A study on lexical cohesive devices from some reading texts of the course book English for Business Study" and pedagogical implications for teaching English for third year students at Trade Union University

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES FACULTY OF POST-GRADUATE STUDIES _ PHẠM PHƢƠNG LAN A STUDY ON LEXICAL COHESIVE DEVICES FROM SOME READING TEXTS OF THE COURSE BOOK "ENGLISH FOR BUSINESS STUDIES" AND PEDAGOGICAL IMPLICATIONS FOR TEACHING ENGLISH FOR THIRD YEAR STUDENTS AT TRADE UNION UNIVERSITY (Nghiên cứu phƣơng tiện liên kết từ vựng số đọc giáo trình “Tiếng Anh Quản trị Kinh doanh” gợi ý cho việc giảng dạy tiếng Anh cho sinh viên năm thứ ba trƣờng Đại học Cơng đồn) M.A Minor Programme Thesis Field: English Linguistics Code: 60 22 15 Hanoi, 2012 VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES FACULTY OF POST-GRADUATE STUDIES _ PHẠM PHƢƠNG LAN A STUDY ON LEXICAL COHESIVE DEVICES FROM SOME READING TEXTS OF THE COURSE BOOK "ENGLISH FOR BUSINESS STUDIES" AND PEDAGOGICAL IMPLICATIONS FOR TEACHING ENGLISH FOR THIRD YEAR STUDENTS AT TRADE UNION UNIVERSITY (Nghiên cứu phƣơng tiện liên kết từ vựng số đọc giáo trình “Tiếng Anh Quản trị Kinh doanh” gợi ý cho việc giảng dạy tiếng Anh cho sinh viên năm thứ ba trƣờng Đại học Cơng đồn) M.A Minor Programme Thesis Field: English Linguistics Code: 60 22 15 SUPERVISOR: Assoc Prof Dr Nguyễn Xuân Thơm Hanoi, 2012 iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgement iii Abstract iv Table of contents v List of abbreviations vii List of tables and figures vii PART A: INTRODUCTION 1 Rationale of the study Scope of the study 3 Aims of the study Research questions Methods of the study Organization of the study PART B: DEVELOPMENT Chapter 1: Theoretical background 1.1 Discourse and discourse analysis 1.1.1 Discourse 1.1.2 Discourse and Text 1.1.3 Spoken and written discourse 1.1.4 Discourse Analysis 1.1.5 Discourse Context 1.1.5.1 Context 1.1.5.2 Context of situation 1.2 Cohesion and coherence 10 1.2.1 Cohesion .10 1.2.2 Coherence .10 1.2.3 Cohesion and coherence .11 1.3 Cohesive devices 11 1.3.1 Cohesive devices 11 1.3.2 Classification 12 1.3.2.1 Referential Cohesion 12 1.3.2.2 Substitution cohesion 13 v 1.3.2.3 Elliptical cohesion 13 1.3.2.4 Conjunctive cohesion 13 1.3.2.5 Lexical cohesion 14 1.3.2.5.1 Reiteration 14 1.3.2.5.2 Collocation 15 Chapter 2: An analysis of lexical cohesive devices in BE reading texts in the course book English for Business Studies 16 2.1 An overview of the study 16 2.2 Analysis of lexical cohesive devices in BE reading texts 19 2.2.1 Reiteration 19 2.2.1.1 Repetition 19 2.2.1.1.1 Simple repetition 19 2.2.1.1.2 Complex repetition 21 2.2.1.2 Synonyms and near synonyms 23 2.2.1.3 Antonymy 25 2.2.1.4 Superordinates 29 2.2.2 Collocation 31 2.2.3 Summary 33 PART C: CONCLUSION 34 Recapitulation 34 Pedagogical implications 36 Limitations of the study 38 Suggestions for further research 38 REFERENCES 40 Appendices I Appendix I II Appendix II III Appendix III IV Appendix IV V Appendix V VI Appendix VI VII Appendix VII VIII vi LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS BE: Business English GE: General English EBS: English for Business Studies ESP: English for Specific Purpose TUU: Trade Union University LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES Table - EBS texts chosen for analysis Table - The frequency of appearance of lexical cohesive devices in sample texts Table - Frequency of appearance of repetition Table - Frequency of appearance of synonymy Table - Frequency of occurrence of antonyms Table - Frequency of occurrence of sub-types of antonymy Table - Frequency of occurrence of superordinate Table - Frequency of occurrence of collocations Figure - Lexical cohesive devices in EBS texts - Frequency of occurrence Figure - Sub-types of repetition - Frequency of appearance -1- PART A: INTRODUCTION Rationale of the study Over the past two decades, the teaching and learning English, especially English for Specific Purposes (ESP) have changed dramatically If in the 1990's, ESP was taught in some universities in Vietnam, now it becomes a compulsory subject in almost every universities and colleges that follow the curriculum established by the Ministry of Education and Training (MOET) The ESP course provides students with background knowledge and vocabulary of specialist fields, therefore it helps them greatly in future careers Being aware of the major role of ESP, teachers of English at Trade Union University (TUU) have always attempted to improve the teaching and learning of ESP at their college However, there remain some difficulties as follows: At TUU, English is taught in totally five semesters of which three are for General English (GE) and two semesters are for ESP GE accounts for 135 credit periods and ESP is taught in 90 credit periods In order to attend ESP course, students are required to complete GE levels The basic English course with the main teaching and learning materials are New Headway Elementary and New Headway Pre-intermediate However, in the next stage of learning, the ESP course book requires learners of upper-intermediate and advanced level Therefore, after GE stage, students encounter numerous difficulties in learning in ESP course as they are supposedly at pre-intermediate level English for Business Studies (EBS) is chosen as the main course book of ESP at TUU The book was written by Ian MacKenzie and published in 2002 by Cambridge University Press The book comprises of 30 units of which units are chosen for ESP course level and another units for ESP course level at TUU In each unit, there are several sections covering all the four skills: listening, reading, writing, speaking Most of the units contain three parts: An informative reading text giving an overview of a particular topic with various comprehension and vocabulary exercises and discussion activities Either listening exercises or shorter authentic reading passage -2- An additional case study, role play, discussion activity or writing exercise The listening part provides authentic interviews with business people and economists who are British and American native speakers and non-native speakers from Germany, Italy, Switzerland, India and Malaysia The listening exercises that follow are often note taking and question answering, very few tasks have multiple choice questions Therefore it is sometimes difficult for TUU's students to follow Consequently, exploiting the listening part is unfeasible for TUU's learners For speaking task, it is not practical for a class of 60 and over 60 students where the teacher's role of a conductor is vague That is, it is quite hard for teachers to cover all speaking activities Moreover, TUU's students are not competent and self-conscious enough to fulfill the given task themselves Therefore, learning speaking possibly turn out to private talking and disorder in class As for writing, the demands for the task are sometimes excessive for students Grammar is quite important in text comprehension However, most grammatical structures and rules are taught in GE and students can recall them easily without the teacher's explanation Yet, there are still complaints from our students about the difficulties they encounter while learning reading passages in BE On the one hand, it may derive from students' psychological reasons For most of them, this is the first time they learn ESP and an ESP reading text which is full of economic and business terms in business context may be a challenge Consequently, they are not willing to study attentively On the other hand, students find it is hard job to remember so many new terms and obtain a general comprehension of the text The above reasons have induced me to conduct a research on reading part, as this part is also a main part of every unit in EBS course book With some experience in teaching GE and ESP for BE students, the researcher realize the crucial role of coherence and cohesion in the text understanding and vocabulary learning of TUU's students As a result, the author decide to make an investigation into cohesive devices used in the texts of BE course book, especially lexical cohesive devices hoping that it may help students more in understanding the reading texts and learning vocabulary -3- Scope of the study Within the framework of a minor M.A thesis, the study mainly focuses on lexical cohesive devices, the frequency of occurrence of these devices in some chosen texts in BE course book The study points out how often these lexical cohesive devices appear and how they affect the text comprehending and vocabulary learning After examining and analyzing the collected data, some pedagogical implications will be drawn for both teachers and students of BE Aims of the study The study aims at:  Figuring out how these lexical cohesive ties are used in BE sample texts of the course book EBS  Providing BE teachers and students with an insight into the use of lexical cohesive devices and thereby assisting their writing and reading comprehension Research questions In order to achieve the objectives of the study, the following questions are raised: What lexical cohesive devices are used in BE texts? What lexical cohesive devices are employed most frequently in BE texts? What are the overall features of BE discourses in terms of lexical cohesion? Methods of the study The study uses description, analysis and statistics research methods to achieve the research objectives The data for the research analysis are collected from six sample texts chosen in EBS course book namely: Sample text 1: Types of banks; Sample text 2: Companies; Sample text 3: Bonds; Sample text 4: Market leaders, challengers and followers; Sample text 5: Taxation; Sample text 6: The business cycle All the lexical cohesive items of each type of lexical cohesion (reiteration and collocation) and its subtypes occur in the six texts -4- are identified and calculated The total number of each type is then converted into percentage to compare within a text or among the categories and according to the analytical purposes Organization of the study This thesis includes three main parts The INTRODUCTION part introduces the rationale, the scope, the aims, the research questions, the research methodology and the design of the study The DEVELOPMENT comprises of two chapters - Chapter 1: provides a thorough theoretical background of three main terminologies: discourse, discourse analysis, coherence and cohesion - Chapter 2: presents the analysis of lexical cohesive devices in some reading texts in BE course book for the third year students at Trade Union University The CONCLUSION shows a recapitulation of the study, implications for teaching and learning BE, limitations of the study and suggestions for further research -5- PART B: DEVELOPMENT CHAPTER I: THEORETICAL BACKGROUND This part introduces concepts of discourse, text, discourse analysis, discourse context, cohesion and coherence, cohesive devices which support this thesis 1.1 Discourse and discourse analysis 1.1.1 Discourse Well-known linguists have shared similar viewpoint about the concept of discourse David Nunan (1993:5) agreed that discourse is "a stretch of language consisting of several sentences which are perceived as being related in some way" Crystal (1992:25) had similar perspective of discourse when he defined discourse as "a continuous stretch of (especially spoken) language larger than a sentence, often constituting a coherent unit, such as a sermon, argument or narrative" More recently, discourse is defined by Nguyễn Hòa (2004) as "a combination of sentences (or utterances) used to get our message across It has its own meaning and is more than the sum of the meaning of its constituents" 1.1.2 Discourse and Text There seem to be two different trends in linguists towards the terms "discourse" and "text" One distinguishes the two terms whereas the other does not Cook treated the terms "discourse" and "text" as two different categories when he stated: "discourse is a stretch of language perceived to be meaningful, unified and purposive Text is a stretch of language interpreted formally, without context." (Cook, 1989: 156&158, cited in Nunan, 1993:6) David Nunan used the term "text" to refer to "any written record of a communicative event" and "discourse" to refer to "the interpretation of the communicative event in context" (Nunan, 1993: 6-7) - 34 - PART C: CONCLUSION Recapitulation It is obvious that lexical cohesion plays a very crucial part in written discourses Since a better understanding of lexical cohesion undoubtedly helps students interpret discourses, develop their vocabulary and create coherence in their writing, this study has investigated the lexical cohesive devices in the course book EBS to find out how frequently these devices occur and give some suggestions for improving the teaching and learning of BE The analysis results of the study have given the answers to all the research questions mentioned in the Introduction Part of this thesis + For the first question "What lexical cohesive devices are used in BE texts?", it can be answered that, all the types of lexical cohesion: reiteration, including repetition, synonymy, antonymy, superordinate; and collocation are common in BE texts These cohesive devices contribute significantly to the linking of sentences and meanings in a text However, the frequency of occurrence of each type is not identical in the six sample texts + For the second research question "What lexical cohesive devices are employed most frequently in BE texts?", the study results indicate that there is a tendency in using repetition in BE discourses Obviously, repetition is the most popular form of lexical reiteration in BE texts It appears with the highest frequency account for 48.2% + The research findings also reveal that some overall features of BE discourses regarding lexical cohesion are identified as follows:  In BE texts, repetition is used to emphasize something important, i.e to draw reader's attention to the topic of a text In all sample texts investigated in the study, most of the topic words occur repeatedly in order to create a high cohesiveness of the discourses The text is therefore coherent for readers The result also reveals that in BE texts, simple repetition is employed dominantly and that nouns and noun phrases are the most common cases of simple repetition - 35 -  In BE texts, while repetition is used to emphasize important conveyed information, synonymy is employed as a cohesive device to express meanings differently and therefore, avoid unnecessary repetitions In BE texts, the fact that the majority of synonyms identified falls under the categories of nouns and verbs shows that, one of the linguistic features of BE texts which is determined by the particular purpose of it is introducing key economic terms and clarifying business and economic concepts Nouns and verb phrases are used synonymously in BE discourses to help create clarity, precision and unambiguity of the texts  Similarly, the use of antonyms in BE texts help explain the terms and notions more easily by observing the contrary relations among word pairs, emerging the main idea of each paragraph and the topic of the whole text Hence, it makes the text more comprehensible for readers The fact that BE texts includes numerous generalizations of business and economic concepts has explained why relational antonyms are used more frequently than contrary antonyms However, in some texts, no contrary and relational antonym is found The contrastive meanings of word pairs help express distinctive notions inside the discourse and thus, clarify the difficult economic concepts  Repetition, synonymy and antonymy are reiterated devices that help create the coherence of BE texts Similarly, superordinate and collocation are effective ways to create connections among words, phrases, paragraphs and the whole BE text They link words and ideas of a BE text in a logical way therefore create coherence and thus comprehensibility of the text In other words, the more related lexical items are used the more cohesiveness of the text they create For example, the sample text in this study is considered the most cohesive one because it has the highest frequency of lexical ties of all BE sample texts In particular, each category of cohesion appears in this text with the most or the second most dense distribution (see appendix VII) Additionally, from the above concluding remarks, some suggestions to assist reading and writing are made as in the following part - 36 - Pedagogical implications Since the interpretation, particularly the interpretation of written discourses is a process that occurs within the learners That is, the embedded information in the discourses that the writer communicates to the readers must be received by the learners And this comprehension can only be achieved by good knowledge of the world, the field, the experience and ability of the readers to infer the purposes of the discourse This is especially true with ESP as ESP is a combination of subject matter and English language When reading, students have to rely greatly on their background knowledge of their major to comprehend ESP texts Therefore, teachers should remind them of the important role of specialized knowledge in helping them to learn ESP Moreover, the teacher should always be a good companion of the students who is ready to provide them with sufficient knowledge of English to support their ESP learning The study gives some pedagogical implications concerning lexical cohesion as follows: Collocation Due to its high cohesiveness, collocation should be paid central attention Collocation appears quite often in BE texts, however, learning it is not an easy task as Vân has stated in his book Introducing Discourse Analysis (2006) that: "Collocation can cause major problems for discourse analysis because it includes all those items in a discourse that are semantically related In some cases this makes it difficult to decide for certain whether a cohesive relationship exists or not The main problem is that collocation is expressed through open rather than closed class items Furthermore, there is no limit to the items that can be used to express collocation This means that it is difficult to establish sets of regularly co-occurring words and phrases." Another problem is concerning lexical relationships Words and phrases that are considered related in one text may not be related in others For example, the words dog and friend are not related at all But in the following example, they are supposedly synonymous: - 37 - My wife bought a nice little dog last month The dog is her best friend From the above reasons, in exploiting collocation in BE reading and writing activities, teachers should set up learning tasks such as: - identify the possibility of the co-occur tendency of some certain words in BE discourses, - find the topic of the reading texts through the elicited sequence of related words, - make use of collocations in reading text to write a passage which is cohesive and coherent, - summarize the paragraph or the whole text using given collocations, - translate the passage into the source language It should be noted that during translating task students should be aware of collocations, in particular, the meaning of a collocation should be taken into account instead of the dictionary meaning of the individual words This therefore dissuades them from word-by-word translating or mistranslating More importantly, further exercises on collocation can be designed by teachers to check students' comprehension of the text, for example: "Match up the verbs and nouns below to make common collocations", "Read the following text and write a short heading for each paragraph", "There is a logical connection among three or four words in each of the following groups Which is the odd one out, and why?" For learners, collocation also helps them greatly in learning vocabulary Particularly, new vocabulary can be more easily remembered when it is learned in its context, i.e in collocation relations As a result, new vocabulary can be recalled at any time and retained in learners for a long time In addition, learners should be encouraged to use dictionary of - 38 - collocation especially when they writing and translating tasks Hence, collocation helps enlarge the vocabulary of students Repetition It is concluded that repetition is a cohesive device that is used most frequently in BE As mention in Chapter II, repetition device is used when the writer wants to make focus on a definite topic The identity of repeated words and phrases are very easy for learners as they can be observed during reading process Teachers simply mention or ask students to elicit the most repeated items in the whole text to guess the topic of it This helps students greatly in interpreting the text Limitations of the study Due to time constraint and minor framework of the research, the author was not able to carry out the investigation into different aspects of cohesions Actually, this study only focuses on analyzing diverse types of lexical cohesive ties without examining the grammatical cohesion devices, which may results in a incomprehension of cohesion in BE discourses It is also regrettable that the small number of sample texts may not help create the most valid analytical results The results of the study are therefore not very persuasive Lastly, the limited knowledge about business and economics area and the inexperience of the author in implementing research may not lead to the expected results Recommendations for further studies From the mentioned limitations, some suggestions for further studies are inferred as follows:  Further investigations into other cohesive devices such as: grammatical, topical and logical cohesion of BE written discourses to improve the teaching and learning of BE - 39 -  Further researches on evaluating the affects of cohesive devices knowledge on the students' abilities in learning writing and reading BE discourses  Further researches on the causes of common errors made by BE learners when using cohesive devices to create and interpret BE discourses and solutions for it Finally, this study is only the author's initial attempt in studying BE discourses but it is expected that it could support the author, teachers and students in their teaching and learning of business and economic discourses Due to the limited time and knowledge, shortcomings in the study are unavoidable Consequently, all suggestions and comments from readers are highly appreciated - 40 - REFERENCES Brown, G & G Yule (1983) Discourse Analysis Cambridge: CUP Crystal, D (1992) Introducing Linguistics London: Penguin Eggins, S (1994) An Introduction to Systematic Functional Linguistics London Continuum Halliday, M.A.K (1994), An Introduction to Functional Grammar, 2nd edition, London: Edward Arnold Halliday, M.A.K & Hasan, R (1976) Cohesion in English London: Longman Hasan, R (1984) Coherence and Cohesive Harmony London: Longman Hoa, N (2000), An Introduction to Discourse Analysis, Vietnam National University Press Hoa, N (2004) Understanding English Semantics, Vietnam National University Press Hoey, M (1991) Patterns of Lexis in Text Oxford: Oxford University Press 10 Ian MacKenzie (2002) English for Business Studies Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 11 Nunan, D (1993) Introducing Discourse Analysis London: Penguin English 12 Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary (2000) Oxford University Press 13 Oxford Collocation Dictionary (2002) Oxford: Oxford University Press 14 Palmer, J A (1983b) Getting into Text: Coherence in Cross Currents X2 15 Salkie, R (1995) Text and Discourse Analysis London: Routledge 16 Tanskanen, S (1984) Collaborating towards Coherence John Benjamins Publishing Company 17 Thompson, G (1996) Introducing Functional Grammar New York: Oxford University Press 18.Van, H V (2006) Introducing Discourse Analysis Hanoi: Educational Publishing House I APPENDICES APPENDIX I No of text Cohesive devices Simple repetition Repetition Complex repetition money (4) - pay (2) - lend (3) - deposit (3) - offer (3) - borrower (5) - service (4) - financial (2) - country (4) interest rate (2) - rate (3) - foreign currency (2) - trade (2) - commercial bank (3) - investment bank (2) - central bank (3) - Eurocurrency (3) - issue (1) - profits (1) - charge (1) - securities (1) lender (2) - depositor (2) - banking (2) - lending (2) - trading (1) - stockbroker (1) - finance (1) customers/ depositors/ lenders/ clients - money/ currency - cash/ notes and coins - commercial bank/ retail bank investment bank/ merchant bank universal bank/ financial conglomerate - repeal/ abolish/ deregulate Eurocurrency/ foreign currency securities/ stocks - base rate/ prime rate - home country/ country of origin - secured/ guaranteed - credit standing/ credit rating/ credit worthiness Synonymy Text Antonymy Lexical items Contrary none Relational debt/ loan - borrower/ lender - pay/ charge - bankers/customers banks: commercial, investment, universal, central, foreign - Superordinate bank services: deposit banking, loan banking, investment advices interest rate: discount rate, base rate II borrowers: blue chip companies, individual clients currency: Eurocurrency, Eurodollars, petrodollars Collocation hold deposit - lend money - exchange foreign currencies - create credit transfer money - pay money - receive deposit - liquidity - maturities - raise funds - issue securities - underwrite securities - stockbrokings management services - deposit banking - loan banking - shares bonds - financial conglomerate interest rate - secured loans - credit standing - blue chip borrowers Eurocurrencies - trading currency Eurodollars III APPENDIX II No of text Cohesive devices Simple repetition Repetition Text Complex repetition company (15) - market (2) - stock exchange (2) - capital (3) - business (4) - debt (4) - limited company (4) bankrupt (1) - creditor (1) - owner (1) - shareholder (1) - issue (1) - dividend (1) - liabilities (1) - market price (1) value (1) - assets (1) - receive (1) - pay (2) - sell (1) - shares (1) liable (1) - liquidation (1) - capitalize (1) possession/ asset - liabilities/ debts company/ venture - office/ premise quoted/ listed - purchase/ buy - apply/ join - owners/ founders - pay/ cover Synonymy Antonymy Lexical items Contrary well/ badly - more/ less Relational none company: limited, private limited, public limited, publicly quoted - Superordinate company's assets: capital, shares, dividends, liabilities, profits stock exchanges: Alternative Investment Market, Nasdaq new shares issue: rights issue, bonus issue Collocation pay debt - go bankrupt - assets liquidate - borrow capital - write documents - public limited company publicly quoted company - floating underwrite issue - new share issue less - market price - shareowners ownership - vote - dividend - market price - nominal value IV APPENDIX III Text Cohesive devices Repetition Simple repetition Text Complex repetition Synonymy Antonymy Lexical items bond (10) - company (10) - money (3) borrow (3) - tax (3) - profit (3) - debt (3) - bank (2) - interest rate (2) market (2) - secondary market (2) sell (2) - money supply (2) - issuing (2) - bond interest (1) - risk (1) - bankrupt (1) - buy (1) - circulation (1) financing (1) issue (3) - rating (2) - traded (2) deduct (2) - paying (2) - paid (2) increase (2) - borrowers (1) - financial (1) - taxed (1) - issuing (1) equities/ shares - bonds/ bills/ gilts gilt-edged/ secured Contrary best/ worst - higher/ lower Relational increase/ reduce - long-term/ shortterm - debt/ equity - lend/ borrow buy/ sell - above/ below bond market: primary market, secondary market ratings company: Moody's and Standard & Poors - Superordinate bond interest: yield, coupon bond: government's bond, company's bond government's bond: long-term bond, short-term bond Collocation issue bonds - rate(v) - bonds trade secondary market - liquid - bond interest - tax deductible - debt-equity ratio - gilt-edged securities - bills issue - reduce money supply - increase money supply V APPENDIX IV No of text Cohesive devices Simple repetition Repetition Text Complex repetition Superordinate market (8) - market leader (3) - market share (4) - market follower (3) company (4) - product (2) - increase (2) - market challenger (1) - expand (1) - competitor (1) - field (1) - leader (1) - field (1) - firm (1) - advantage (1) - niche (1) - customer (1) user (1) - usage (1) - use (1) - establish (1) expand/ increase - lead/ dominate stimulate/ promote - distinct/ differential - attempt to/ try to - entire/ whole - challenger/ competitor - small/ narrow - specific/ unique - big/ major frequently/ usually/ often Synonymy Antonymy Lexical items Contrary small/ big Relational protect/ attack market: market leader, market challenger, market follower company: supplier market share: market segmentation, niche Collocation largest market share - first - enter succeed - lead - introduction - price promotion - increase market share stimulate usage - second - attack majority - concentrate - market segmentation - establish - niche VI APPENDIX V Text Cohesive devices Simple repetition Repetition Text Complex Lexical items tax(es) (19) - income (4) - income tax (3) - profit (4) - company (6) - money (3) - people (5) - investment (2) government (2) - pay (2) - insurance (2) - economy (2) - national (2) progressive (1) - reduce (1) laundering (1) taxed (1) - taxable (1) - investing (1) repetition tax/ duties - subtract/ deduct function/ purpose - black/ underground - raise/ accelerate corporation tax/ income tax - perk/ benefit - shelter/ haven Synonymy Antonymy Contrary poor/ rich Relational dissuade/ encourage accelerate/ reduce tax system: progressive, regressive progressive tax: corporation tax, dividends, income tax, marginal rate - Superordinate regressive tax: sales-tax legal ways: loopholes, tax shelters, tax-deductible, tax loss, tax havens economy: Britain, Italy Italy: underground economy Collocation debate - fairness - business profits cheat - underground economy undeclared - no one - pay - reduce avoid - postpone - subtract - profit tax - tax loss - tax havens - criminal disguise - tax inspector - police money laundering VII APPENDIX VI No of text Cohesive devices Simple Repetition repetition Text Complex repetition Synonymy Antonymy Superordinate Lexical items the business cycle (6) - investment (5) demand (4) - economy (2) - recession (2) - profit (2) - price (2) - interest rate (2) - output (2) - cycle (1) - boom (1) employment (1) - contraction (1) peak (1) - rise (1) - consume (1) - save (1) - growth (1) economist (2) - economic (3) consumer (1) - consumption (1) growing (2) depression/ slump - downturn/ downswing/ contraction - upturn/ upswing/ expansion - drop/ fall - rise/ grow - spend/ consume - succeed/ follow - business cycle/ trade cycle Contrary none Relational boom/ recession - peak/ trough spend/ save - rise/ fall - internal/ external - endogeneous/ exogeneous business cycle theory: internal, external theory business cycle: boom, recession boom: peak, downturn recession: trough, upturn Collocation GDP - fluctuate - boom - expand - full capacity - rise - recession - demand decline - fall - highest - peak - lowest trough - cause - internal - selfgenerate - external - outside economic activities VIII APPENDIX VII Cohesive devices Text Text Text Text Text Text Total Simple 54 41 55 36 59 36 291 Complex 11 19 49 30 18 23 16 18 112 Contrary 4 2 12 Relational 12 12 38 Superordinate 20 17 14 18 12 90 Collocation 26 18 12 17 20 20 113 Total 149 111 123 93 122 107 705 Repetition Synonymy Antonymy