I NTRO D U C TI O N TO Chemistry Fifth Edition Bauer Birk Marks PERIODIC TABLE OF THE ELEMENTS Metals (main-group) Metals (transition) Metals (inner-transition) Metalloids Nonmetals MAIN-GROUP ELEMENTS IA (1) Period MAIN-GROUP ELEMENTS VIIIA (18) H 1.008 Li IIA (2) IIIA (13) Be 6.94 9.012 11 12 Mg IIIB (3) IVB (4) VB (5) VIB (6) VIIB (7) 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 K VA (15) VIA (16) B C N O 13 14 15 16 VIIA (17) F He 4.003 10 Ne 10.81 12.01 14.01 16.00 19.00 20.18 TRANSITION ELEMENTS Na 22.99 24.31 IVA (14) Ca Sc 38 39 Ti V Cr Mn (8) VIIIB (9) 26 27 Fe Co (10) IB (11) IIB (12) 28 29 30 Ni Cu Zn Al Si P S 17 Cl 18 Ar 26.98 28.09 30.97 32.06 35.45 39.95 31 Ga 32 Ge 33 As 34 35 Se Br 52 53 36 Kr 39.10 40.08 44.96 47.87 50.94 52.00 54.94 55.85 58.93 58.69 63.55 65.38 69.72 72.63 74.92 78.97 79.90 83.80 37 Rb Sr 55 56 40 41 42 Y Zr Nb Mo 57 72 73 74 85.47 87.62 88.91 91.22 92.91 95.95 Cs Ba La 87 88 89 132.9 137.3 138.9 Fr (223) Ra Ac (226) (227) 43 Tc (98) 75 44 45 Ru Rh 76 77 46 Pd 47 Ag 48 Cd 49 In 50 Sn 51 Sb Ta W Re Os 104 105 106 107 (271) (270) (265) (268) Sg Bh 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 Hg Tl Pb Bi (209) (210) (222) 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 (277) (276) (281) (280) (285) (284) (289) (288) (293) (294) (294) Mt Ds Rg Cn Nh Fl Mc Lv Lanthanides Actinides Ce 59 60 Pr Nd 91 92 140.1 140.9 144.2 90 Th Pa U 232.0 231.0 238.0 61 Pm (145) 93 Np (237) 62 Sm 63 Eu 64 Gd 65 Tb 66 Dy 67 Ho 68 Er 69 70 71 Tm Yb Lu 101 102 103 (258) (259) (262) 150.4 152.0 157.3 158.9 162.5 164.9 167.3 168.9 173.0 175.0 94 Pu (244) 95 Am (243) 96 Cm (247) 97 Bk (247) 98 Cf (251) 99 Es (252) 100 Fm (257) Md No Lr At 86 Au Hs Po 85 Pt INNER-TRANSITION ELEMENTS 58 54 Xe Ir 178.5 180.9 183.8 186.2 190.2 192.2 195.1 197.0 200.6 204.4 207.2 209.0 Db I 101.1 102.9 106.4 107.9 112.4 114.8 118.7 121.8 127.6 126.9 131.3 Hf Rf Te Ts Rn Og THE ELEMENTS Element Actinium Aluminum Americium Antimony Argon Arsenic Astatine Barium Berkelium Beryllium Bismuth Bohrium Boron Bromine Cadmium Calcium Californium Carbon Cerium Cesium Chlorine Chromium Cobalt Copernicium Copper Curium Darmstadtium Dubnium Dysprosium Einsteinium Erbium Europium Fermium Flerovium Fluorine Francium Gadolinium Gallium Germanium Gold Hafnium Hassium Helium Holmium Hydrogen Indium Iodine Iridium Iron Krypton Lanthanum Lawrencium Lead Lithium Livermorium Lutetium Magnesium Manganese Meitnerium Symbol Atomic Number Relative Atomic Mass* Element Ac Al Am Sb Ar As At Ba Bk Be Bi Bh B Br Cd Ca Cf C Ce Cs Cl Cr Co Cn Cu Cm Ds Db Dy Es Er Eu Fm Fl F Fr Gd Ga Ge Au Hf Hs He Ho H In I Ir Fe Kr La Lr Pb Li Lv Lu Mg Mn Mt 89 13 95 51 18 33 85 56 97 83 107 35 48 20 98 58 55 17 24 27 112 29 96 110 105 66 99 68 63 100 114 87 64 31 32 79 72 108 67 49 53 77 26 36 57 103 82 116 71 12 25 109 (227) 26.98 (243) 121.8 39.95 74.92 (210) 137.3 (247) 9.012 209.0 (270) 10.81 79.90 112.4 40.08 (251) 12.01 140.1 132.9 35.45 52.00 58.93 (285) 63.55 (247) (281) (268) 162.5 (252) 167.3 152.0 (257) (289) 19.00 (223) 157.3 69.72 72.63 197.0 178.5 (277) 4.003 164.9 1.008 114.8 126.9 192.2 55.85 83.80 138.9 (262) 207.2 6.94 (293) 175.0 24.31 54.94 (276) Mendelevium Mercury Molybdenum Moscovium Neodymium Neon Neptunium Nickel Nihonium Niobium Nitrogen Nobelium Oganesson Osmium Oxygen Palladium Phosphorus Platinum Plutonium Polonium Potassium Praseodymium Promethium Protactinium Radium Radon Rhenium Rhodium Roentgenium Rubidium Ruthenium Rutherfordium Samarium Scandium Seaborgium Selenium Silicon Silver Sodium Strontium Sulfur Tantalum Technetium Tellurium Tennessine Terbium Thallium Thorium Thulium Tin Titanium Tungsten Uranium Vanadium Xenon Ytterbium Yttrium Zinc Zirconium Symbol Atomic Number Relative Atomic Mass* Md Hg Mo Mc Nd Ne Np Ni Nh Nb N No Og Os O Pd P Pt Pu Po K Pr Pm Pa Ra Rn Re Rh Rg Rb Ru Rf Sm Sc Sg Se Si Ag Na Sr S Ta Tc Te Ts Tb Tl Th Tm Sn Ti W U V Xe Yb Y Zn Zr 101 80 42 115 60 10 93 28 113 41 102 118 76 46 15 78 94 84 19 59 61 91 88 86 75 45 111 37 44 104 62 21 106 34 14 47 11 38 16 73 43 52 117 65 81 90 69 50 22 74 92 23 54 70 39 30 40 (258) 200.6 95.95 (288) 144.2 20.18 (237) 58.69 (284) 92.91 14.01 (259) (294) 190.2 16.00 106.4 30.97 195.1 (244) (209) 39.10 140.9 (145) (231.0) (226) (222) 186.2 102.9 (280) 85.47 101.1 (265) 150.4 44.96 (271) 78.97 28.09 107.9 22.99 87.62 32.06 180.9 (98) 127.6 (294) 158.9 204.4 232.0 168.9 118.7 47.87 183.8 238.0 50.94 131.3 173.0 88.91 65.38 91.22 *All relative atomic masses are given to four significant figures Values in parentheses represent the mass number of the most stable isotope Fifth Edition Richard C Bauer Arizona State University James P Birk Arizona State University Pamela S Marks Arizona State University INTRODUCTION TO CHEMISTRY, FIFTH EDITION Published by McGraw-Hill Education, Penn Plaza, New York, NY 10121 Copyright © 2019 by McGraw-Hill Education All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America Previous editions © 2016, 2013, and 2010 No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education, including, but not limited to, in any network or other electronic storage or transmission, or broadcast for distance learning Some ancillaries, including electronic and print components, may not be available to customers outside the United States This book is printed on acid-free paper LWI 21 20 19 18 ISBN 978-1-259-91114-9 MHID 1-259-91114-4 Portfolio Manager: David Spurgeon, Ph.D Product Developers: Lead: Robin Reed; Digital: Marisa Moreno Marketing Manager: Matthew Garcia Content Project Managers: Laura Bies, Rachael Hillebrand, Sandy Schnee Buyer: Sandy Ludovissy Design: David W Hash Content Licensing Specialists: Melissa Homer Cover Image: F rozen methane bubbles at Abraham lake at sunrise with beautiful sky âNaphat Photography/Moment/Getty Images Compositor: Aptarađ, Inc All credits appearing on page or at the end of the book are considered to be an extension of the copyright page Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Bauer, Richard C., 1963 November 24- author | Birk, James P., author | Marks, Pamela, author Title: Introduction to chemistry / Richard C Bauer, Arizona State University, James P Birk, Arizona State University, Pamela S Marks, Arizona State University Description: Fifth edition | New York, NY : McGraw-Hill Education, 2019 | Includes index Identifiers: LCCN 2017036029 | ISBN 9781259911149 (alk paper) Subjects: LCSH: Chemistry—Textbooks Classification: LCC QD33.2 B38 2019 | DDC 540—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017036029 The Internet addresses listed in the text were accurate at the time of publication The inclusion of a website does not indicate an endorsement by the authors or McGraw-Hill Education, and McGraw-Hill Education does not guarantee the accuracy of the information presented at these sites mheducation.com/highered In memory of my parents Their love of reading inspired my academic interests —Rich Bauer To my wife, Kay Gunter, who encouraged me through battles with blank pages and shared the joys of completed chapters; and in memory of my parents, Albert and Christine Birk, who taught me to love books enough to see blank pages as a worthwhile challenge —Jim Birk To my husband, Steve, for his love and support, and to my children, Lauren, Kelsey, and Michael, for helping me see aspects of the world differently; also to my mother, Jewel Nicholls, who inspired my love of chemistry at a young age —Pam Marks About the Authors Richard Bauer was born and raised in Saginaw, Michigan, and completed his B.S degree in chemistry at Saginaw Valley State University While pursuing his undergraduate degree he worked at Dow Chemical as a student technologist He pursued master’s and PhD degrees in chemistry education at Purdue University under the direction of Dr George Bodner After Purdue, he spent years at Clemson University as a visiting assistant professor He is currently the Faculty Head for Science, Mathematics, and Social Science at the Downtown Phoenix Campus of Arizona State University He was the General Chemistry Coordinator on the Tempe Campus where he implemented an inquiry-based laboratory program He has taught introductory and general chemistry courses for over 25 years, and has taught a methods of chemistry teaching course He is especially fond of teaching introductory chemistry because of the diversity of students enrolled In addition to general chemistry lab development, he has interests in student visualization of abstract, molecular-level concepts; TA training; and methods of secondary school chemistry teaching In addition to his scholarly interests, he plays the piano, sings, and directs choirs James Birk is Professor Emeritus of Chemistry and Biochemistry at Arizona State University Born in Cold Spring, Minnesota, he received a B.A degree in chemistry from St John’s University (Minnesota) and a PhD in physical chemistry from Iowa State University After a postdoctorate at the University of Chicago, he started his academic career at the University of Pennsylvania, where he was appointed to the Rhodes-Thompson Chair of Chemistry Initially doing research on mechanisms of inorganic reactions, he switched to research on various areas of chemical education after moving to Arizona State vi University as Coordinator of General Chemistry Dr Birk’s teaching responsibilities have been in general chemistry, introductory chemistry, chemistry for engineers, inorganic chemistry, methods of teaching chemistry, and graduate courses on inorganic reaction mechanisms, chemical education, and science education He has received several teaching awards, including awards for Distinction in Undergraduate Teaching, Teaching Innovation awards, the National Catalyst Award, and the President’s Medal for Team Excellence He has been a feature editor for the Journal of Chemical Education, editing the columns: Filtrates and Residues, The Computer Series, and Teaching with Technology Recent research has focused on visualization (such as dynamic visualization in chemistry and the hidden earth), on inquiry-based instruction, and on misconceptions (Chemistry Concept Inventory) Pamela Marks is a Principal Lecturer in the School of Molecular Sciences at Arizona State University where her main focus has been teaching introductory chemistry, general chemistry, and chemistry for engineers the past 22 years She has been involved in improving inquirybased learning in the general chemistry program, and has recently modified her introductory chemistry course to a flipped classroom format She has also taught in the general chemistry program at the College of St Benedict and St John’s University in Minnesota Previous education publications include a multimedia-based general chemistry education curriculum She received her B.A in chemistry from St Olaf College in 1984 and her M.A in inorganic chemistry at the University of Arizona in 1988 She spends her free time with her family and hiking with her Rhodesian Ridgeback Brief Contents 1 Matter and Energy 2 Atoms, Ions, and the Periodic Table 56 3 Chemical Compounds 89 4 Chemical Composition 127 5 Chemical Reactions and Equations 171 6 Quantities in Chemical Reactions 214 7 Electron Structure of the Atom 259 8 Chemical Bonding 302 9 The Gaseous State 344 10 The Liquid and Solid States 395 1 Solutions 441 12 Reaction Rates and Chemical Equilibrium 13 Acids and Bases 528 14 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions 569 15 Nuclear Chemistry 615 16 Organic Chemistry 651 17 Biochemistry 696 484 Appendices A Useful Reference Tables and Figures A-1 B Math Toolboxes A-2 C Answers to Consider This Questions and Practice Problems D Answers to Selected Questions and Problems A-14 A-3 Glossary G-1 Index I-1 vii Contents Preface xiii 1 Matter and Energy 1.1 Matter and Its Classification Composition of Matter Representations of Matter States of Matter 11 1.2 Physical and Chemical Changes and Properties of Matter 13 Physical Properties 13 Physical Changes 23 Chemical Changes 24 Chemical Properties 24 1.3 Energy and Energy Changes 27 1.4 Scientific Inquiry 30 Observations 31 Hypotheses 31 Laws 33 Theories 33 Scientific Inquiry in Practice 33 Math Toolbox 1.1 Scientific Notation 35 Math Toolbox 1.2 Significant Figures 37 Math Toolbox 1.3 Units and Conversions 41 Chapter Review 45 Questions and Problems 47 2 Atoms, Ions, and the Periodic Table 56 2.1 Dalton’s Atomic Theory 58 2.2 Structure of the Atom 60 Subatomic Particles 60 The Nuclear Atom 62 Isotopes, Atomic Number, and Mass Number 64 2.3 Ions 69 2.4 Atomic Mass 72 viii 2.5 The Periodic Table 75 Classification of Elements 75 Ions and the Periodic Table 78 Chapter Review 80 Questions and Problems 81 3 Chemical Compounds 89 3.1 Ionic and Molecular Compounds 91 3.2 Monatomic and Polyatomic Ions 96 Monatomic Ions 96 Polyatomic Ions 98 3.3 Formulas for Ionic Compounds 101 3.4 Naming Ionic Compounds 104 3.5 Naming and Writing Formulas for Molecular Compounds 110 3.6 Acids and Bases 112 3.7 Predicting Properties and Naming Compounds 116 Chapter Review 118 Questions and Problems 119 4 Chemical Composition 127 4.1 Percent Composition 130 4.2 Mole Quantities 132 Moles and Particles 132 Molar Mass 135 4.3 Determining Empirical and Molecular Formulas 140 Empirical and Molecular Formulas 140 Determining Empirical Formulas 143 Empirical Formulas from Percent Composition 143 Empirical Formulas for Compounds Containing More Than Two Elements 145 Empirical Formulas with Fractional Mole Ratios 146 Molecular Formulas from Empirical Formulas 147 Determining Percent Composition 149 Contents ix 4.4 Chemical Composition of Solutions 150 Concentration 151 Percent by Mass 151 Molarity 152 Dilution 156 Math Toolbox 4.1 Mole Conversions 158 Chapter Review 163 Questions and Problems 164 5 Chemical Reactions and Equations 171 5.1 What Is a Chemical Reaction? 173 5.2 How Do We Know a Chemical Reaction Occurs? 174 5.3 Writing Chemical Equations 176 5.4 Predicting Chemical Reactions 182 Decomposition Reactions 186 Combination Reactions 188 Single-Displacement Reactions 190 Double-Displacement Reactions 193 Combustion Reactions 199 5.5 Representing Reactions in Aqueous Solution 200 Chapter Review 202 Questions and Problems 203 6 Quantities in Chemical Reactions 214 6.1 The Meaning of a Balanced Equation 217 6.2 Mole-Mole Conversions 218 6.3 Mass-Mass Conversions 219 6.4 Limiting Reactants 223 6.5 Percent Yield 233 6.6 Energy Changes 235 Law of Conservation of Energy 235 Energy Changes That Accompany Chemical Reactions 236 Quantities of Heat 238 6.7 Heat Changes in Chemical Reactions 244 Chapter Review 247 Questions and Problems 248 7 Electron Structure of the Atom 259 7.1 Electromagnetic Radiation and Energy 261 Properties of Electromagnetic Radiation 262 Atomic Spectra 266 7.2 The Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom 267 7.3 The Modern Model of the Atom 270 Orbital Diagrams for Multielectron Atoms 272 Electron Configurations 276 7.4 Periodicity of Electron Configurations 277 7.5 Valence Electrons for the Main-Group Elements 282 7.6 Electron Configurations for Ions 284 7.7 Periodic Properties of Atoms 286 Chemical Reactivity and Electron Configurations 286 Ionization Energy 288 Atomic Size 292 Sizes of Ions 293 Chapter Review 295 Questions and Problems 296 8 Chemical Bonding 302 8.1 Types of Bonds 304 Ionic and Covalent Bonding 305 Polar and Nonpolar Covalent Bonds 307 Electronegativity 307 8.2 Ionic Bonding 309 Lewis Symbols 310 Structures of Ionic Crystals 312 8.3 Covalent Bonding 313 The Octet Rule 313 Lewis Structures for the Diatomic Elements 314 Valence Electrons and Number of Bonds 315 Structures of Covalent Molecules 317 Exceptions to the Octet Rule 322 8.4 Bonding in Carbon Compounds 323 Hydrocarbons 323 Functional Groups 324 8.5 Shapes of Molecules 326 The Valence-Shell Electron-Pair Repulsion Theory 327 Polarity of Molecules 333 Chapter Review 335 Questions and Problems 337 ... Names: Bauer, Richard C., 1963 November 24- author | Birk, James P., author | Marks, Pamela, author Title: Introduction to chemistry / Richard C Bauer, Arizona State University, James P Birk,. .. State University Pamela S Marks Arizona State University INTRODUCTION TO CHEMISTRY, FIFTH EDITION Published by McGraw-Hill Education, Penn Plaza, New York, NY 10121 Copyright © 2019 by McGraw-Hill... Table 56 2.1 Dalton’s Atomic Theory 58 2.2 Structure of the Atom 60 Subatomic Particles 60 The Nuclear Atom 62 Isotopes, Atomic Number, and Mass Number 64 2.3 Ions 69 2.4 Atomic Mass 72