxin formation during sporulation, 102 factors which affects growth, 101 growth during cooling, 101 location of CPE, 100 spore germination, 103 spore heat resistance, 103 sporulation ability, 102 taxonomy, 100 molecular methods CPE gene (CPE), 105 non-CPE toxin genes, 105 serological typing, 105–106 organism and enterotoxin, detection of confirmatory tests, 104 criteria for outbreaks, 103 enterotoxin determination, 104–105 enumeration procedure, 103–104 prevention and control of, 107 Code of Federal Regulations (CFR), 455–456 Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC), 39 Colony forming unit (CFU), 460–461 Color Additive Amendment of 1960, 517–518 Comparative exposure assessments, 23 Complex foods, 24, 27 Composite food, 524 Congenital transmission, 327 Control of Aeromonas and Plesiomonas, 234–235 of Brucellosis, 246–249 of Clostridium perfringens, 107 of Cronobacter, 255 of Enterohemorrhagic E coli (EHEC), 133 of Enteropathogenic E coli (EPEC), 139 of Enterotoxigenic E coli (ETEC), 136 of hepatitis A, 282–283 of hepatitis E, 289–290 of Listeriosis, 208–210 of Norovirus, 269–271 of Salmonella, 88–90 of Shigella, 220–221 of Streptococcal disease, 226 of Vibrios, 121–122 on survival and growth of Y enterocolitica, 193–194 Cooked-meat medium (CMM), 102 Index Cost of illness (COI), 20, 27, 29f Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD), 353 Critical control points (CCPs), 39 Cronobacter clinical features of, 251–252 exposure pathways, 254–255 microbiology of, 252–254 general features, 252 isolation and identification, 252–253 serotyping, 253 species-specific identification, 253 thermoresistance properties, 252 virulence mechanisms, 253–254 prevention and control, 255 Cross-contamination, 22 Cytotoxic protein (CytK), 402 D Deaths, 409, 421t–423t, 480 due to aflatoxins, 410–411 due to RTE food consumption, 205–206 due to tetrodotoxin (TTX), 428–429 NoV deaths among young children, 263–264 in United States due to foodborne disease, estimation of, 8–9 Denmark, Salmonella control programs effects in, 76f Diarrheic shellfish poisoning (DSP), 428 diagnosis/clinical symptoms/treatment, 428 Diarrheic stools, 313 Diffusely adhering E coli (DAEC) clinical features of, 145 exposure pathways, 145 microbiology of, 145 prevention of, 146 DIG-ELISA system, 377–378 Disability-adjusted life years (DALY), 11, 15 advantages of, 14–15 Domestically, acquired foodborne illness due to unspecified agents, 11 Dose–response assessment, 39–40, 48f E Eggs, legislation for, 513–515 Endopep-MS assay, 378 Enhancing Food Safety report, 54–55 Enteroaggregative E coli (EAEC) clinical features of, 140–141 exposure pathways, 143 history of, 139–140 microbiology of, 134–135 prevention of, 143 Enterohemorrhagic E coli (EHEC) infections, 130–134 clinical features of, 131 exposure pathways, 132–133 microbiology of, 131–132 prevention and control of, 133 Enteroinvasive E coli (EIEC) See also Shigella clinical manifestations of, 144 exposure pathways, 144 microbiology of, 144 prevention and control of, 145 Enteropathogenic E coli (EPEC) classic stacked-brick appearance of, 140f clinical features of, 138 exposure pathways, 139 microbiology of, 138–139 prevention and control of, 139 variant adherence of phenotypes of, 129–130 Enterotoxigenic E coli (ETEC) clinical features of, 134 exposure pathways, 135–136 microbiology of, 134–135 prevention and control of, 136 Enterotoxin detection in C perfringens, 103–105 formation during sporulation of C perfringens, 102 production, 393 Enumeration, procedure of C perfringens, 103–104 Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 518 Enzyme immunoassays (EIA), 288–289 Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), 265–266 Epidemiology and disease transmission of of Salmonella, in humans, 71–72 Erythema nodosum, 68 Escherichia coli (E coli), 472–473 challenges in detecting diarrheagenic, 129–130 H4 outbreak in 2011, 146–147 Escherichia coli O104, 146–147 EU notification rate in 2010, of human salmonellosis, 68–69 EU Regions proportion of Salmonella cases attributed to food sources, 77t proportion of Salmonella outbreaks attributed to food sources, 80t Salmonella outbreaks caused by eggs within, 86f European Center for Disease Control (ECDC), 76 European food law, 522–523 European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), 76, 80 Expert elicitation method, 23, 28t Exposure assessment, 39, 43–44 Extraintestinal infections, 230 531 532 Index F FAO/WHO Joint Experts on Microbial Risk Assessment (JEMRA), 39 Farm level, prevention and control of Salmonella control in cattle farms, 89–90 control in pig farms, 89 control in poultry farms, 89 FDA food modernization act, 493 FDA Food Safety Modernization Act (FSMA) of 2011, United States, 19, 54, 503–507, 521–522 compliance, 507–509 contaminant-specific, science-based performance standards, 506–507 inspection/compliance, 507 prerequisites neglect, 508 reportable food registry, 506–507 risk control plan, 508 verification/validation/monitoring, 509 Fecal indicator bacteria (FIB), 121 Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA), 518 Federal Meat Inspection Act of 1906, 513–514 Federal regulation, for food safety, 99–100 Feline calicivirus (FCV), 268–269 Figs, 412 Follicular dendritic cells (FDCs), 359 Food additives safety regulation, legal basis for, 517–520 Food Additives Amendment of 1958, 517–518 Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO), 39 Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FDCA), 515–516 Food and Drugs Act of 1906, 515 See also Pure Food and Drugs Act Foodborne botulism, 371–372, 380–381 type E, 381 Foodborne disease, burden of benefits of estimation, 12 consequences of, 39 estimation in other countries, 11 estimation in United States burden-of-illness pyramid, estimation through, 4–8 domestic illness estimation, hospitalizations and deaths estimation, 8–9 major known pathogens, 4–9 use of alternative approaches, global efforts to control, 13 methodological considerations for, 14–15 Foodborne Disease Epidemiology Reference Group (FERG), 13 estimation of global burden of food disease in 2007, 3–4 Foodborne disease outbreak surveillance system (FDOSS), 6–7 Foodborne illness source attribution, methods of, 20–23 Foodborne NoV disease, 267 Foodborne rotavirus disease, 303 Food laws, in United States, 511–513 FoodNet surveillance system, 6–7 Food of animal origin, 524 Food of non-animal origin, 524 Food processing bacterial spores, use of, 467f, 468f canning—sterilization, 458 cleaning, 459, 474–475 on disease agents, 455 drying, 457–458 Escherichia coli decimal reduction time vs temperature, 473f pathogenic, D values, 475f fermentation, 459 food safety objectives (FSO), 456 freezing, 458 initial population density/bioburden (BB), 462–468 International Standards for Measurement of Bioburden, 463t–466t Listeria monocytogenes decimal reduction time vs temperature, 472f D values vs temperature, 474f medical devices, 455–456 medical devices, radiation sterilization of, 455 on microbial population, 456 microbial population density, 460–462 measurement, 459–460 microorganisms, 457 nixtamalization, 459 pasteurization, 458 population density, 461f reduction of, 468–474 post-process growth, 476–477 See also Food safety processing probability of failure, 460–462 refrigeration, 458 reusable medical devices, cleaning, 455 trimming, 459 water activity (Aw) microbial growth, 458 Food Quality Protection Act (FQPA), 518–520 Food safety hazards, 39 See also Hazard characterization Food safety objectives (FSOs), 39, 456 Index Food safety law in European Union, development of, 522–525 European food law challenges for, 524–525 elements of, 523–524 European food law from middle ages to today, 522–523 food safety crises 1990–2002 and modern developments, 523 Food safety processing education/training, 493–494, 494t FDA food modernization act, 493 foodservice addressing, regulations, 482t common steps, 488f Conference for Food Protection (CFP), 486 contaminated equipment/protection, 485 FDA food code, 486–487 FDA study, 485 food safety management programs, 487–493 food safety risk factors, 481–485 guidance documents and standards addressing, 483t improper holding/time and temperature, 485 poor personal hygiene risk factor, 484–485 global food safety initiative (GFSI), 492–493 good manufacturing practices (GMPs), 489 good retail practices (GRPs), 489–491 retail common steps, 488f food safety management programs, 487–493 risk factors, 481–485 risk-based inspections, 491–492 time and temperature control for PHF (TCS) foods, 490t transportation of food, 480–481 food safety management programs, 487–493 risks/preventive measures, 481 Food safety regulation, legal basis of dairy, 516–517 dairy/seafood/non-animal products, 515–517 Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FDCA), 515–516 pure food and drugs act, 515 European food law, 523–524 challenges, 524–525 in European Union, 522–525 Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA), 518 federal regulation, 512–513 food additives, 517–520 Food Quality Protection Act (FQPA), 518–520 meat/poultry/eggs, 513–515 additional legislation, 514 crises 1990–2002, 523 2011 FDA food safety modernization act, 521–522 federal meat inspection acts, 513–514 hazard analysis and critical control points (HACCP), 520–521 modern food safety system, 520–522 pesticides, 517–520 seafood, 517 in United States, 511–513 Food safety systems, science-and risk-based, 53 Foodservice addressing, regulations, 482t common steps, 488f Conference for Food Protection (CFP), 486 contaminated equipment/protection, 485 FDA food code, 486–487 FDA study, 485 food safety management programs, 487–493 risk factors, 481–485 guidance documents and standards addressing, 483t improper holding/time and temperature, 485 poor personal hygiene risk factor, 484–485 Food source attribution analysis of United States outbreak, 24–26 for pathogens based on outbreak data and expert elicitation, 28t Formal risk assessment, 39 Fumonisins, 414 Fusarium graminearum, 416 F verticillioides, 414–415 G Gastroenteritis, 229–230 Gastrointestinal disease, AstV-associated foodborne outbreaks, 296 Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS), 517–518 Global Burden of Disease (GBD) regions, 70–71 Global Foodborne Infections Network (GFN), 13 Global food safety initiative (GFSI), 492–493 Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD), 437 Glycoalkaloid levels, 437 Good manufacturing practices (GMPs), 489 Good retail practices (GRPs), 489–491 G-type antigen, 305 Guillain-Barre syndrome, 373 Gymnodinium breve, 426 533 534 Index H HAstV genotypes, 294–295 HAV infection, 261 epidemiology of, 281 Hazard analysis and critical control point (HACCP), 39, 121, 497–498, 520–521 critical control points (CCPs), 504 FDA Food Safety Modernization Act (FSMA), 503–507 mandatory produce safety standards, 505–506 mandatory risk-based preventive controls, 503–505 meat/poultry, implementation for, 501–502 pathogen reduction performance requirements, 501–502 plans, 489 pre-HACCP implementation of systems control, 498–499 raw juice, implementation for, 500 regulations/guidance, 504 for retail food establishments, 502 seafood, implementation for, 499–503 seven principles, 499t seven requirements, 503t small food producer exemption, 505 Hazard characterization, 44–45 See also Food safety hazards definition of, 39 Hazard identification, 39, 43 Health-adjusted life year (HALY) computation of, 20 principle of, 20 use of, 20 willingness-to-pay (WTP), preference of Economists, 20 Healthcare Cost and Utilization Project (HCUP), 10 Heat resistant (HR), 103 Heliotropium popovii, 430–431 Hepatitis A virus (HAV) clinical features, 279 exposure pathways, 281–282 microbiology, 280 prevention and control, 282–283 Hepatitis E virus (HEV), 287 antibody, 287 clinical features, 287–288 exposure pathways, 289 microbiology, 288–289 prevention/control, 289–290 zoonotic transmission, 289 High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), 338–339 Histo-blood group antigens (HBGAs), 265 HIV/AIDS patients, risk for invasive Salmonella infections, 68 Hospitalizations, estimation in United States due to foodborne disease, 8–9 Host ranges of Salmonella serovars, 77t Host-specific, 73 Human astroviruses (HAstVs), 293 Human noroviruses (NoVs), 261 clinical features disease manifestations, 261–262 epidemiology, 263–265 genetic diversity, 263 host susceptibility, 265 transmission routes, 262f exposure pathways, 266–269 direct person-to-person spread, 267 reservoirs, 266–267 in soil, 267 stability in water, 266–267 food attribution, 269 microbiology, 265–266 enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), 265–266 reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR)-based approaches, 265–266 movement from farm to fork, 267–269 RTE foods, 268–269 shellfish, 268 prevention/control, 269–271 advances, 271 food processing to elimination, 269–271 therapeutics, development of, 271 vaccination, 271 with RT-PCR detection, 268–269 Human salmonellosis incidence and burden of, 67–68 sources of, 86–88 5-Hydroxytryptamine (5-HT), 392–393 I IgG antibodies, by ELISA, 348 IgM anti-HAV positive, 282 Illness alternative approaches to estimate, estimation caused due to domestically acquired, estimation using burden-of-illness pyramid, 4–8 Immunoblotting, 324–325 Immunoglobulin M (IgM), 288 Immunosuppression, 68 Infectious intestinal disease (IID), 11 Inflammatory bowel disease, 261–262 Index Integrated measures, of disease burden, 19–20 International trade agreements, necessity to achieve food safety system, 39 Intervention plans design, in risk-based food safety system, 61 Iron milk medium (IMM), 104 Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), 68 J Jacobaea vulgaris, 430–431 K Kaufmann-White scheme, 73 L Laboratory-confirmed infections surveillance, 3–4, 6f Lactic acid bacteria (LAB), 391 Lecithinase See Phospholipase C Ligated rabbit ileal-loop test (LRIL), 402 Linum usitatissimum, 438–439 Lior scheme of Campylobacter sterotyping, 170–171 Listeria monocytogenes contamination risk as high risk in ready-to-eat (RTE) foods, 203 prevalence in foods, 203–204 prevalence in processing environments, 206 quantitative microbiological risk assessment in RTE foods, 205–206 distribution of, 201f microbiological characteristics of, 199–202 nature of infection in man and animals, 202–203 origin of, 199 prevention and control of, 208–210 problem for food industry, 199 Loop-mediated isothermal amplification PCR (LAMP), 118 M Maize, Bt uses, 411 Manihot esculenta, 439 Massachusetts Bread Law of 1646, 511–512 Massachusetts Meat and Fish Inspection Law of 1641, 511–512 Mean and ranges, of annual burden of disease, 21t Mean annual rate, of acute gastroenteritis hospitalizations, 10–11 Meat, legislation for, 513–515 Meat and bone meal (MBM), 353, 360 Meat Inspection Act 1890, 513 Meat products, contaminated with prions, 360 Microbial food safety risks, management of, 42–43 Microbial risk assessment (MRA) approaches in, 45–49 definition of, 39 steps in assessment of, 39 Microbial subtyping approaches of, 22–23 source attribution using, 75–79 Microorganisms, 475 Milk T gondii parasites, 328 ultra-high temperature (UHT), 339 Minimum infectious dose (MID), 40 Misclassification bias, disadvantage of, 22 Mode of action, of Clostridium perfringens, 99–100 Monitoring and review of data, on risk-based food safety system, 61 Monte Carlo simulation model for probabilistic quantitative risk assessment, 48f Most probable number (MPN), 103–104 Multiple-locus sequence typing (MLST), 74–75, 106 Multiple-locus variable number tandem repeat analysis (MLVA typing), 74–75 Murine NoV (MNV), 266–267 Murine NoV stability studies, in soil, 267 Muscle biopsies, 348 Mycobacterial infections, treatment of, 340 Mycobacterial species clinical features, 337–338 exposure pathways, 339 microbiology, 338–339 Mycobacterium bovis, 337 prevention/control, 340 tuberculosis (TB), 337 Mycobacterium bovis, 337 Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (MTB), 338 Mycotoxicosis first usage of, 409 structures, 410f Mycotoxins, 409 aflatoxins, 409–412 biocontrol, 412 in crops, 411–412 fungi-producing aflatoxins, 411 health effects, 409–411 reduction, 412 in stored commodities, 412 deoxynivalenol (Don), 415–416 formation in crops, 416 535 536 Index Mycotoxins (Continued) fungi-producing, 416 health effects, 415 detection, methodology, 416–417 Fusarium species, 414–415 fumonisin formation in crops, 415 fungi-producing fumonisins, 415 health effects, 414–415 reducing fumonisins, 415 ochratoxin A (OTA), 412–414 formation in crops, 414 fungal species, 413 health effects, 412–413 zearalenone, 416 fungi-producing, 416 health effects, 416 N National Ambulatory and National Hospital Ambulatory Medical Care Surveys (NAMCS/NHAMCS), 10–11 National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS), 10 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES), National Hospital Discharge System (NHDS), 10 National Inpatient Sample (NIS), 10 National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID), 261 National notifiable disease surveillance system (NNDSS), 6–7 National Research Council (NRC), framework for risk analysis, 39 National tuberculosis surveillance system (NTSS), 6–7 National Vital Statistics System, 10 Neurotoxic shellfish poisoning (NSP), 426–427 diagnosis/clinical symptoms/treatment, 426–427 Non-hemolytic enterotoxin (NHE), 402 Non-proteolytic group II strains, 377 Non-tuberculous mycobacteria (NTM), 337 cervical lymphadenitis, 338 environmental contaminants, 339 Non-typhoid Salmonella enterica, 67–68 NoroNet, 264–265 Norovirus illness, 4, 8, 261–262, 313 NoV disease, 267 NoV-specific microarrays, 266 Nucleic acid amplification methods, 263–264 O Ochratoxin A (OTA), 412–413 Open reading frames (ORFs), 314 Otonecine-type PAs, 433 Outbreak-derived food source attribution advantage of, 22 assessment of applicability, 26–30 Overall risk-based decision process, 61 See also Risk-based food safety system P Paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP), 425–426 diagnosis/clinical symptoms/treatment, 425–426 Pasteurized Milk Ordinance (PMO), 516–517 See also Standard Milk Ordinance Pathogen/food pairs ranking of, 27–29 steps in identification of, 19 Penner scheme of Campylobacter sterotyping, 170–171 Performance criterion (PC), 39 Performance objective (PO), 39 Pesticides, food safety regulation, legal basis for, 517–520 Pesticide Residue Amendment of 1954, 518 Phospholipase C, 404 Plant toxins alkaloid compounds, 430–438 salads, 431–432 cyanogenic glycosides, 438–439 structures of, 438f furanocoumarins, 440–441 structures of, 440f glucosinolates, 439–440 structures of, 439f glycoalkaloids, 436–437 structures of, 436f honey, 432 isothiocyanates, 439–440 structures of, 439f meat and eggs, 431 metabolite didehydropyrrolizidine, formation of, 433f milk, 431 phytotoxic food poisoning, 429 edible plants, 429 heat-resistant toxins, 429 inedible plants, 429 pyrimidine alkaloids, 437–438, 438f pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs), 430–434 quinolizidine alkaloids (QAs), 435–436, 436f tropane alkaloids, 434–435 structures of, 435f Plesiomonas shigelloides, 232–233 clinical features of Index extraintestinal infections, 230 gastroenteritis, 229–230 host susceptibility, 230–231 clinical syndrome, 232 cross-reaction with antisera of Shigella, 232–233 exposure pathways, 233–234 isolation of, 233 prevention and control of, 234–235 strains of, 233 “Poison Squad”, 515 Poisoning, acute, hepatotoxicity with hemorrhagic necrosis, 434 Polymerase chain reaction (PCR), 394 Population attributable fraction (PAF), 82 Post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP), 283 Post harvest, prevention and control of Salmonella, control in cattle farms, 90 Post-harvest processing (PHP), 122 Poultry, legislation for, 513–515 Poultry Products Inspection Act in 1957, 514 Prevention of Aeromonas and Plesiomonas, 234–235 of Brucellosis, 246–249 of Clostridium perfringens, 107 of Cronobacter, 255 of Enterohemorrhagic E coli (EHEC), 133 of Enteropathogenic E coli (EPEC), 139 of Enterotoxigenic E coli (ETEC), 136 of hepatitis A, 282–283 of hepatitis E, 289–290 of Listeriosis, 208–210 of Norovirus, 269–271 of Salmonella, 88–90 of Shigella, 220–221 of Streptococcal disease, 226 of Vibrios, 121–122 on survival and growth of Y enterocolitica, 193–194 Prion diagnostics, 361f Prion disease, food safety implications BSE agent, 353 BSE epidemic, 358f chronic wasting disease (CWD), 354–355 clinical features, 354–356 Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD), 353 exposure pathways, 359–360 interspecies transmission, 355f meat and bone meal (MBM), 353 microbiology, 356–359 prevention and control, 360–362 PrPc, schematic representation, 357f PrPd distribution of, 357t schematic representation, 357f transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSE), 354t variant CJD (vCJD), 353 Proteinase K (PK), 358 Public health risk ranking, in risk-based food safety system, 58–59 Pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE), 74, 106 Pure Food and Drugs Act, 513, 515 Q Qualitative risk assessment, 39 Quality-adjusted life years (QALYs), 19, 27 principle of, 20 use of, 20 Quantitative microbiological risk assessment (QMRA) in RTE foods, 205–206 Quantitative risk assessment, 39 R Radiation treatment, 270–271 Random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD), 106 Ranking, pathogen/food combinations, 27–29 Reactive arthritis (ReA), 68 Ready-to-eat (RTE) foods, 317 Listeria monocytogenes as high risk in, 203, 261, 262f QMRA of L monocytogenes in, 205–206 Real-time reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), 305–306 Reiter’s syndrome, 68 Reoviridae family, 304 Restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) analysis, 327 Retail common steps, 488f food safety management programs, 487–493 risk factors, 481–485 Reverse passive latex agglutination (RPLA), 104, 404 Risk characterization, 39 communication, 39 definition of, 39 estimate, 39 management, 39 Risk analysis, elements of, 39 Risk assessment, 49 approaches, 45–49 frameworks of exposure assessment, 43–44 537 538 Index Risk assessment (Continued) hazard characterization, 44–45 hazard identification, 43 risk characterization, 45 Monte Carlo simulation model for probabilistic quantitative, 48f types of, 39 Risk-based approach to food safety, 19 Risk-based food safety system, 53 building of blocks for, 54–55 challenges in implementation of overall risk-based decision process, 61–63 data for integrated information infrastructure to support, 63f development of, 53–54 elements of, 55–61 analysis and selection of interventions, 60 gathering of targetted information and due consideration of other factors, 59–60 intervention plans design, 61 monitoring and review of data collected, 61 overall risk-based decision process, 61 public health risk ranking, 58–59 strategic planning, 55–58 Risk characterization, 39, 45 Risk prioritization, steps in, 54–55 RNA viruses, 263 Rotavirus(es), 303, 313 clinical features, 304 age distribution, 304 clinical presentation, 304 exposure pathways, 306–307 microbiology, 304–306 classification of, 305 diagnosis, 305–306 immunity, 306 schematic representation, 305f strain prevalence, 305 structure, 304 prevention/control, 308–309 endemic childhood disease, 308 foodborne disease, 308 S Sabin–Feldman dye-test, 324–325 Salmonella, 67 disease in man epidemiology and disease transmission in humans, 71–72 incidence and burden of human salmonellosis, 68–71 symptoms and sequelae, 67–68 exposure pathways source attribution See Source attribution main reservoir of, 67 microbiology characterization and virulence, 73 classification of, 72–73 typing methods for tracing human infections sources, 73–75 prevention and control of, 88–90 at farm level, 89–90 post harvest, 90 surveillance programs and control methods for, 67 Sanitary and Phytosanitary Standards (SPS Agreement), 54 Sapoviruses, 313 classification of, 316f clinical features, 313–314 exposure pathways, 315–317 gastroenteritis, 313 microbiology, 314–315 negative stain electron micrograph, 315f prevention/control, 317 Science and Decisions: Advancing Risk Assessment report, 39 Science base food safety systems, 53 Scientific risk assessment processes, origin of, 39 Scombroid poisoning, 429–430 diagnosis/clinical symptoms/treatment, 430 Seafood Inspection Act of 1934, 517 Seafood intoxications, 421t–423t amnesic shellfish poisoning (Asp), 427–428 diagnosis/clinical symptoms/treatment, 427–428 ciguatera fish poisoning (CFP), 420–425 ciguatoxins (CTXs), 424–425 diagnosis of, 424–425 treatment for, 425 consumption, 419 diarrheic shellfish poisoning (DSP), 428 diagnosis/clinical symptoms/treatment, 428 neurotoxic shellfish poisoning (NSP), 426–427 diagnosis/clinical symptoms/treatment, 426–427 outbreaks, 420f paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP), 425–426 diagnosis/clinical symptoms/treatment, 425–426 prevention of, 430–431 scombroid poisoning, 429–430 diagnosis/clinical symptoms/treatment, 430 tetrodotoxin poisoning/puffer fish poisoning, 428–429 Index diagnosis/clinical symptoms/treatment, 429 Selection of interventions, in risk-based food safety system, 60 Senecio jacobaea See Jacobaea vulgaris Seroagglutination, 73 Serotyping, 73 Serovars, 73 See also Host-specific Sewage treatment plants, NoV outbreaks, 266 Shellfish, case-control study of, 289 Shigella, 143–144 See also Enteroinvasive E coli (EIEC) clinical features of, 217–218 exposure pathways, 219–220 microbiology of, 218–219 prevention and control of, 220–221 Small round viruses (SRV), 293–294 SNARE proteins, 376–377 Solanum lycopersicum, 436–437 Solanum melongena, 436–437 Solanum tuberosum, 436–437 Source attribution definition of, 75 methods of, 75 other approaches to, 83–86 using microbial subtyping, 75–79 using outbreak data, 79–82 using systematic review of case-control studies, 82–83 Specified risk material (SRM), 356 Sporadic infections, epidemiological studies of, 22 Sporadic salmonellosis, relative importance of risk factors for, 84f Spore germination of C perfringens, 103 Spore heat resistance of C perfringens, 103 Sporulated oocysts, 326–327 Sporulation of C perfringens, 102 enterotoxin formation during, 102 Standard Milk Ordinance, 516–517 Staphylococcal enterotoxins (SEs), 391 amino acid homology, 392 heat resistance, 392 Staphylococcal food poisoning clinical features, 389–390 exposure pathways, 395–397 factors influencing growth/survival, 395 outbreaks, 396 microorganism, 390–395 prevention/control, 397 properties of, 390t S Aureus/enterotoxins, detection, 394–395 staphylococcal enterotoxins (SEs), 391–393 on amino-acid sequence comparison, 392t encoding genes, genomic location of, 392t Staphylococcus aureus, 389 Sterility assurance level (SAL), 460 Strategic planning, in risk-based food safety system, 55–58 Streptococcal disease clinical presentation of foodborne streptococcal disease, 224–225 streptococcal pharyngitis, 223–224 exposure pathways, 225–226 microbiology of, 225 prevention and control of, 226 Subtyping methods of attribution, 23 Surveillance, for laboratory-confirmed infections, 3–4, 6f T TaqMan-based reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), 315 Taxonomy of Aeromonas, 231 of C perfringens, 100 Technical information report (TIR), 455 Tetrodotoxin poisoning/puffer fish poisoning, 428–429 Thiosulfate citrate bile salts sucrose (TCBS), 118 Time and temperature control for PHF (TCS) foods, 490t Toxin co-regulated pilus (TCP), 116 Toxoplasma gondii, 323–325, 330 exposure pathways, 327–330 expert elicitation, 329 infection, sources, 327–328 milk, 328 oocysts, 328 outbreak investigation, 329 risk assessment, 329 risk-factor analyses, 328–329 sources of, 328–330 source-specific diagnostics, 329–330 tissue cysts, 328 intracellular coccidian parasite, 323 microbiology, 325–327 genetic variation, 327 life cycle, 325–327, 326f subtyping, 327 prevention/control cats, environmental contamination reduction, 331 health education, 330 meat, infection levels reduction, 330 neonatal screening, 331 prenatal screening, 331 539 540 Index Toxoplasma gondii (Continued) primary prevention, 330–331 toxoplasmosis, 323–325 acquired toxoplasmosis, 324–325 in animals, 324 congenital toxoplasmosis, 323 diagnosis/detection, 324–325 Toxovax®, 330 Transient steam sterilization cycle, 470 Transmissible mink encephalopathy (TME), 359–360 Transparent, definition of, 39 Transportation of food, 480–481 food safety management programs, 487–493 risks/preventive measures, 481 Trichinella larvae, 343–344 Trichinella spiralis, 346f, 349 Trichinella spp., 343, 345 adult, 346f biology of, 345–348 farm to fork, 349 genotypes/species, 344t larvae, first-stage, 347f trichinellosis diagnosis of, 348 trichinellosis control/prevention, 349–350 Trichinellosis, diagnosis of, 348 Tryptose-sulfite-cycloserine (TSC), 104 Tuberculosis (TB), 337 Typing methods, for tracing human infections sources, 73–75 U Ultra-high temperature (UHT) processed milk, 339 Uncertainty analysis, definition of, 39 United States (US) foodborne disease estimation in See Foodborne disease, estimation in United States laboratory-based surveillance systems in, 6–7 outbreak data for food source attribution, analysis of, 24–26 United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), 512–513 United States Public Health Service (US PHS), 516–517 Unspecified acute gastroenteritis illnesses, 9–10 hospitalizations and deaths due to, 10–11 Unspecified agents domestically acquired foodborne illness caused by, 11 impact of, 9–11 US Council for Agricultural Science and Technology, 39 V Vaccination programs, 282–283 Variable number tandem repeat analysis (VNTR), 106 Variant CJD (vCJD), 353 Vascular permeability reaction (VPR) assays, 402 Vegetables, 379 Vibrio cholera See Vibrio species Vibrio parahaemolyticus See Vibrio species Vibrio species clinical features of disease manifestations, 113–115 host susceptibility, 115 exposure pathways approaches to food attribution, 121 reservoirs and entry into food supply, 120 microbiology of diagnosis and species identification, 118 genetics and evolution of pathogenic vibrios, 116–117 molecular and genomic typing, 119–120 virulence factors detection, 119 prevention and control of hazard analysis of critical control points, 121 post-harvest processing (PHP), 122 Vibrio monitoring, 121 Vibrio vulnificus See Vibrio species Vicia faba, 438 Virulence factors of, 231 Virus-like particles (VLPs), 271 W WHO recommended, to safer food, 308 Willingness-to-pay (WTP), 20 World Health Organization (WHO), 3–4, 13, 39 World Trade Organization, 39, 54 Y Yersinia enterocolitica characteristics of, 189 clinical features of illness associated with human infections, 187–188 diagnosis and identification, approaches to epidemiological typing, 190 human pathogenic identification, 190 isolation, 189 methods of detection, 190 selective enrichment, 189 Index exposure pathways infectious dose, pathogenesis and immunity, 192 occurrence in animals, 193 phenotypic characterization biotyping, 188 correlation between biotypes and serotypes and pathogenicity, 188 serotyping by using o-antigens, 188 Yersinia pseudotuberculosis, 188 reservoirs, 190–192 water and vegetables, 193 food attribution, approaches to, 192 host susceptibility impact on occurrence of illness, 188 microbiology of, 188–190 prevention and control of, 193–196 animal contact, 196 control in meat chain, 194–195 drinking water and vegetables, 195 general control aspects for survival and growth, 193–194 milk and dairy products control, 195 Yersinia pseudotuberculosis, 188, 192, 196 characteristics of, 189 subdivision of, 188 Z Zoonosis prevention, for Campylobacter, 175 Zoonotic transmission, 173 See also Campylobacter, exposure pathways 541 ... the use of laptops at home during evenings and weekends to edit yet one more document ), and we thank them for their valuable input, patience, and understanding J Glenn Morris, Jr Morris E Potter. .. countries Several other countries have estimated the burden of disease from contaminated food, including England and Wales, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Jordan, Greece, Australia, and France [25–3 0,3 2]... Benjamin Nygren Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA Marieke Opsteegh RIVM, Utrecht, the Netherlands Renato