Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-88139-5 - Multiwavelength Optical Networks, Second Edition: Architectures, Design, and Control Thomas E Stern, Georgios Ellinas and Krishna Bala Frontmatter More information Multiwavelength Optical Networks, Second Edition Updated and expanded, this second edition of the acclaimed Multiwavelength Optical Networks provides a detailed description of the structure and operation of modern optical networks It also sets out the analytical tools for network performance evaluation and optimization for current and next generation networks, as well as the latest advances in enabling technologies Backbone optical networks are evolving to mesh topologies utilizing intelligent network elements; a new optical control plane is taking shape based on GMPLS; and significant advances have occurred in Fiber to the Home/Premises (the “last mile”), metropolitan area networks, protection and restoration, and IP over WDM Each of these is treated in depth, together with new research on all-optical packet-switched networks, which combine the speed of optics with the versatility of packet switching Also included are current trends and new applications on the commercial scene (wavelengths on demand, virtual private optical networks, and bandwidth trading) With its unique blend of coverage of modern enabling technologies, network architectures, and analytical tools, the book is an invaluable resource for graduate and senior undergraduate students in electrical engineering, computer science, and applied physics, and for practitioners and researchers in the telecommunications industry Thomas E Stern is Professor Emeritus of Electrical Engineering at Columbia University, New York, and has served as department chair and technical director of Columbia’s Center for Telecommunications Research A Fellow of the IEEE, he holds several patents in networking He has also been a consultant to a number of companies, including IBM, Lucent, and Telcordia Technologies Georgios Ellinas is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering at the University of Cyprus, Nicosia He has held prior positions as an Associate Professor at City College of New York, as a Senior Network Architect at Tellium Inc., and as a Senior Research Scientist at Bell Communications Research He has authored numerous papers and holds several patents in the field of optical networking Krishna Bala is currently the CEO of Xtellus, a company that manufactures fiber optical switches Krishna was the co-founder and CTO of Tellium (NASDAQ: TELM), a successful optical networking company Prior to that he was a Senior Research Scientist at Bell Communications Research He holds a Ph.D in electrical engineering from Columbia University © Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-88139-5 - Multiwavelength Optical Networks, Second Edition: Architectures, Design, and Control Thomas E Stern, Georgios Ellinas and Krishna Bala Frontmatter More information Multiwavelength Optical Networks, Second Edition Architectures, Design, and Control THOMAS E STERN Columbia University GEORGIOS ELLINAS University of Cyprus, Nicosia KRISHNA BALA Xtellus © Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-88139-5 - Multiwavelength Optical Networks, Second Edition: Architectures, Design, and Control Thomas E Stern, Georgios Ellinas and Krishna Bala Frontmatter More information CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, S˜ao Paulo, Delhi Cambridge University Press 32 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10013-2473, USA www.cambridge.org Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521881395 C Cambridge University Press 2009 This publication is in copyright Subject to statutory exception and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press First published 2009 Printed in the United States of America A catalog record for this publication is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Stern, Thomas E Multiwavelength optical networks : architectures, design and control / Thomas E Stern, Georgios Ellinas, Krishna Bala – 2nd ed p cm Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 978-0-521-88139-5 (hbk.) Optical communications Computer network architectures I Ellinas, Georgios II Bala, Krishna III Title TK5103.59.S74 2009 621.382 – dc22 2008008319 ISBN 978-0-521-88139-5 hardback Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of URLs for external or third-party Internet Web sites referred to in this publication and does not guarantee that any content on such Web sites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate Information regarding prices, travel timetables, and other factual information given in this work are correct at the time of first printing, but Cambridge University Press does not guarantee the accuracy of such information thereafter © Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-88139-5 - Multiwavelength Optical Networks, Second Edition: Architectures, Design, and Control Thomas E Stern, Georgios Ellinas and Krishna Bala Frontmatter More information To Monique, who has always been there for me To our children and our grandchildren (T.E.S.) To my loving mother, Mary, and sister, Dorita, and the memory of my beloved father, Nicos (G.E.) To my wife, Simrat, and our children, Tegh and Amrita (K.B.) © Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-88139-5 - Multiwavelength Optical Networks, Second Edition: Architectures, Design, and Control Thomas E Stern, Georgios Ellinas and Krishna Bala Frontmatter More information Contents Figures Tables Preface to the Second Edition Acknowledgments page xvii xxix xxxi xxxv The Big Picture 1.1 Why Optical Networks? 1.2 Objectives of an Optical Network Architecture 1.3 Optics versus Electronics: The Case for Transparent Multiwavelength Networks 1.4 Optics and Electronics: The Case for Multilayered Networks 1.5 Network Hierarchies 1.6 A Little History 1.7 Overview and Road Map 12 16 18 22 The Layered Architecture and Its Resources 28 2.1 Layers and Sublayers 2.2 Network Links: Spectrum Partitioning 2.3 Optical Network Nodes: Routing, Switching, and Wavelength Conversion 2.3.1 Static Nodes 2.3.2 Dynamic Nodes 2.3.3 Wavelength Converters 2.4 Network Access Stations 2.4.1 Transmitting Side 2.4.2 Receiving Side 2.5 Overlay Processors 2.5.1 Regeneration 2.5.2 Wavelength Interchange 2.6 Logical Network Overlays 2.6.1 SONET Networks 2.6.2 ATM Networks 29 34 © Cambridge University Press 39 40 46 63 67 70 71 74 76 76 77 79 81 www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-88139-5 - Multiwavelength Optical Networks, Second Edition: Architectures, Design, and Control Thomas E Stern, Georgios Ellinas and Krishna Bala Frontmatter More information viii Contents 2.6.3 IP Networks 2.6.4 MPLS and Its Extensions 2.7 Summary 2.8 Problems 83 84 85 87 Network Connections 91 3.1 Connection Management and Control 3.1.1 Optical Connections 3.1.2 Logical Connections 3.2 Static Networks 3.2.1 Point-to-Point and Multipoint Connections 3.2.2 Packet Switching in the Optical Layer: The MAC Sublayer 3.2.3 Additional Comments on Broadcast-and-Select 3.3 Wavelength-Routed Networks 3.3.1 Routing and Channel Assignment 3.3.2 Routing and Channel Assignment Examples 3.4 Linear Lightwave Networks: Waveband Routing 3.4.1 Routing and Channel Assignment 3.4.2 Multipoint Subnets in LLNs 3.4.3 A Seven-Station Example 3.5 Logically-Routed Networks 3.5.1 Point-to-Point Logical Topologies 3.5.2 Multipoint Logical Topologies: Hypernets 3.6 Summary 3.7 Problems 96 100 100 102 104 111 121 122 124 128 133 135 140 143 151 153 156 162 163 Enabling Technology 165 4.1 Evolution of Transmission and Switching Technology 4.2 Overview of the Optical Connection 4.3 Optical Fibers 4.3.1 Principles of Guided-Wave Propagation 4.3.2 Optical Fiber Technology: Transmission Impairments 4.3.3 Solitons 4.3.4 Photonic Crystal Fibers 4.4 Amplifiers 4.4.1 Erbium-Doped Fiber Amplifiers 4.4.2 Raman Amplifiers 4.4.3 Semiconductor Optical Amplifiers 4.4.4 Amplification Trends in Metro Optical Networks: Amplets 4.5 Optical Transmitters 4.5.1 Lasers 4.5.2 Vertical Cavity Surface Emitting Lasers 4.5.3 Modulation Technology 166 167 168 168 174 187 188 190 191 198 201 204 205 205 211 212 © Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-88139-5 - Multiwavelength Optical Networks, Second Edition: Architectures, Design, and Control Thomas E Stern, Georgios Ellinas and Krishna Bala Frontmatter More information Contents 4.6 Optical Receivers in Intensity-Modulated Direct-Detection Systems 4.6.1 Photodetectors 4.6.2 Front-End Amplifier: Signal-to-Noise Ratio 4.6.3 Digital Signal Detection: Noise, Interference, and Bit Error Rate 4.6.4 Analog Systems: Carrier-to-Noise Ratio 4.7 The End-to-End Transmission Channel 4.7.1 Modulation Formats 4.7.2 Forward Error Correction 4.7.3 Equalization 4.8 Coherent Optical Systems 4.9 Performance Impairments in a Network Environment 4.9.1 Cross-Talk 4.9.2 Signal Power Divergence 4.9.3 Chirp-Induced Penalty 4.9.4 Optical Filter Concatenation: Distortion-Induced Penalty 4.9.5 Polarization Mode Dispersion Impact on System Performance 4.10 Optical and Photonic Device Technology 4.10.1 Couplers and Switches 4.10.2 Reciprocity 4.10.3 Nonreciprocal Devices 4.10.4 Optical Filtering Technology 4.10.5 Multiwavelength Switch Technology 4.11 Wavelength Conversion and Signal Regeneration 4.11.1 All-Optical Wavelength Conversion 4.11.2 Opaque Wavelength Conversion and Signal Regeneration 4.12 Optical Switch Architectures 4.12.1 Space Switches 4.12.2 Wavelength-Selective Switches 4.13 Performance Evaluation: Methodology and Case Studies 4.13.1 Physical-Layer Simulation: Three-Step Approach 4.13.2 WDM Network Simulation Case Studies 4.14 Problems ix 217 217 219 221 227 228 229 231 233 234 235 235 239 240 240 241 241 242 255 257 257 266 274 275 278 281 281 288 297 298 301 311 Static Multipoint Networks 324 5.1 Shared Media: The Broadcast Star 5.2 Representative Multiplexing and Multiple-Access Schemes 5.2.1 Time-Wavelength-Division Multiplexing/Multiple Access 5.2.2 Subcarriers 5.2.3 Code Division Multiple Access 324 327 © Cambridge University Press 328 336 352 www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-88139-5 - Multiwavelength Optical Networks, Second Edition: Architectures, Design, and Control Thomas E Stern, Georgios Ellinas and Krishna Bala Frontmatter More information x Contents 5.3 Traffic Constraints in Shared-Channel Networks 5.3.1 Balanced Traffic 5.3.2 Unbalanced Traffic 5.4 Capacity Allocation for Dedicated Connections 5.4.1 Fixed-Frame Scheduling for Stream Traffic 5.4.2 Fixed-Frame Scheduling for Packet Traffic 5.5 Demand-Assigned Connections 5.5.1 Blocking Calculations in WDMA Networks 5.5.2 Blocking in Combined Time-Wavelength-Division Networks 5.6 Packet Switching in the Optical Layer 5.6.1 Uncontrolled Scheduling: Random Access 5.6.2 Scheduling with Loss 5.6.3 Lossless Scheduling: Reservations 5.6.4 Perfect Scheduling 5.6.5 Dynamic versus Fixed Capacity Allocation 5.7 The Passive Optical Network 5.7.1 ATM and Fixed-Frame PONs 5.7.2 Ethernet-Based PONs 5.7.3 WDM PONs 5.7.4 Optical-Wireless Access 5.7.5 Recent Trends 5.8 Summary 5.9 Problems 395 399 401 403 405 407 408 409 412 414 416 420 422 424 425 Wavelength/Waveband-Routed Networks 432 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Physical Topologies 6.3 Wavelength-Routed Networks: Static Routing and Channel Assignment 6.3.1 Flow Bounds: Matching the Physical and Logical Topologies 6.3.2 Nonblocking Stations 6.3.3 RCA as a Graph Coloring Problem 6.3.4 Rings 6.3.5 Ring Decomposition of General Mesh Networks 6.3.6 Multistar Wavelength-Routed Networks 6.3.7 RCA as an Optimization Problem 6.3.8 Heuristics for Static RCA 6.4 Wavelength-Routed Networks: Dynamic Routing and Channel Assignment 6.4.1 Some Basic Routing and Channel Assignment Algorithms 432 434 © Cambridge University Press 367 370 370 371 371 383 389 390 442 444 448 449 452 458 462 464 474 484 484 www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-88139-5 - Multiwavelength Optical Networks, Second Edition: Architectures, Design, and Control Thomas E Stern, Georgios Ellinas and Krishna Bala Frontmatter More information Contents xi 6.4.2 Case Study: Bidirectional Rings 6.4.3 Performance of Dynamic Routing Rules on Meshes 6.4.4 Case Study: An Interconnected Ring 6.4.5 Routing Multicast Connections in WRNs 6.5 Linear Lightwave Networks: Static Routing Rules 6.5.1 Routing of Optical Paths 6.5.2 Optical Connections: λ-Channel Assignment 6.5.3 Significance of Nonblocking Access Stations in LLNs 6.5.4 Local Access to LLNs 6.5.5 Routing Waveband and Channel Assignment on the Petersen Network 6.5.6 Channel Assignment 6.5.7 Multistar Linear Lightwave Networks 6.6 Linear Lightwave Networks: Dynamic Routing Rules 6.6.1 Point-to-Point Connections 6.6.2 Routing Multicast Connections in LLNs 6.7 Problems 521 528 540 544 544 558 568 Logically-Routed Networks 576 7.1 Introduction: Why Logically-Routed Networks? 7.1.1 Multitier Networks: Grooming 7.2 Point-to-Point Logical Topologies: Multihop Networks 7.2.1 ShuffleNets 7.2.2 Families of Dense Logical Topologies 7.3 Multihop Network Design 7.3.1 Logical-Layer Design 7.3.2 Physical-Layer Design 7.3.3 Traffic Grooming in Point-to-Point Logical Topologies 7.4 Multipoint Logical Topologies: Hypernets 7.4.1 Capacity of a Multipoint Subnet 7.4.2 Families of Dense Hypernets 7.4.3 Kautz Hypernets 7.4.4 Hypernet versus Multihop 7.4.5 Multicast Virtual Connections 7.5 Hypernet Design 7.5.1 Logical-Layer Design 7.5.2 Physical-Layer Design 7.5.3 Traffic Grooming in Multipoint Logical Topologies 7.5.4 Multistar Realizations 7.6 Summary 7.7 Problems 576 581 585 587 589 591 591 594 © Cambridge University Press 491 494 495 497 507 509 516 518 519 597 607 611 613 615 628 631 632 632 634 637 639 641 642 www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-88139-5 - Multiwavelength Optical Networks, Second Edition: Architectures, Design, and Control Thomas E Stern, Georgios Ellinas and Krishna Bala Frontmatter More information xii 10 Contents Survivability: Protection and Restoration 647 8.1 Objectives of Protection and Restoration 8.2 Current Fault Protection and Restoration Techniques in the Logical Layer 8.2.1 Point-to-Point Systems 8.2.2 SONET Self-Healing Rings 8.2.3 SONET Self-Healing Ring Interconnection Techniques 8.2.4 Architectures with Arbitrary Mesh Topologies 8.3 Optical-Layer Protection: Point-to-Point and Ring Architectures 8.3.1 Point-to-Point Systems 8.3.2 Self-Healing Optical Rings 8.4 Optical-Layer Protection: Mesh Architectures 8.4.1 Shared Optical Layer Line-Based Protection 8.4.2 Optical Path-Based Protection 8.4.3 Segment Protection 8.4.4 Survivability Techniques for Multicast Connections 8.5 Summary 8.6 Problems 648 650 650 654 657 663 669 669 672 677 679 692 700 702 703 706 Optical Control Plane 714 9.1 Introduction to the Optical Control Plane 9.1.1 Control-Plane Architecture 9.1.2 Control-Plane Interfaces 9.1.3 Control-Plane Functions 9.2 Overview of Multiprotocol Label Switching 9.2.1 Packet Transport through an MPLS Network 9.2.2 MPLS Protocol Stack 9.2.3 MPLS Applications 9.3 Overview of Generalized Multiprotocol Label Switching 9.3.1 Link Management in GMPLS 9.3.2 Routing in GMPLS 9.3.3 Signaling in GMPLS 9.4 Conclusions 716 719 719 721 722 722 727 728 729 731 734 742 751 Optical Packet-Switched Networks 756 10.1 Optical Packet-Switched Network Architectures 10.1.1 Unbuffered Networks 10.1.2 Deflection Routing 10.1.3 Performance Analysis of Deflection Routing 10.1.4 Buffering: Time Domain Contention Resolution 10.1.5 Buffering and Wavelength Conversion: Time/Wavelength Domain Contention Resolution 758 759 764 766 770 © Cambridge University Press 778 www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-88139-5 - Multiwavelength Optical Networks, Second Edition: Architectures, Design, and Control Thomas E Stern, Georgios Ellinas and Krishna Bala Frontmatter More information Figures 3.33 3.34 3.35 3.36 3.37 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 4.10 4.11 4.12 4.13 4.14 4.15 4.16 4.17 4.18 4.19 4.20 4.21 4.22 4.23 4.24 4.25 4.26 4.27 4.28 4.29 4.30 4.31 4.32 4.33 4.34 4.35 4.36 4.37 4.38 Eight-node ShuffleNet ShuffleNet embedding Details of ShuffleNet node Twenty-two node hypernet Hypernet embedding A point-to-point optical connection Refractive index profiles for fibers Snell’s law Ray propagation in a step-index fiber Ray propagation in a graded-index fiber Cylindrical coordinates Commercial fiber cables Attenuation as a function of wavelength Broadening of pulses due to dispersion Dispersion coefficients as a function of frequency Limitations due to nonlinear effects in multiwavelength systems Soliton Three types of microstructured fibers Basic erbium-doped fiber amplifier structures Energy levels in EDFA EDFA gain profile Illustration of noise figure Raman gain coefficient in bulk silica as a function of frequency shift Hybrid distributed-discrete amplification Signal and pump power in hybrid system Fabry–Perot laser Single-frequency lasers Laser array Typical VCSEL structure Pulse and accompanying chirp Mach–Zehnder interferometer Typical structure of an EA-DFB transmitter Absorption and chirp (linewidth enhancement factor) parameters versus reverse bias voltage for a typical EA-DFB transmitter Photodiode Transimpedance amplifier Binary receiver Typical waveforms in an IM/DD system Eye diagram Ideal detection BER as a function of Q Transmission channel processing operations Modulation formats FEC encoding/decoding functions © Cambridge University Press xix 154 155 157 159 160 167 169 169 170 171 173 175 176 178 179 186 188 189 192 192 194 196 198 200 200 206 208 210 211 213 215 216 216 217 219 221 222 223 225 226 228 229 232 www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-88139-5 - Multiwavelength Optical Networks, Second Edition: Architectures, Design, and Control Thomas E Stern, Georgios Ellinas and Krishna Bala Frontmatter More information xx Figures 4.39 4.40 4.41 4.42 4.43 4.44 4.45 4.46 4.47 4.48 4.49 4.50 4.51 4.52 4.53 4.54 4.55 4.56 4.57 4.58 4.59 4.60 4.61 4.62 4.63 4.64 4.65 4.66 4.67 4.68 4.69 4.70 4.71 4.72 4.73 4.74 4.75 4.76 4.77 4.78 4.79 4.80 4.81 Transversal decision-directed equalizer Heterodyne receiver Types of cross-talk Power penalty with homodyne cross-talk Controllable directional coupler Mach–Zehnder switch Two-stage Mach–Zehnder switch Y-branch switch Gate array switch Laser-activated bubble switch element 2D mechanical switch using micromachined mirrors 3D MEMS switch 3D gimbaled mirror Liquid crystal holographic switch Two hologram N × N liquid crystal holographic switch Illustration of reciprocity Optical isolator Fabry–Perot filter and its spectral response MI filter MI filter array FBG used as a drop filter A Mach–Zehnder WADM Arrayed waveguide grating Acousto-optic tunable filter Liquid crystal MWS A MEMS-based WADM An MI filter-based WADM Wavelength-dilated switch Optoelectronic wavelength converter Performance of a difference frequency converter Opaque conversion and regeneration SA-based regenerator Nonlinear Mach–Zehnder regenerator Nonlinear optical loop mirror regenerator Optical crossbar switch Path-independent loss crossbar switch Circuit layout for × optical crossbar switch Router/selector Benes switch Orders of cross-talk Enhanced performance switch Space dilation OADMs in a network © Cambridge University Press 233 234 237 238 245 246 247 248 249 250 251 252 253 254 255 256 258 260 262 263 264 264 266 267 269 270 272 273 275 277 278 279 279 280 282 282 284 285 285 286 287 288 289 www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-88139-5 - Multiwavelength Optical Networks, Second Edition: Architectures, Design, and Control Thomas E Stern, Georgios Ellinas and Krishna Bala Frontmatter More information Figures Parallel and serial OADM architectures with capability for m wavelength add/drops 4.83 Functional diagram of an OADM based on wavebands and wavelengths 4.84 Typical B&S OADM architecture Assumes (1+1) protection 4.85 Typical × ROADM based on × wavelength selective switch and B&S-type of architecture 4.86 Transparent OXC 4.87 Opaque O-E-O OXC 4.88 Opaque O-O-O OXC 4.89 Hybrid waveband/wavelength switch 4.90 Wavelength-domain simulation 4.91 WADM chain 4.92 WADM structure and simulation model 4.93 Simulation results for the WADM chain 4.94 Ring interconnect network architecture Worst-case paths between A and B are indicated 4.95 Histogram of all cross-talk terms accumulated at receiver B for the worst-case path of Figure 4.94 4.96 Cross-talk-induced Q penalty in dB versus dominant cross-talk term power level 4.97 Q-channel performance for the worst-case path of Figure 4.94 assuming OC-192 bit rate and EA-modulated transmitters 4.98 A DWDM metro network deployment scenario All rings represent typical SONET OC-12/48/192 designs DWDM is deployed only between the superhub nodes (dark squares) in ring (solid) or possible mesh (dotted) configurations 4.99 DWDM metro network case study based on the network deployment scenario presented in Figure 4.98 Nodes represent only superhub stations with typical distances (not shown to scale) 4.100 Simulation results for path A-F-D in Figure 4.99 comparing Q-channel performance with and without EDC 5.1 Star networks 5.2 A × example 5.3 TDM/T-WDMA channel allocation schedules 5.4 Illustrating channel reuse in an FT-TR system 5.5 Illustrating optical spectral efficiency 5.6 SCMA example 5.7 Transmitting and receiving stations equipped for SCMA 5.8 Subcarrier spectra 5.9 Effect of OBI 5.10 TDM/T-SCMA 5.11 SCM/SCMA xxi 4.82 © Cambridge University Press 290 290 292 292 293 294 294 297 299 302 302 303 304 306 307 308 309 309 311 325 330 331 332 334 337 337 340 342 346 349 www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-88139-5 - Multiwavelength Optical Networks, Second Edition: Architectures, Design, and Control Thomas E Stern, Georgios Ellinas and Krishna Bala Frontmatter More information xxii Figures 5.12 5.13 5.14 5.15 5.16 5.17 5.18 5.19 5.20 5.21 5.22 5.23 5.24 5.25 5.26 5.27 5.28 5.29 5.30 5.31 5.32 5.33 5.34 5.35 5.36 5.37 5.38 5.39 5.40 5.41 5.42 5.43 5.44 5.45 5.46 5.47 5.48 5.49 5.50 5.51 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 SCM/WDMA/SCMA SCM/WDMA/SCMA example Block diagram of a direct-detection CDMA system Waveforms for a direct-detection CDMA system Orthogonal optical codes Parallel CDMA transceiver structure CDMA with all-optical processing Multidimensional codes FBG encoder for FFH-CDMA A 3D CDMA system Realization of coherent optical CDMA Shared-channel broadcast medium Normalized traffic matrices CASs for systems with a full complement of channels CASs for Examples 4, 5, 6, and Heterogeneous traffic scheduling Logical multicast CAS Single-server queue Throughput versus traffic intensity Markov chain model for demand-assigned traffic Comparison of Engset and Erlang models Normalized throughput versus traffic intensity Normalized throughput versus traffic intensity Matching time slots Framed system blocking probabilities Illustrating rearrangeability Slotted ALOHA Tell-and-go protocol Lossless scheduling Queues for perfect scheduling Passive optical network BPON frame Transmission scenario in a BPON system PON equipped for decentralized control LARNet RITE-Net WDM PON Integrated system for dual services Dual services testbed DWDM/TDM PON Number of vertices in known maximal graphs Thirty-eight-vertex graph Tessellations of the plane Undirected deBruijn and Kautz graphs © Cambridge University Press 350 351 354 356 357 359 359 361 361 363 364 367 370 376 378 379 382 385 387 391 393 394 395 396 397 398 403 404 406 407 410 412 413 416 417 418 419 421 421 423 435 435 436 437 www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-88139-5 - Multiwavelength Optical Networks, Second Edition: Architectures, Design, and Control Thomas E Stern, Georgios Ellinas and Krishna Bala Frontmatter More information Figures 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 6.9 6.10 6.11 6.12 6.13 6.14 6.15 6.16 6.17 6.18 6.19 6.20 6.21 6.22 6.23 6.24 6.25 6.26 6.27 6.28 6.29 6.30 6.31 6.32 6.33 6.34 6.35 6.36 6.37 6.38 6.39 6.40 d Construction for min d Plot of min as a function of N Internodal distances in random networks Recursive grid Hierarchical Petersen graph Limiting cuts for four networks Three-node network Illustrating RCA in a wavelength-routed network A four-fiber SPRING A two-fiber SPRING Bidirectional ring Five-node WDM ring Ring decomposition Bridged ring overlay A multistar network Layered view of RCA External traffic in flow conservation equations Wavelength savings by increasing fibers Mean values of N λ versus α Minimum values of N λ versus α Flow chart of the Monte Carlo algorithm Time trace of Monte Carlo algorithm An example of SPD routing Blocking on an 11-node WDM ring Gain in blocking; 11-node WDM ring, simulation Fairness ratio; 11-node WDM ring, simulation Fairness ratio improvement versus interchanger density; 11-node WDM ring with 32 wavelengths Simulation and asymptotic analysis; 195-node interconnected WDM rings Blocking improvement with wavelength interchange; 195-node interconnected WDM rings Fairness ratio improvement with wavelength interchange; 195-node interconnected WDM rings Fairness ratio improvement versus interchanger density; 195-node interconnected WDM ring, 32 wavelengths Multicast connection in a transparent network A P×P split-and-deliver switch A P×P multicast-capable optical cross-connect based on a split-and-deliver switch A P×P multicast-capable optical cross-connect based on splitter sharing Multicasting in a network with sparse splitting capabilities © Cambridge University Press xxiii 438 438 439 440 441 447 449 451 453 454 455 458 459 462 462 465 467 476 477 478 481 483 488 490 491 492 493 496 497 498 499 500 501 502 503 506 www.cambridge.org ... - Multiwavelength Optical Networks, Second Edition: Architectures, Design, and Control Thomas E Stern, Georgios Ellinas and Krishna Bala Frontmatter More information Multiwavelength Optical Networks,. .. 11.2 Multiwavelength Optical Network Testbeds 11.2.1 Optical Networks Technology Consortium 11.2.2 All -Optical Network Consortium 11.2.3 European Multiwavelength Optical Network Trials 11.2.4 Multiwavelength. .. 978-0-521-88139-5 - Multiwavelength Optical Networks, Second Edition: Architectures, Design, and Control Thomas E Stern, Georgios Ellinas and Krishna Bala Frontmatter More information Contents 4.6 Optical