State Interest and the Sources of International Law This book addresses the disparity between positive non-treaty law and its scholarly assessment in the area of moral concepts, understood as altruistic as opposed to reciprocal legal obligations It shows how scholars are generously willing to assert the existence of a rule of international law, thereby moving further away from actual state practice, not taking into account the factors of legal rhetoric and the core survival interests of the state in the formation of custom and general principles of law The main argument is that such moral concepts can simply not manifest themselves as non-treaty sources of international law from a dogmatic perspective The reason is the inherent connection between the formation of the non-treaty sources of international law and state interest that makes it difficult, if not impossible, to assess state practice or opinio juris in the case of altruistic obligations The book further demonstrates this finding by looking at two cases in point: Human rights and humanitarian exceptions to the prohibition of force As opposed to the majority of existing works on the subject, State Interest and the Sources of International Law takes a bigger-picture approach to a number of distinct problems in international law scholarship by looking at the building blocks of international relations on the one hand, and merging this with sources doctrine on the other It will be of interest to researchers, academics, and students in the fields of international law, human rights, international relations, political science, legal philosophy, and legal theory Markus P Beham is an Assistant Professor at the Chair of Constitutional and Administrative Law, Public International Law, European, and International Economic Law at the University of Passau, Germany Routledge Research in International Law For a full list of titles in this series, visit www.routledge.com/RoutledgeResearch-in-International-Law/book-series/INTNLLAW Available: Regionalism in International Law Ján Klucˇka The International Criminal Court and Nigeria Implementing the Complementarity Principle of the Rome Statute Muyiwa Adigun Armed Conflict and Forcible Displacement Individual Rights under International Law Edited by Elena Katselli Proukaki The Rule of Unwritten International Law Customary Law, General Principles, and World Order Peter G Staubach State Interest and the Sources of International Law Doctrine, Morality, and Non-Treaty Law Markus P Beham Demilitarization and International Law in Context The Åland Islands Sia Spiliopoulou Åkermark and Saila Heinikoski International Criminal Law and Sexual Violence against Women The Interpretation of Gender in the Contemporary International Criminal Trial Daniela Nadj Regional Developmentalism Through Law The Use of Law to Support the Effective Establishment of an African Economic Community Jonathan Bashi Rudahindwa State Interest and the Sources of International Law Doctrine, Morality, and Non-Treaty Law Markus P Beham First published 2018 by Routledge 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017 and by Routledge Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2018 Taylor & Francis The right of Markus P Beham to be identified as author of this work has been asserted by him/her/them in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 All rights reserved No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Beham, Markus Peter, author Title: State interest and the sources of international law : doctrine, morality, and non-treaty law / Markus P Beham Description: Abingdon, Oxon [UK] ; New York, NY : Routledge, 2018 | Series: Routledge research in international law | Includes bibliographical references and index Identifiers: LCCN 2017055529 | ISBN 9781138298781 (hardback) | ISBN 9781351579964 (web pdf) | ISBN 9781351579957 (epub) | ISBN 9781351579940 (mobipocket) Subjects: LCSH: International law | State, The | International law–Moral and ethical aspects Classification: LCC KZ3410 B44 2018 | DDC 341/.1–dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017055529 ISBN: 9781138298781 (hbk) ISBN: 9781315098388 (ebk) Typeset in Galliard by Taylor & Francis Books In memory of Christian Fiammengo (1989–2014) who would have been a great international lawyer, and who saw more of the world in 25 years than most diplomats I know This page intentionally left blank Contents List of Treaties List of Cases Permanent Court of International Justice xiii International Court of Justice xiii Arbitral Awards xv European Court of Human Rights xv International Criminal Tribunal for Yugoslavia xv United Kingdom Cases xv United States Cases xvi List of Documents League of Nations xvii United Nations xvii International Labour Organization xix European Union xix United States xix Miscellaneous xix Foreword Preface Abbreviations Introduction A Do you Believe in International Law? 1 The Quest for the Status Quo 2 Methodology as Added Value Pending Added Value 4 Immediate Goals The Factual The Abstract 11 B What if I Told You 12 External Perspectives 12 xi xiii xvii xxi xxii xxv viii Contents The International College of Legal Illusionists 13 The “Is” and the “Ought” 15 C Customary International Law and “Customary International Law” 19 Formation 19 Two “Is” 20 Ensuring Effectivity 22 The Downward Spiral 22 State Interest 24 Reciprocity 26 Moral Concepts 30 D Case Studies 30 Human Rights 31 Use of Force 41 E Catch, Before the Fall 44 Controversy and Apology 44 “Legality” and “Morality” 46 “Dogmatik”, not “Pedantic’ 47 Non-Treaty Sources A On the “Sources” of International Law 49 Article 38 of the Statute of the International Court of Justice 52 Acceptance and Reception in the Literature 53 Two or Three “Main” Sources? 54 B Customary International Law 57 Law of a Primitive Society 57 Theories on Custom 59 State Practice 61 Opinio Iuris 70 Paradoxes of the Two-Element Theory 89 Schrödinger’s Custom 91 The Man on the Clapham Omnibus 93 Practice of the International Court of Justice 94 “Modern” Approaches to the Formation of Custom 101 10 Assessment 103 C General Principles of Law 104 Terminology 105 Identification 107 Excursus: “Civilized Nations” 111 Assessment 112 49 Contents ix Morality and State Interest A Defining Morality and Legality 114 Morality 114 Legality 115 Two Planes 116 Moral Concepts 118 B State Interest 121 States 121 Interest 123 Interests of States 124 Assessment 132 114 Doctrine and Indeterminacy A Human Rights as Non-Treaty Law: Doctrine 134 Prelude: Human Rights and the United Nations 134 Human Rights as Customary International Law 136 Human Rights as General Principles of Law 157 Preliminary Conclusion 161 B Humanitarian Use of Force: Indeterminacy 162 Prohibition of the Threat or Use of Force 162 Non-intervention 168 Changing the Rules of Force 169 Humanitarian Intervention Theory 174 The “Responsibility to Protect” 183 Preliminary Conclusion 189 134 Conclusion 192 Bibliography A Books 194 B Articles and Chapters Within Books 200 C Other 221 194 Index 223 212 Bibliography Lepard, Brian D., ‘International Law and Human Rights’, in Thomas Cushman (ed.), Handbook of Human Rights (Oxon: Routledge, 2012) 583–597 Lillich, Richard B., ‘Forcible Self-Help Under International Law’, 62 International Law Studies Series US Naval War College (1980) 129–138 Lillich, Richard B., ‘The Growing Importance of Customary International Human Rights Law’, 25/1 Georgia Journal of International and Comparative Law (1995–1996) 1–30 Lobo de Souza, I.M., ‘The Role of State Consent in the Customary Process’, 44 International and Comparative Law Quarterly (1995) 521–539 Luck, Edward C., ‘The Responsibility to Protect: Growing Pains or Early Promise?’, 24/4 Ethics and International Affairs (2010) 349–365 Macdonald, Ronald St., ‘The Charter of the United Nations as a World Constitution’, in Michael N Schmitt (ed.), International Law Across the Spectrum of Conflict: Essays in Honour of Professor L.C Green on the Occasion of his Eightieth Birthday (International Law Studies, Vol 75; Newport, RI: Naval War College, 2000) 264–300 MacGibbon, Iain, ‘Means for the Identification of International Law’, in Bin Cheng (ed.), International Law: Teaching and Practice (London: Stevens & Sons, 1982) 10–26 McDougal, Myres S., ‘Law and Minimum World Public Order: Armed Conflict in Larger Context’, Pacific Basin Law Journal (1984) 21–33 McDowall, Angus, ‘Saudi Arabia Rejects Rights Criticism After Flogging of Blogger’, Reuters (7 March 2015) McDowall, Angus, ‘Shi’ite Cleric Among 47 Executed in Saudi Arabia, Stirring Anger in Region’, Reuters (2 January 2016) McElhaney, James W., ‘The Giggle Test’, ABA Journal The Lawyer’s Magazine (1 October 1988) 90–92 McFarland, Sam, and Melissa Mathews, ‘Who Cares About Human Rights?’, 26/3 Political Psychology (2005) 365–385 McNair, Arnold Duncan, ‘The General Principles of Law Recognized by Civilized Nations’, 33 British Yearbook of International Law (1957) 1–19 Malmvig, Helle, ‘The Reproduction of Sovereignties: Between Man and State During Practices of Intervention’, 36 Cooperation and Conflict (2001) 251–272 Marboe, Irmgard, ‘The Responsibility to Protect’, in Karolina M Januszewski, Tina Hofstätter, and Manfred Nowak (eds), All Human Rights for All: Vienna Manual on Human Rights (Vienna: Intersentia / Neuer Wissenschaftlicher Verlag, 2012) 500–505 Marks, Susan, ‘The “Emerging Norm”: Conceptualizing “Democratic Governance”’, 91 American Society of International Law Proceedings (1997) 372–376 Meijers, Herman, ‘How is International Law Made?’, Netherlands Yearbook of International Law (1978) 3–26 Mendelson, Maurice, ‘The Subjective Element in Customary International Law’, 66/1 British Yearbook of International Law (1995) 177–208 Mendelson, Maurice, ‘The Formation of Customary International Law’, 272 Recueil des Cours de l’Académie de Droit International de La Haye (1998) 155–410 Meron, Theodor, ‘On a Hierarchy of International Human Rights’, 80 American Journal of International Law (1986) 1–23 Moore, Gordon E., ‘Cramming More Components onto Integrated Circuits’, 38/8 Electronics (1965) 114–117 Bibliography 213 Morgenthau, Hans J., ‘Positivism, Functionalism and International Law’, 34/2 American Journal of International Law (1940) 260–284 Morgenthau, Hans J., ‘The Twilight of International Morality’, 58/2 Ethics (1948) 79–99 Murphy, Sean D., ‘The Intervention in Kosovo: A Law-shaping Incident?’, 94 American Society of International Law Proceedings (2000) 302–304 Neuhold, Hanspeter, ‘Rechtsethische Aspekte des Internationalen Militäreinsatzes’, in Erich Reiter (ed.), Der Krieg um das Kosovo 1998/99 (Mainz: v Hase & Koehler, 2000) 193–208 Neuhold, Hanspeter, ‘Das Gewalt- und Interventionsverbot’, in August Reinisch (ed.), Ưsterreichisches Handbuch des Vưlkerrechts Band I – Textteil, 5th edn (Vienna: Manz, 2013) 422–449 Neumayer, Eric, ‘Do International Human Rights Treaties Improve Respect for Human Rights?’, 49/6 Journal of Conflict Resolution (2005) 925–953 Norman, George, and Joel P Trachtman, ‘The Customary International Law Game’, 99/3 American Journal of International Law (2005) 541–580 Nowak, Manfred, ‘Responsibility to Protect: Is International Law Moving from Hobbes to Locke?’, in Gerhard Hafner, Franz Matscher, and Kirsten Schmalenbach (eds), Völkerrecht und die Dynamik der Menschenrechte: Liber Amicorum Wolfram Karl (Vienna: Facultas.wuv, 2012) 342–369 Nowrot, Karsten, and Emily W Schabacker, ‘The Use of Force to Restore Democracy: International Legal Implications of the ECOWAS Intervention in Sierra Leone’, 14 American University International Law Review (1998–1999) 321–412 O’Boyle, Michael, ‘Torture and Emergency Powers Under the European Convention on Human Rights: Ireland v the United Kingdom’, 71 American Journal of International Law (1977) 674–706 O’Connell, Mary Ellen, ‘Taking Opinio Juris Seriously, a Classical Approach to International Law on the Use of Force’, in Enzo Cannizzaro and Paolo Palchetti (eds), Customary International Law on the Use of Force: A Methodological Approach (Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff, 2005) 9–30 Oba, Abdulmumini A., ‘Female Circumcision as Female Genital Mutilation: Human Rights or Cultural Imperialism?’, 8/3 Global Jurist (2008) 1–38 Öberg, Marko Divac, ‘The Legal Effects of Resolutions of the UN Security Council and General Assembly in the Jurisprudence of the ICJ’, 16/5 European Journal of International Law (2006) 879–906 Onuf, Nicholas, ‘Do Rules Say What They Do? From Ordinary Language to International Law’, 26/2 Harvard International Law Journal (1985) 385–410 Orrego-Vicuña, Francisco, ‘Customary International Law in a Global Community: Tailor Made?’, 38/148 Revista de Estudios Internacionales (2005) 21–38 Palmisano, Giuseppe, ‘Determining the Law on the Use of Force: The ICJ and Customary Rules on the Use of Force’, in Enzo Cannizzaro and Paolo Palchetti (eds), Customary International Law on the Use of Force: A Methodological Approach (Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff, 2005) 197–218 Panjabi, Ranee K.L., Review of Theodor Meron, Human Rights and Humanitarian Norms as Customary Law (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989), 20/1 California Western International Law Journal (1989–1990) 381–388 Pattison, James, ‘The Ethics of Humanitarian Intervention in Libya’, 25/3 Ethics and International Affairs (2011) 271–277 Paulsson, Jan, ‘Scholarship as Law’, in Manush H Arsanjani, Jacob Katz Cogan, Robert D Sloane, and Siegfried Wiessner (eds), Looking to the Future: Essays on 214 Bibliography International Law in Honor of W Michael Reisman (Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff, 2011) 183–193 Paulus, Andreas L., and Bruno Simma, ‘The Responsibility of Individuals for Human Rights Abuses in Internal Conflicts: A Positivist View’, 93/2 American Journal of International Law (1999) 302–316 Paust, Jordan J., ‘The Complex Nature, Sources and Evidences of Customary Human Rights’, 25 Georgia Journal of International Law (1995/1996) 147–164 Peczenik, Aleksander, ‘Scientia Iuris – An Unsolved Philosophical Problem’, 3/3 Ethical Theory and Moral Practice (2000) 273–302 Pellet, Alain, ‘La Mise en Œuvre des Normes Relatives aux Droits de l’Homme “Souveraineté du Droit” Contre Souveraineté de l’État?’, in Hubert Thierry and Emmanuel Decaux (eds), Droit international et Droits de l’Homme Actes du Colloque des 12 et 13 Octobre La Pratique Juridique Franỗaise Dans le Domaine de la Protection Internationale des Droits de l’Homme (Cahiers du CEDIN 5; Paris: Édition Montchrestien, 1990) 101–141 Pellet, Alain, ‘“Human Rightism” and International Law’, 20 Italian Yearbook of International Law (2000) 3–16 Pellet, Alain, ‘Article 38’, in Karin Oellers-Frahm, Christian J Tams, Christian Tomuschat, and Andreas Zimmermann (eds), The Statute of the International Court of Justice: A Commentary, 2nd edn (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012) 731–870 Peters, Anne, ‘The Responsibility to Protect: Spelling out the Hard Legal Consequences for the UN Security Council and its Members’, in Ulrich Fastenrath, Rudolf Geiger, Daniel-Erasmus Khan, Andreas Paulus, Sabine von Schorlemer, and Christoph Vedder (eds), From Bilateralism to Community Interest: Essays in Honour of Judge Bruno Simma (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011) 297–325 Peters, Anne, ‘Realizing Utopia as a Scholarly Endeavour’, 24/2 European Journal of International Law (2013) 533–552 Petersen, Niels, ‘Customary Law Without Custom? Rules, Principles, and the Role of State Practice in International Norm Creation’, 23/2 American University International Law Review (2007) 275–310 Petersen, Niels, Review of Brian D Lepard, Customary International Law A New Theory with Practical Applications (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 21 European Journal of International Law (2010) 795–797 Petersmann, Ernst-Ulrich, ‘Constitutionalism and International Adjudication: How to Constitutionalize the U.N Dispute Settlement System?’, 31 New York University Journal of International Law and Politics (1998–1999) 753–790 Picker, Colin B., ‘International Law’s Mixed Heritage: A Common/Civil Law Jurisdiction’, 41 Vanderbilt Journal of Transnational Law (2008) 1083–1140 Popper, Karl R., ‘Wider die großen Worte Ein Plädoyer für intellektuelle Redlichkeit’, Zeit Online , originally published in 39 Die Zeit (14 September 1971) Posner, Richard, ‘A Theory of Negligence’, Journal of Legal Studies (1972) 29–96 Pronto, Arnold N., ‘“Human-Rightism” and the Development of General International Law’, 20 Leiden Journal of International Law (2007) 753–765 Raz, Joseph, ‘Authority and Justification’, 14/1 Authority and Justification (1985) 3–29, reprinted in Joseph Raz (ed.), Authority (New York: New York University Press, 1990) 115–141 Bibliography 215 Reinisch, August, ‘Developing Human Rights and Humanitarian Law Accountability of the Security Council for the Imposition of Economic Sanctions’, 95/4 American Journal of International Law (2001) 851–872 Reinisch, August, ‘Value Conflicts Within the United Nations Security Council’, 14 Austrian Review of International Law (2009) 41–60 Reisman, Michael, and Myres S McDougal, ‘Humanitarian Intervention to Protect the Ibos’, in Richard B Lillich (ed.), Humanitarian Intervention and the United Nations (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1973) 167–195 Reisman, Michael, ‘International Law-making: A Process of Communication’, 75 American Society of International Law Proceedings (1981) 101–120 Rich, Roland, ‘Bringing Democracy into International Law’, 12/3 Journal of Democracy (2001) 20–34 Richardson, Henry S., ‘Moral Reasoning’, in Edward N Zalta (ed.), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2014 Edition) Roberts, Anthea Elizabeth, ‘Traditional and Modern Approaches to Customary International Law: A Reconciliation’, 95 American Journal of International Law (2001) 757–791 Roberts, Anthea, ‘Legality Verses Legitimacy: Can Uses of Force Be Illegal but Justified?’, in Philip Alston and Euan MacDonald (eds), Human Rights, Intervention, and the Use of Force (The Collected Courses of the Academy of European Law, Vol X/2; Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008) 179–213 Roberts, Anthea, and Sandesh Sivakumaran, ‘Lawmaking by Nonstate Actors: Engaging Armed Groups in the Creation of International Humanitarian Law’, 37 Yale Journal of International Law (2012) 107–152 Roberts, Anthea, ‘Custom, Public Law and the Human Rights Analogy’, EJIL:Talk! (14 August 2013) Rodley, Nigel, ‘Humanitarian Intervention’, in Marc Weller (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of the Use of Force in International Law (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015) 775–796 Roht-Arriaza, Naomi, ‘State Responsibility to Investigate and Prosecute Grave Human Rights Violations in International Law’, 78/2 California Law Review (1990) 449–513 Rougier, Antoine, ‘La Théorie de l’Intervention d’Humanité’, XVII Revue Générale de Droit International Public (1910) 468–526 Roy, Guha, ‘Is the Law of Responsibility of States for Injuries to Aliens a Part of Universal International Law?’, 55 American Journal of International Law (1961) 863–891 Rubin, Alfred P., Review of Theodor Meron, Human Rights and Humanitarian Norms as Customary Law (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989), 31/2 Harvard Journal of International Law (1990) 685–694 Ruiz Fabri, Hélène, ‘Human Rights and State Sovereignty: Have the Boundaries Been Significantly Redrawn?’ in Philip Alston and Euan MacDonald (eds), Human Rights, Intervention, and the Use of Force (The Collected Courses of the Academy of European Law, Vol X/2; Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008) 33–86 Sands, Philippe, ‘The Government is Playing a Dangerous Game Trying to Scrap the Human Rights Act’, The Guardian (21 October 2015) 216 Bibliography Sassòli, Marco, Review of Theodor Meron, Human Rights and Humanitarian Norms as Customary Law (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989), 29/273 International Review of the Red Cross (1989) 602–603 Scelle, Georges, ‘Essai sur les Sources Formelles du Droit International’, in Charles Appleton (ed.), Recueil d’Études sur les Sources du Droit en lHonneur de Franỗois Gộny Tome III Les Sources des Diverses Branches du Droit (Paris: Sirey, 1934) 400–430 Schachter, Oscar, ‘Towards a Theory of International Obligation’, in Stephen Schwebel (ed.), The Effectiveness of International Decisions (Leiden: Sijthoff, 1971) 9–31, reprinted in Martti Koskenniemi (ed.), Sources of International Law (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2000) 3–25 Schachter, Oscar, ‘The Twilight Existence of Nonbinding International Agreements’, 71 American Journal of International Law (1977) 296–304 Schachter, Oscar, ‘The Invisible College of International Lawyers’, 72 Northwestern University Law Review (1977–1978) 217–226 Schachter, Oscar, ‘International Law Implications of U.S Human Rights Policies’, 24 New York Law School Law Review (1978–1979) 63–87 Schachter, Oscar, ‘Alf Ross Memorial Lecture: The Crisis of Legitimation in the United Nations’, 50–51 Nordisk Tidsskrift for International Ret (1981–1982) 3–19 Schachter, Oscar, ‘The Nature and Process of Legal Development in International Society’, in Douglas M Johnston and Ronald St.J Macdonald, The Structure and Process of International Law Essays in Legal Philosophy, Doctrine and Theory (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1983) 745–808 Schachter, Oscar, ‘The Legality of Pro-Democratic Invasion’, 78/3 American Journal of International Law (1984) 645–650 Schachter, Oscar, ‘Metaphors and Realism in International Law’, 96 Proceedings of the American Society of International Law at its Annual Meeting (2002) 268–269 Scheffer, David J., ‘Introduction: The Great Debate of the 1980s’, in Allan Gerson, Louis Henkin, Stanley Hoffmarin, Jeane J Kirkpatrick, William D Rogers, and David J Scheffer (eds), Right v Might International Law and the Use of Force, 2nd edn (New York: Council of Foreign Relations Press, 1991) 1–17 Schrijver, Nico J., ‘The Future of the Charter of the United Nations’, 10 Max Planck Yearbook of United Nations Law (2006) 1–34 Schrödinger, Erwin, ‘Die gegenwärtige Situation in der Quantenmechanik’, 23/49 Die Naturwissenschaften (1935) 807–812 Schulz, William F., ‘Spread the Word Organizing the Grassroots to End Atrocity Crimes’, in Richard H Cooper and Juliette Voïnov Kohler (eds), Responsibility to Protect: The Global Moral Compact for the 21st Century (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009) 145–159 Schwebel, Stephen M., ‘The Effect of Resolutions of the U.N General Assembly on Customary International Law’, 73 Proceedings of the American Society of International Law at its Annual Meeting (1979) 301–309 Schwebel, Stephen M., ‘The Legal Effect of Resolutions and Codes of Conduct of the United Nations’, Forum Internationale (1985) 1–16 reprinted in Stephen M Schwebel (ed.), Justice in International Law: Selected Writings of Stephen M Schwebel (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994) 499–513 Schwebel, Stephen M., ‘Investor-State Disputes and the Development of International Law: The Influence of Bilateral Investment Treaties on Customary International Law’, 98 American Society of International Law Procedures (2004) 27–30 Bibliography 217 Schwelb, Egon, ‘Crimes Against Humanity’, 23 British Yearbook of International Law (1946) 178–226 Segupta, Somini, ‘A Host of Possible Objections to Expanded Airstrikes in Syria’, New York Times (17 September 2014) Sekularac, Ivana, and Krisztina Than, ‘Hungary Shuts EU Border, Taking Migrant Crisis Into its own Hands’, Reuters (16 September 2015) Shavell, Steven, ‘Law Versus Morality as Regulators of Conduct’, 4/2 American Law and Economics Review (2002) 227–257 Shelton, Dina, ‘International Law and “Relative Normativity”’, in Malcolm D Evans (ed.), International Law, 4th edn (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014) 137–165 Simma, Bruno, ‘NATO, the UN and the Use of Force’, 10 European Journal of International Law (1999) 1–22 Simma, Bruno, ‘Gestaltwandel im Völkerrecht und in der Organisation der Vereinten Nationen’, in Waldemar Hummer (ed.), Paradigmenwechsel im Völkerrecht zur Jahrtausendwende Ansichten österreichischer Völkerrechtler zu aktuellen Problemlagen (Vienna: Manzsche Verlags- und Universitätsbuchhandlung, 2002) 45–63 Simma, Bruno, and Stephan Wittich, ‘Das Völkergewohnheitsrecht’, in August Reinisch (ed.), Ưsterreichisches Handbuch des Vưlkerrechts Band I – Textteil, 5th edn (Vienna: Manz, 2013) 32–49 Simpson, Gerry, ‘On the Magic Mountain: Teaching Public International Law’, 10 European Journal of International Law (1999) 70–92 Skubiszewski, Krzysztof, ‘Non-Binding Resolutions and the Law-Making Process’, 15 Polish Yearbook of International Law (1986) 135–161 Skubiszewski, Krzysztof, ‘Resolutions of the U.N General Assembly and Evidence of Custom’, in Alessandro Migliazza, Fausto Pocar, Pierluigi Lamberti Zanardi, and Piero Ziccardi (eds), Le Droit International a l’Heure de sa Codification Etudes en l’Honneur de Roberto Ago / Il Diritto Internazionale al Tempo Della sua Codificazione: Studi in Onore di Roberto Ago / International Law at the Time of its Codification: Essays in Honour of Roberto Ago (Milan: Dott A Giuffré Editore, 1987) 503–519 Sloan, Blaine, ‘General Assembly Resolutions Revisited (Forty Years Later)’, 58 British Yearbook of International Law (1987) 39–150 Sohn, Louis B., ‘The Human Rights Law of the Charter’, 12 Texas International Law Journal (1977) 129–140 Sohn, Louis B., ‘John A Sibley Lecture The Shaping of International Law’, 8/1 Georgia Journal of International and Comparative Law (1978) 1–25 Sohn, Louis B., ‘The New International Law: Protection of the Rights of Individuals Rather Than States’, 32 American University Law Review (1982–1983) 1–64 Sohn, Louis B., ‘“Generally Accepted” International Rules’, 61 Washington Law Review (1986) 1073–1080 Sohn, Louis B., ‘Sources of International Law’, 25/1 Georgia Journal of International Law (1995–1996) 399–406 Solow, Barbara L., reply by David Brion Davis, ‘The British & the Slave Trade’, The New York Review of Books (12 January 2012) Somek, Alexander, ‘Kelsen Lives’, 18/3 European Journal of International Law (2007) 409–451 218 Bibliography Somek, Alexander, ‘From the Rule of Law to the Constitutionalist Makeover: Changing European Conceptions of Public International Law’, 18/4 Constellations (2011) 576–588 Somek, Alexander, ‘Beyond Kelsen and Hart’, in Jean D’Aspremont and Jörg Kammerhofer (eds), International Legal Positivism in a Post-Modern World (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014) 151–181 Sørensen, Max, ‘Principes de Droit International Public Cours Général’, 101 Recueil des Cours de l’Académie de Droit International de La Haye (1960-III) 1–254 Stadler, Christian M., ‘Rechtsethische Aspekte des Internationalen Militäreinsatzes’, in Erich Reiter (ed.), Der Krieg um das Kosovo 1998/99 (Mainz: v Hase & Koehler, 2000) 177–192 Stadler, Christian, ‘Thesen zur Rechtfertigung der Kosovo-Intervention’, Juridikum Zeitschrift im Rechtsstaat (2000) 44–48 Stadler, Christian, ‘Zur Aktualität der Theorie vom “Gerechten Krieg” Rechtsethische Überlegungen zur Weltfriedensbotschaft des Hl Vaters vom Jänner 2000’, Ethica Jahrbuch des Instituts für Religion und Frieden (2000) 79–90 Stadler, Christian, ‘Internationales Recht – Völkerrecht und humanitäre Intervention’, in Edwin R Micewski, Brigitte Sob, and Wolfgang Schober (eds), Ethik und internationale Politik/Ethics and International Politics (Schriftenreihe der Landesverteidigungsakademie; Vienna: Literas – Universitätsverlag, 2001) 19–34 Stadler, Christian, ‘Military Ethics as Part of a General System of Ethics’, in Edwin R Micewski (ed.), Civil-Military Aspects of Military Ethics (Vol 1; Vienna: National Defense Academy Printing Office, 2003) 3–7 Stanton, Gregory H., ‘Why the World Needs an International Convention on Crimes Against Humanity’, in Leila Nadya Sadat (ed.), Forging a Convention for Crimes Against Humanity (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2011) 345–358 Stein, Ted L., ‘The Approach of the Different Drummer: The Principle of the Persistent Objector in International Law’, 26/2 Harvard International Law Journal (1985) 457–482 Steinberg, Richard H., ‘Wanted – Dead or Alive: Realism in International Law’, in Jeffrey L Dunoff and Mark A Pollack (eds), Interdisciplinary Perspectives on International Law and International Relations (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013) 146–172 Strauss, Andrew, ‘International Law as Democratic Law’, 103 American Society of International Law Proceedings (2009) 388–391 Talmon, Stefan, ‘Determining Customary International Law: The ICJ’s Methodology Between Induction, Deduction and Assertion’, 26/2 European Journal of International Law (2015) 417–443 Tams, Christian J., ‘Meta-Custom and the Court: A Study in Judicial Law-Making’, 14/1 The Law and Practice of International Courts and Tribunals (2015) 51–79 Teraya, Koji, ‘Emerging Hierarchy in International Human Rights and Beyond: From the Perspective of Non-derogable Rights’, 12/5 European Journal of International Law (2001) 917–941 Tesón, Fernando R., ‘Kosovo: A Powerful Precedent for the Doctrine of Humanitarian Intervention’, Amsterdam Law Forum (2008–2009) 42–48 Thirlway, Hugh, ‘The Sources of International Law’, in Malcolm D Evans (ed.), International Law, 4th edn (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010) 95–121 Thirlway, Hugh, ‘Human Rights in Customary Law: An Attempt to Define Some of the Issues’, 28/3 Leiden Journal of International Law (2015) 495–506 Bibliography 219 Thouvenin, Jean-Marc, ‘Genèse de l’Idée de Responsabilité de Protộger, in Sociộtộ Franỗaise Pour le Droit International (ed.), Colloque de Nanterre: La Responsabilité de Protéger (Paris: Éditions A Pedone, 2008) 21–38 Tomuschat, Christian, ‘Obligations Arising for States Without or Against Their Will’, 241 Recueil des Cours de l’Académie de Droit International de La Haye (1993-IV) 195–374 Trachtman, Joel P., ‘The Obsolescence of Customary International Law’ (2014) Trindade, Antụnio Augusto Canỗado, Selected Aspects of the Case-Law Under the Inter-American System of Human Rights Protection’, in Paulo Borba Casella (ed.), Dimensão Internacional Direito (São Paulo: Editora LTR, 2000) 493–511 Tunkin, Grigory I., ‘Co-Existence and International Law’, 95 Recueil des Cours de l’Académie de Droit International de La Haye (1958-III) 1–81 Valentino, Benjamin A., ‘The True Costs of Humanitarian Intervention: The Hard Truth About a Noble Notion’, 90/6 Foreign Affairs (November/December 2011) Venzke, Ingo, and Jochen von Bernstorff, ‘Ethos, Ethics, and Morality in International Relations’, in Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law Verdross, Alfred, ‘Les Principes Généraux du Droit Comme Source du Droit de Gens’, in Charles Appleton (ed.), Recueil d’Études sur les Sources du Droit en lHonneur de Franỗois Gộny Tome III Les Sources des Diverses Branches du Droit (Paris: Sirey, 1934) 383–388 Villalpando, Santiago, ‘The Legal Dimension of the International Community: How Community Interests Are Protected in International Law’, 21/2 European Journal of International Law (2010) 387–419 Villalpando, Santiago, ‘The “Invisible College of International Lawyers” Forty Years Later’, European Society of International Law Conference Paper Series, No 5/2013, Amsterdam Research Forum (23–25 May 2013) Vinogradoff, Paul, ‘Historical Types of International Law’, in The Collected Papers of Paul Vinogradoff: With a Memoir by H.A.L Fisher Vol II Jurisprudence (London: Wildy & Sons Ltd., 1964) 248–318 Virally, Michel, ‘Réflexions sur le “jus cogens”’, 12 Annuaire Franỗais de Droit International (1966) 529 Vitanyi, Bộla, ‘Les Positions de la Doctrine Concernant le Sens de la Notion de Principes Généraux de Droit Reconnus par les Nations Civilisées’, 86 Revue Générale de Droit International Public (1982) 48–116 Waibel, Michael, ‘Interpretive Communities in International Law’, University of Cambridge Faculty of Law Legal Studies Research Paper Series, No 62/2014 (October 2014) Walden, Raphael M., ‘Customary International Law: A Jurisprudential Analysis’, 13 Israel Law Review (1978) 86–102 Walzer, Michael, ‘The Moral Standing of States: A Response to Four Critics’, 9/3 Philosophy and Public Affairs (1980) 209–229 Walzer, Michael, ‘The Politics of Rescue’, 61/1 Social Research (1995) 53–66 Watson, J Shand, ‘Autointerpretation, Competences, and the Continuing Validity of Article 2(7) of the UN Charter’, 71/1 American Journal of International Law (1977) 60–83 220 Bibliography Watson, J Shand, ‘Legal Theory, Efficacy and Validity in the Development of Human Rights Norms in International Law’, University of Illinois Law Forum (1979) 609–641 Watson, J Shand, ‘Normativity and Reality in International Human Rights Law’, 13 Stetson Law Review (1983–1984) 221–235 Wedgwood, Ruth, ‘The ICJ Advisory Opinion on the Israeli Security Fence and the Limits of Self-Defense’, 99 American Journal of International Law (2005) 52–61 Weil, Prosper, ‘Toward Relative Normativity in International Law?’, 77American Journal of International Law (1983) 413–442 Weil, Prosper, ‘Le Droit International en Quête de Son Identité’, 237 Recueil des Cours de l’Académie de Droit International de La Haye (1992-VI) 9–370 Weiler, Joseph, ‘On My Way Out – Advice to Young Scholars II: Career Strategy and the Publication Trap’, EJIL: Talk! (18 February 2016) Weiler, Rudolf, ‘Krieg und Frieden in der VR-Ethik’, Ethica Jahrbuch des Instituts für Religion und Frieden (2000) 177–181 Weisburd, Arthur M., ‘The Effect of Treaties and Other Formal International Acts on the Customary Law of Human Rights’, 25/1 Georgia Journal of International Law (1995–1996) 99–146 Weisburd, Arthur M., ‘Consistency, Universality, and the Customary Law of Interstate Force’, in Enzo Cannizzaro and Paolo Palchetti (eds), Customary International Law on the Use of Force: A Methodological Approach (Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff, 2005) 31–77 Weiss, Thomas G., ‘RtoP Alive and Well after Libya’, 25/3 Ethics and International Affairs (2011) 287–292 Wennholz, Philipp, and Andreas Zimmermann, ‘Article 33, para (Prohibition of Expulsion to Return (“Refoulement”)/Défense d’Expulsion et de Refoulement)’, in Andreas Zimmermann (ed.), The 1951 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees and its 1967 Protocol: A Commentary (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011) 1397–1423 Wight, Martin, ‘Why is There no International Theory?’, International Relations (1960) 35–48 Winter, Jay, ‘Introduction: Witness to Genocide’, in Jay Winter (ed.), America and the Armenian Genocide of 1915 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013) 1–6 Wippman, David, ‘Defending Democracy Through Foreign Intervention’, 19 Houston Journal of International Law (1997) 659–681 Worster, William Thomas, ‘The Inductive and Deductive Methods in Customary International Law Analysis’, 45 Georgia Journal of International Law (2013–2014) 445–521 Zemanek, Karl, ‘Hat die “humanitäre Intervention” Zukunft?’, Jahrbuch für internationale Sicherheitspolitik (2000) Zemanek, Karl, ‘Ist das Gewaltverbot noch aktuell?’, in Waldemar Hummer (ed.), Paradigmenwechsel im Völkerrecht zur Jahrtausendwende Ansichten österreichischer Völkerrechtler zu aktuellen Problemlagen (Vienna: Manzsche Verlags- und Universitätsbuchhandlung, 2002) 67–82 Zemanek, Karl, ‘Für mehr Offenheit und Realismus in der Völkerrechtslehre’, in Klaus Dicke, Stephan Hobe, Karl-Ulrich Meyn, Anne Peters, Eibe Riedel, Hans-Joachim Schütz, and Christian Tietje (eds), Weltinnenrecht Liber amicorum Jost Delbrück (Veröffentlichungen des Walther-Schücking-Instituts für Internationales Recht an der Universität Kiel, Vol 155; Berlin: Duncker & Humblot, 2005) 895–925 Bibliography 221 Zemanek, Karl, ‘The Basic Principles of UN Charter Law’, in Ronald St John Mcdonald and Douglas M Johnston (eds), Towards World Constitutionalism Issues in the Legal Ordering of the World Community (Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff, 2005) 401–430 Zemanek, Karl, ‘How to Identify Peremptory Norms of International Law’, in PierreMarie Dupuy, Bardo Fassbender, Malcolm N Shaw, and Karl-Peter Sommermann (eds), Völkerrecht als Wertordnung: Common Values in International Law Festschrift für / Essays in Honour of Christian Tomuschat (Kehl: N.P Engel Verlag, 2006) 1103–1116 Zimmermann, Andreas, ‘The Obligation to Prevent Genocide: Towards a General Responsibility to Protect?’ in Ulrich Fastenrath, Rudolf Geiger, Daniel-Erasmus Khan, Andreas Paulus, Sabine von Schorlemer, and Christoph Vedder (eds), From Bilateralism to Community Interest: Essays in Honour of Judge Bruno Simma (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011) 629–645 C Other Greenwood, Christopher, ‘The Sources of International Law’, Original Lecture, Sources of Law, United Nations Audiovisual Library of International Law Presley, Elvis, ‘50,000,000 Elvis Fans Can’t Be Wrong: Elvis’ Gold Records – Volume 2’ (RCA Victor, 1959) Trindade, Augusto A Canỗado, General Principles of Law as a Source of International Law’, Original Lecture, Sources of Law, United Nations Audiovisual Library of International Law Index 9/11 128 Ago, Robert 49, 83–84 Albright, Madeleine 179 Alston, Philip 38, 101, 150, 157–159, 160 altruism 30, 33, 42–43, 119–120, 128–129, 132, 161 Alvarez, José 186 Aquinas, Thomas 3, 116 Austin, John 116 Bellow, Saul 193 Bos, Maarten 112 Boyle, Alan 107 Brierly, James Leslie 73–74, 123, 164 Brownlie, Ian 63, 112, 179–180 Byers, Michael 167 Camus, Albert 193 Cassese, Antonio 55–56, 58, 65, 72–73, 84, 89, 106–107, 123, 173, 183 Cheng, Bin 18 Chesterman, Simon 167 Chomsky, Noam 41 Cicero 165 Cockburn, Sir Alexander 85 Coleridge, John Duke 85 collective security: see use of force comity 62, 71 common law 98–99 community interest 129–131 constitutionalism 129–131 constructive ambiguity Corten, Olivier 182 Council of Europe 46, 120–121 courtoisie: see comity Crawford, James 127 credibility 1, 8, 21–24, 34, 38–39, 50, 162 Cross, Frank customary international law: as a primary source 57; as a standard of obligation 18–19; as Grundnorm 58; as primitive law 57–59; empiricism 20, 24, 61, 94, 103, 161; formation 19–20, 91–93; historical appraisal 84–86; human rights as 31–41, 136–153; instant custom 69; International Court of Justice 55–57, 94–101, 155; International Law Commission 19–20, 54, 60, 64, 70, 77–79, 99; international relations 66, 89, 91–93, 102–104; moral concepts 30; opinio iuris, acts constituting 72–74; opinio iuris, as a quasi-consensual element 89; opinio iuris, as an element of custom 70–77; opinio iuris, through General Assembly Resolutions 77–81; persistent objector theory 86–88; rational choice theory 20; scholarship 17–22, 59–60, 92–93, 99–103, 155–157; state practice, acts constituting 62–64; state practice, as an element of custom 61–70; state practice, indeterminacy of 8–9, 42–44, 175–183, 189–190; state practice, international organizations 70; state practice, number of states 64–66; state practice, quality of 67–68; state practice, time 68–70; through treaties 74–77, 115, 137, 154; two-element theory 60; voluntarism 20, 81–88 D’Amato, Anthony 4, 82, 91, 95 D’Aspremont, Jean 47, 53, 131 Index 223 De Gaulle, Charles 121 De Vattel, Emer 83, 131–132 De Visscher, Charles 17, 66 democracy 124–127 democratic intervention: see use of force Descamps, Baron Édouard 107, 111–112 Dinstein, Yoram 149–150 diplomatic protection 32, 175 diplomatic protocol 62 discourse 8–12, 41–42; on the use of force 42–43 diurnitas / diuturnitas : see customary international law: state practice, as an element of custom Dixon, Martin 62, 99, 111, 132, 181–182 doctrine: see scholarship Dogmatik 2–3, 47 Donnelly, Jack 127 droits-de-l’hommisme: see human rights effectivity 6, 22 empiricism: see customary international law epistemic community: see scholarship European Court of Human Rights 46, 120–121, 149 Falk, Richard 95 Fidler, David 102 Franck, Thomas 181 Frankel, Joseph 121 Fukuyama, Francis 41 General Assembly: see United Nations general principles of law: as a subsidiary source 54–56; as natural law 111, 158–160; civilized nations 111–112; controversy over nature of 107–109; definition 104–107; general principles of international law 106–107; hierarchy 54–57; human rights as 19, 157–158; identification, through comparative law methods 109–111, 113, 157–158; International Court of Justice 105–106, 112 Gộny, Franỗois 71 Glasperlenspiel 38 Goldsmith, Jack 25 Goldstone Report 179, 183–184 Gray, Christine 164 Gray, John Chipman 15 Grotian moments 69, 178 Grotius, Hugo 83, 117 Grundnorm 58 Guggenheim, Paul 71 Hafner, Gerhard 124–125, 132 Halevy, Efraim 128–129 Hammarskjöld, Dag 173 Hart, H.L.A 51 Hathaway, James 138 Heintze, Hans-Joachim 151 Henkin, Louis 24, 157–158, 160 Higgins, Rosalyn 150 Hilpold, Peter 162 Hobbes, Thomas 124–125 human rights: as altruistic norms 30, 33, 119–120; as an independent discipline 35; cultural relativism 34, 115; customary international law 31–41, 136–155; first generation 120; general principles of law 157–160; human rightism 36, 38–39, 46, 119, 141–142, 145, 148; International Court of Justice 135, 147; International Law Commission 156; natural law 119; nature of 31–32; scholarship 32, 34–35, 134–153; treaties 30, 36–37, 156; United Nations 134–136 humanitarian intervention 174–183 humanitarian law 32, 119, 145, 184 Humphrey, John Peters 35, 151–152 indeterminacy 8–9, 42–44, 175–183, 189–190 individuals 32–33, 132 Inter-American Court of Human Rights 46 International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty 185 International Court of Justice 6, 55–57, 94–101, 105, 112, 135, 147, 155 international criminal law 169, 184, 186 international organizations 70; see also United Nations international relations 1–4, 7, 12, 22, 115, 132; see also customary international law; see also state interest interpretive community 30 invisible college of international lawyers 15, 20–21 ius cogens 6, 19, 130, 170–172 Jennings, Robert 20, 62, 111 Joseph, Sarah 151–152 224 Index Kant, Immanuel 34, 116, 130–131 Kelly, Sir Fitzroy 85 Kelsen, Hans 46–47, 58, 71, 117, 167 Kennedy, David 117 Kissinger, Henry 121 Kontorovich, Eugene 30 Koskenniemi, Martti 54, 74, 84, 102, 105, 131–132, 184; on Meron 140–141 Kosovo 43, 177–183 Kurlantzick, Joshua 126 lex simulata Libya 43, 187 Lillich, Richard 150 MacGibbon, Iain 79–80 mainstream 8, 140–141 Marks, Susan 126 Matheson, Michael 178 McDougal, Myres 35–36, 77, 183 McNair, Baron Arnold 160 Mendelson, Maurice 74, 79, 93–95 Meron, Theodor 97, 140–148, 157 meta-effects 38–40 methodology 4, 38–39, 47–48, 136, 140–148 Mill, John Stuart 175 millennialism 127 Moore’s law 39 moral concepts 30–31, 44–47, 117–121, 132–133 morality: definition 114–115; separation between law and 3–4, 116–118 Murphy, Sean 176, 178–179 NATO 177–180 natural law 84–85, 99, 105, 111, 119, 180; International Court of Justice 98–99 negligence, economic theory of 24–25 non liquet 104 non-intervention 168–169 non-state actors 11, 17, 128; see also individuals; see also use of force non-treaty law 1, 49 Nowak, Manfred 148–150 O’Boyle, Michael 149 Obama, Barack 187 Occam’s razor 9, 94 Onuf, Nicholas 19, 124 Operation Allied Force 177–183 Operation Unified Protector 187 Oppenheim, Lassa 3, 32 out-moded law 2, Paulus, Andreas 94, 158 Pellet, Alain 36, 73, 82, 90, 99, 119, 159 Phillimore, Lord Walter 107, 109 Plato Posner, Eric 25 primacy: see United Nations principles: see general principles of law private practice 13 Puchta, Georg Friedrich 58, 69, 84 Raz, Joseph 42, 120–121, 132 Realpolitik 128 Rechtsdogmatik: see Dogmatik reciprocity 26–29, 32, 119–121, 131, 161 regime change 187, 189 Rehman, Javaid 151–152 Reinisch, August 167 Reisman, W Michael responsibility to protect 41–44, 183–190 Restatement of the Law (Third) 138–143, 148, 152 rhetoric 1, 8–12, 18, 31–36, 139–140, 156, 182, 189 Roberts, Anthea 29, 101 Roosevelt, Franklin D 26 Root, Elihu 107, 109 Rubin, Alfred 100–101; on Meron 140–142 Ruiz Fabri, Hélène 169 rule of law 3–6, 181; human rights 39; use of force 179–180 Russell, Sir Charles 84–85 Schachter, Oscar 79, 108, 139–140, 159, 164 Scharf, Michael 69, 99, 178 Schill, Stephan 77 Schmitt, Carl 37, 124 scholarship 1, 4–8, 13–18, 45, 131–153, 187–188; accountability 38; dual role 10, 38, 79; epistemic community 13–15, 30, 44–45, 118; normative turn 14–15; see also customary international law; see also human rights Schrödinger, Erwin 91–93 Schwebel, Stephen 78–79 self-defence: see use of force self-referentiality 138, 142, 148–153, 161 Shavell, Steven 115–116 Shaw, Malcolm 45, 58, 63, 66, 73, 82, 132 Index 225 Simma, Bruno 7, 94, 101, 150, 157–160, 179 “Small Five” initiative 130–131 soft law 30–31, 107, 152 Sohn, Louis 101, 134–135, 151–152 Somek, Alexander 18, 24, 130 Somoza DeBayle, Anastasio 26 Sørenson, Max 88–89, 104 sources of international law 49–57; as manifestations of a rule 50–51; as enshrined in Article 38 ICJ Statute 52–53; hierarchy 54–55 sovereignty 68, 83–84, 120–121, 124–125, 184; see also responsibility to protect; see also non-intervention Soviet international law doctrine 81–82, 89, 106 stability 126 stakeholders 11, 121 state interest 24–26, 121–133; and individuals 128–129; and community interest 129–131; definition 123–124; democracy as 125–127; determinative of state practice 161 state responsibility: Articles on State Responsibility 17, 122 state: as a subject of international law 121–122 Steinberg, Richard 132 Suárez, Francisco 117 supranationalism 130 supremacy clause: see United Nations Talmon, Stefan 59, 96–97 Tanaka, Ko-taro- 79, 111, 158–159 Tesón, Fernando 45 Thirlway, Hugh 31 Tiller, Emerson Tomuschat, Christian 88, 150 torture: as customary international law 24, 153–155 treaties: in relation to custom 74–77, 115, 137, 153–154; interpretation 5; ratification 5, 30–31; reservations 5, 30–31, 36–37, 153–154; subsequent practice 5; tacit agreements 82, 84, 88, 103 Trindade, Augusto 160 Tunkin, Grigory 81 unilateral declarations 80 United Nations 14, 111, 129, 173; General Assembly 62–63, 77–81, 185, 187; human rights 134–136; primacy 170–172; reform 130–131, 169–174; Secretary-General 173, 188; Security Council 77–78, 98, 166–167, 173–174, 187–188; supremacy clause 170–172 use of force 162–165; collective security 166–167; democratic intervention 189–190; International Law Commission 163; non-state actors 97–98, 164; self-defence 97–98, 165–166 usus: see customary international law: state practice, as an element of custom Van Rompuy, Herman 187 Verdross, Alfred 111 Vertrauensschutz voluntarism: see customary international law Waldock, Sir Humphrey 73 Walzer, Michael 129–130, 177 Watts, Arthur 62 Weisburd, Arthur 156 Weiss, André 83 Williams, Paul 178 Winter, Jay 181 Wolff, Christian 130 Wolfke, Karol 83 Zemanek, Karl 8, 96, 155–156, 189 This page intentionally left blank ... G Staubach State Interest and the Sources of International Law Doctrine, Morality, and Non-Treaty Law Markus P Beham Demilitarization and International Law in Context The Åland Islands Sia Spiliopoulou... Through Law The Use of Law to Support the Effective Establishment of an African Economic Community Jonathan Bashi Rudahindwa State Interest and the Sources of International Law Doctrine, Morality, and. .. Non-Treaty Sources A On the ? ?Sources? ?? of International Law 49 Article 38 of the Statute of the International Court of Justice 52 Acceptance and Reception in the Literature 53 Two or Three “Main” Sources?