Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com MARRIAGE OF CONVENIENCE Rockefeller International Health and Revolutionary Mexico Anne-Emanuelle Birn Rochester Studies in Medical History www.Ebook777.com Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com Marriage of Convenience www.Ebook777.com Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com Rochester Studies in Medical History Senior Editor: Theodore M Brown Professor of History and Preventive Medicine University of Rochester ISSN 1526–2715 The Mechanization of the Heart: Harvey and Descartes Thomas Fuchs Translated from the German by Marjorie Grene The Workers’ Health Fund in Eretz Israel Kupat Holim, 1911–1937 Shifra Shvarts Public Health and the Risk Factor: A History of an Uneven Medical Revolution William G Rothstein Venereal Disease, Hospitals and the Urban Poor: London’s “Foul Wards,” 1600–1800 Kevin P Siena Rockefeller Money, the Laboratory and Medicine in Edinburgh 1919–1930: New Science in an Old Country Christopher Lawrence Health and Wealth: Studies in History and Policy Simon Szreter Charles Nicolle, Pasteur’s Imperial Missionary: Typhus and Tunisia Kim Pelis Marriage of Convenience: Rockefeller International Health and Revolutionary Mexico Anne-Emanuelle Birn www.Ebook777.com Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com Marriage of Convenience Rockefeller International Health and Revolutionary Mexico ANNE-EMANUELLE BIRN UNIVERSITY OF ROCHESTER PRESS www.Ebook777.com Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com Copyright © 2006 Anne-Emanuelle Birn All rights reserved Except as permitted under current legislation, no part of this work may be photocopied, stored in a retrieval system, published, performed in public, adapted, broadcast, transmitted, recorded, or reproduced in any form or by any means, without the prior permission of the copyright owner First published 2006 University of Rochester Press 668 Mt Hope Avenue, Rochester, NY 14620, USA www.urpress.com and Boydell & Brewer Limited PO Box 9, Woodbridge, Suffolk IP12 3DF, UK www.boydellandbrewer.com ISBN: 1–58046–222–7 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Birn, Anne-Emanuelle, 1964Marriage of convenience : Rockefeller International Health and revolutionary Mexico / Anne-Emanuelle Birn p ; cm – (Rochester studies in medical history, ISSN 1526-2715 ; v.8) Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 1-58046-222-7 (hardcover : alk paper) Public health–Mexico–History– 20th century Public health–International cooperation–History–20th century Rockefeller Foundation International Health Division–History–20th century Mexico Departamento de Salubridad Pública–History–20th century [DNLM: Rockefeller Foundation International Health Division Mexico Departamento de Salubridad Pública Public Health–history–Mexico History, 20th Century–Mexico International Cooperation–history–Mexico Public Health Administration–history–Mexico Sanitation–history–Mexico World Health–Mexico WA 11 DM4 B619m 2006] I Title II Series RA451.B55 2006 362.10972–dc22 2006006563 A catalogue record for this title is available from the British Library This publication is printed on acid-free paper Printed in the United States of America www.Ebook777.com Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com To my parents www.Ebook777.com Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com “There is no more important country for our purposes than Mexico.” Frederick Russell to Henry Carr, May 19, 1927, RG 5, Series 1.2, Box 296, Folder 3753, Rockefeller Foundation Archives “The most important point in Mexico is that, using the experience and the teachings of the best health departments from abroad, almost all of them well-established and with many years of trials, successes, and errors, we have not blindly imitated or copied these organizations, but instead have transformed and adapted them to our own circumstances; we have taken into account the scarcity of economic resources, communication and transportation problems, the absence of health education, and the urgency of facing the problem and beginning to resolve it.” Miguel E Bustamante, Gaceta Médica de México (1934), 200 Translated from Spanish by Anne-Emanuelle Birn www.Ebook777.com Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com Contents List of Illustrations Introduction: The Fever of International Health ix 1 A Match Made in Heaven? Rockefeller Philanthropy and International Health The Mexican Revolution and Public Health First Engagement: The Yellow Fever Campaign Hooked on Hookworm The Bait Flapping Around Reeling It In 61 62 73 102 Going Local Conception Dissemination Reception 117 118 138 151 You Say You Want an Institution Building a Healthy State: Cárdenas, the PNR, and the Six-Year Plan The Training Touch Institutionalization, Mexican Style 175 Ingredients of a Relationship Conspiracy, Charity, Catalysis, Coincidence, Chaos, or All of the Above? The Long Goodbye The Diseases Less Traveled ¿Qué Pasó? 234 Epilogue: International Health’s Convenient Marriage 267 Acknowledgments 287 www.Ebook777.com 15 17 34 47 176 196 215 239 241 250 257 Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com viii ❧ contents Appendix: Rockefeller Foundation Public Health Fellowships Awarded to Mexico, 1920–1949 289 Abbreviations 295 Notes 297 Bibliography 367 Index 413 www.Ebook777.com Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com Illustrations Figures Wickliffe Rose, first IHB director Map of Mexico, Department of Sanitary Engineering, DSP Dr José María Rodríguez, first DSP chief DSP Central staff, 1920–21 Yellow fever campaign officer inspecting and treating household water sources 1.6 Funeral procession for RF yellow fever officer Howard Cross 2.1 Dr Frederick Russell, second IHD director 2.2 RF officer Dr Andrew Warren 2.3 Dr Alfonso Pruneda, secretary-general of the DSP 2.4 Map of hookworm survey results 2.5 Dr Juan Solórzano Morfín, hookworm campaign director 2.6 Hookworm dispensary 2.7 Map of hookworm campaign locales 2.8 RF officer explaining life cycle of hookworm to a rural household 2.9 Hookworm officer giving field lecture during house-to-house census 2.10 Hookworm lecture to schoolchildren 2.11 Student sanitary inspectors constructing a pit latrine 2.12 Dr Bernardo Gastélum, director of DSP 2.13 DSP organizational chart, 1928 2.14 Outside cover of DSP pamphlet, The Story of a Boy 2.15 Inside of DSP pamphlet, The Story of a Boy 2.16 Separate men’s and women’s sanitary facilities at hookworm dispensary 3.1 RF officer Dr Henry Carr, IHD Associate Director Dr John Ferrell, Veracruz Health Officer Dr Agustín Hernández Mejía, and colleagues 3.2 Dr Miguel Bustamante, head of Veracruz health unit 3.3 Veracruz health unit 3.4 Veracruz unit organizational chart 3.5 Veracruz market sanitation 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 www.Ebook777.com 23 35 47 49 54 58 65 67 68 72 76 79 82 83 84 86 90 100 104 110 111 114 122 124 134 135 136 Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com 420 ❧ index hookworm (continued) 328n199; US South, 18–20, 83, 97; worldwide survey, 24 See also Gates, Frederick; hookworm campaign in Mexico; IHB; public health; Rockefeller Sanitary Commission; Rose; United Fruit Company hookworm campaign in Mexico, 2, 13, 96t, 239; agreement and budget, 64–67, 87–88, 96t, 98, 107–8, 244–45t, 321n20; campaign assistants, 87–88, 91; children, 85, 86f, 87–88, 106; competing goals of, 102–3; dangers/side effects of treatment, 78, 79, 87–88, 101, 106, 107; diet/nutrition, 72, 87, 106; DSP, 61–62, 81, 88, 92–93, 98, 102–5, 107–9, 115–16, 195f, 326n161; economic burden for rural population, 89, 91, 92, 107; education, 77, 82, 83, 83f, 84, 84f, 86f, 98, 110f, 111f; gender patterns/gender roles, 73, 81, 84, 99, 110f, 111f, 111–12, 327n164; geographic distribution, 17, 77, 109, 115, 323n55; health units, 121, 131–32; Hidalgo/Tlaxcala campaign, 76–77; IHB home office advice and policies, 79–80, 81, 87, 91, 106, 107, 115; IHB officers’ perceptions of rural populations, 89–92, 112; intensive method, 86–87, 321n9; latrines, 80, 89–92, 90f, 96t, 97, 99, 100, 106, 114f, 265; local health beliefs, 82–85, 99; vs malaria, 63, 103, 109, 113, 256; map of, 82f; mass method (dispensary method), 79–80, 79f, 86; Mexican physicians, 75–76, 88, 98–102, 109, 112, 115; Mexican politics/revolutionary goals, 61, 63, 95, 102, 103, 105, 113; pulque, 87; purgatives, 78, 79, 86, 88, 107, 328n199; reception/assessment of, 80, 81, 84–85, 95, 97–98, 109–12, 115, 259; reinfection/coinfection, 101, 107, 108, 328n202; RF goals, 61, 62, 95, 103, 108–9, 113, 115, 251; shoe-wearing, 77, 78, 83–85, 92, 99; site selection, 67–70; social class and occupational health, 91–92, 99, 113, 326n132; survey, 63, 64, 70–73, 72f, 77, 78, 322n41, 322n47, 323n70; treatment, 62, 78, 79, 80, 86–88, 96t, 101, 106–7; Veracruz politics/unrest 61, 68–69, 73–75, 77, 92–96, 109; Veracruz state campaign, 77–92; Veracruz state health department, 91, 105 See also Alvarado; brigades; Carr; Córdoba; DSP; Gastélum; health units; Hernández Lira; hookworm; IHB; physicians; Russell, Frederick; San Andrés Tuxtla; Solórzano Morfín; Vaughn; Veracruz; Warren hospitals, 43, 155, 246, 247; colonial, 41–42; Flexnerian reforms, 29; Red Cross, 211 housing See Mexico; public health; public health in Mexico Howell, William, Hoyo, Esteban, 200f, 290t, 349n158 illness See epidemics; public health; traditional healing; and specific diseases immigration: to US, 17, 48; to the Americas, 4, imperialism, 5, 6, 41, 50, 167, 262, 267, 325n102; and international health, 5, 12, 308n76 See also colonialism; international health; public health; tropical health/medicine/disease; US India, 38, 73 Indonesia, 73 infant health See child health and welfare infant mortality, 26, 46, 133, 137, 147, 149, 152, 154, 155, 156, 159–60, 162, 167, 178, 180, 190, 192, 230, 339n189, 366n55 See also child health and welfare; maternal and child health influenza, 31, 46, 315n169 See also epidemics www.Ebook777.com Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com insecticides See malaria; yellow fever Institut Pasteur, 32, 44 Institute of Inter-American Affairs (IIAA) See US Department of State Instituto Nacional Indigenista (INI), 253 Instituto de Salubridad y Enfermedades Tropicales (Institute of Health and Tropical Diseases, ISET), 195, 211, 226, 231–32, 249, 355n287 Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social (Mexican Institute of Social Security, IMSS), 247–48, 314–15n167 intellectuals See científicos; Mexico; Porfiriato intensive method See hookworm campaign in Mexico International American Institute for the Protection of Childhood, 154 International Classification of Diseases, 45, 151, 299n18 International Conference of American States, 45 International Education Board, 21, 332n53 See also RF international health: agenda-setting and cooperation, 4, 7, 8, 9, 12, 14, 34, 50, 142, 240, 243, 246, 249, 267–68, 269, 271, 278, 280; alternate approach to, 284–85; in the Americas, 6–8, 31, 32–33; and capitalism, 4–6, 8, 10, 17, 240; and Cold War, 249–50, 273–78, 281, 282, 366n55; and development, 9–11, 246, 271, 272–73; duplication of national and international efforts, 271, 276; economic relations/trade commerce, 3, 4–5, 7, 8–9, 32, 261; in Europe, 4–6, 32; geopolitics, 3, 32–34, 249, 280, 281–82, 308n76; ideologies, 10, 240, 267, 279, 281, 283; immigration, 4, 8; institutionalization, 9–10, 268; maritime sanitation and port health, 8, 32, 44, 48, 50; medical inspection of immigrants, 7, 48; modern birth of, 4–7; organizations, 8–9, 32, 34, 45, 46, 268, 279, 280, 281, 282, ❧ index 421 36n58; poverty, 278, 279, 283; RF influences on, 15, 241, 257, 266, 267–68, 269–74, 270t, 279–81, 283; scientific congresses, 7, 27, 45, 121; standardization, 7, 12; technical disease control measures, 5, 8, 32, 257, 271 See also IHB; IHD; imperialism; OIHP; PASB; public health; RF; WHO International Health Board (IHB), 11; founding and mission, 20, 24, 25; hookworm campaigns internationally, 24–26, 29, 63; and Latin America/Caribbean, 21, 24, 26–27; policies and objectives, 24–26, 27–28, 33, 34, 64–65, 250–51, 263, 304n39; and relationship with governments, 24, 25, 26, 261; reorganization, 11, 22, 128–29; worldwide disease campaigns, 9, 13, 31, 48, 129, 253, 267 See also Brazil; Carr; DSP; hookworm; hookworm campaign in Mexico; IHD; malaria; PASB; public health education; RF; Rockefeller Sanitary Commission; Vaughn; Warren; yellow fever campaign in Mexico; Yellow Fever Commission International Health Commission, 20, 24 See also IHB; RF; Rose International Health Division (IHD): budget, 2–3, 147t, 180, 187, 225t, 230, 242, 244–45t, 246, 258t, 306–7n65, 321n20; closing of, 249–50; contrasted with US government and business interests, 246–47; demonstration projects, 2, 26, 31, 121, 183, 189, 225, 229–31, 271; and development, 272–73; directors, 22; and disease selection, 250, 252, 253, 257, 270, 272, 359n60; and DSP, 143–45, 181–83, 185–89; governance, 129; and individual responsibility for/understanding of health, 33, 85, 91, 92, 99, 145, 270t; learning from Mexico, 97, 115, 144–46, 162, www.Ebook777.com Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com 422 ❧ index International Health Division (IHD) (continued) 173–74, 240, 264–66; officers, 10–11, 16, 22, 31; officers’ views on Mexico/Mexicans, 74–75, 80, 84, 89–90, 93, 137, 159, 169, 189, 224–25, 259, 264, 265–6, 323n61, 325n123; and national health insurance, 272, 351n212; research activities in Mexico, 2, 31, 59, 147t, 242, 244t, 253–54, 256–57, 269, 328n199, 360n94; research orientation, 128–29; and social medicine efforts in Mexico, 219–21; and transnational officers/fellows/scientists, 11, 16, 31, 98, 197, 200, 233, 250, 272, 355n287 See also Carr; Bailey, Downs; DSP; Ferrel, health units; IHB; IIAA; malaria; PASB; Payne; public health education; RF; RF Division of Medicine and Public Health; Russel, Frederick; Sawyer International Monetary Fund, 279 international sanitary agreements/ conventions, 7–8, 31, 32, 45 International Sanitary Bureau See PASB International Sanitary Conferences, 8, 45, 119, 314n163 Investing in Health, 279 See also World Bank isolation See public health; quarantine Jalapa, Veracruz, 69 Jalisco (Guadalajara), 42, 43, 212t, 292t Jamaica, 63, 73, 91, 258t Jara, Heriberto, 94, 95 Johns Hopkins University See schools of public health Juárez, Benito, 36 Kapelusz-Poppi, Ana Maria, 342n5 Karl, Barry, 23 Katz, Friedrich, 309n106 Katz, Stanley, 23 Kellogg Foundation, 32 Kelly, Isabel, 167, 171, 339n191 Klaus, 336n152 Knight, Alan, 343n27 Koch, Robert, 5–6, 251 Kohler, Robert, 22, 197 “La Coordinación de los Servicios Sanitarios Federales y Locales como Factor de Progreso Higiénico en México.” See Bustamante labor militancy, 16, 17, 173, 175–76, 181, 326n146, 341n230; and Communist Party, 69, 97–98; and DSP, 227–29; unions, 189, 223; in Veracruz, 52–53, 58, 68–69, 81, 94–95; worker confederations, 68–69, 176, 181 See also communism; CROM; peasants laborers See Cárdenas; labor militancy; Mexico Lambert, Robert, 30–31, 78, 214, 306n60 land reform See Cárdenas; Mexico larvicides See malaria; yellow fever Lathrop, Julia, 152 latrines See hookworm Laura Spelman Rockefeller Memorial Fund, 21 League of Nations Health Organization (LNHO), 8, 32, 34, 121, 136, 268, 273, 274 See also Rajchman Lenin, Vladimir, 234, 235f León, Alberto, 201, 202, 230, 348n134 Lewis, Oscar, 85, 324n93, 339n191 Liceaga, Eduardo, 4, 45, 53, 55, 314n163 licensing See midwives; nurses; physicians life expectancy, 38 See also mortality; vital statistics Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, 32, 307n67 living conditions See Mexico; public health in Mexico local health units See DSP; health units; IHD London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, 31, 307n67 www.Ebook777.com Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com López, Juan, 74, 94, 112 Ludlow massacre, 22–23 Lunacharskii, Anatolii, 352n219 Lyster, Theodore, 51–52, 53, 55–56, 59 Madero, Francisco, 39 magnesium sulphate See hookworm malaria, 27, 32, 46, 72, 109, 131, 133, 137, 190, 194, 276–77, 279; DDT, 27, 171, 256–57, 273, 276, 360n94; health units, 145, 253; larvicides/Paris green, 27, 253; Mexican national campaign, 254, 256, 360n92; in Morelos, 147, 255–57, 360n86; mosquito control measures, 27, 254, 256; and oil companies, 222; research and experiments, 2, 27, 147t, 254, 255f, 256–57; and RF in Mexico, 14, 147, 201, 244–45t, 248, 249, 253–57, 255f; and rice-growing, 254–55; survey, 359n72; treatment (quinine), 27, 254 See also Brazil; hookworm; IHB; Sardinia; WHO Malaysia, 167 Malda, Gabriel, 49f, 51, 53, 55, 57, 62, 138f, 318n227 malnutrition See nutrition Malo Juvera, Felipe, 223, 291t, 360n94 Man at the Crossroads, 234–35, 235f Manderson, Lenore, 167 Manuell, Ricardo, 101 See also hookworm Martínez Báez, Manuel, 231–32, 312n139 Mason, Max, 180 mass treatment See hookworm master’s of public health See public health education maternal and child health, 12, 131, 146, 147, 149, 150, 152–57, 190, 200, 209f, 308n84, 336n149, 336n151–52, 339n189, 345n76, 366n55 See also child health and welfare; infant mortality; midwives; nurses; obstetrics; women ❧ index 423 Maximato See Calles Maximilian, Ferdinand, 36 Maya, 43, 153, 169 See also traditional healing Mazatlán, Sinaloa, 45, 53, 139 Mazzotti, Luis, 231, 292t measles, 194, 280 See also respiratory diseases Medellín Ostos, Roberto, 103 medical education, 42–43, 349n162; Flexnerian reforms, 29–30, 306n60, 306n63; French influence in Mexico, 12, 30, 42–43, 201, 215, 312n137; German influence in Mexico, 12, 42; history, 42–43; in Latin America, 30, 31, 42; RF and Mexican medical research, 214–15; RF sponsorship in US, 29–30; São Paulo faculty of medicine, 30 See also DSP; National University of Mexico; nicoltas; physicians; public health education Melo, Gastón, 174 meningitis outbreak, 170, 353–54n249 See also epidemics; respiratory diseases mestizos See Mexico Mexican Academy of Medicine, 42, 101, 102, 144 Mexican Agricultural Program (MAP), 34, 241–43, 356n21, 357n24 Mexican American War, 36 Mexican Constitution of 1857, 36, 44 Mexican Constitution of 1917, 40, 46, 47, 153, 175, 215, 247; Article 27, 40–41; Article 73, 41 Mexican Military Medical Corps, 51, 53, 56 Mexican Revolution, 3, 11, 34, 38–41, 45, 175, 300n27, 310n115; caudillos, 39–40; foreign interference in, 39–40, 316n198; origins, 38–39; population loss, 39, 46; public health, 40–41, 240; warfare, 39–40, 52 Mexican School of Public Health See schools of public health www.Ebook777.com Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com 424 ❧ index Mexico: anticlericalism, 126; budget/treasury, 108, 126–27, 139t, 343n31; debt and finances, 36, 37, 126–28, 316n197; diplomatic/ political relations with US, 3, 36, 46, 117, 126, 128, 226, 262; elites, 16, 34, 37, 39, 40, 52, 69, 92, 173; foreign investment in/trade, 36, 39, 40, 51, 52, 67–68, 309n101; French occupation of, 36; history of, 34–41; industrial development, 16, 36, 128, 177–78; intellectuals in, 16, 34, 36–37; land reform, 52, 81, 92, 93, 173, 178, 181, 215, 218, 342n5; land seizures, 37, 39; local and state health activities, 1, 11–12, 119–20, 125; map of, 35f; military, 36, 52, 56, 126; modernization and statebuilding, 4, 15, 36–37, 96, 102, 115, 155, 173, 175, 181, 196, 224, 237, 238, 240; perceptions of US, 4, 34, 48, 50, 51, 59, 60, 74, 95, 105, 171, 179, 240, 258–59; scientific exchange to Japan, 312n138; social conditions, 34–35, 37–38, 39, 40, 92, 124, 178, 207, 209; social policy, 36, 37, 39, 40, 173; social structure/social class, 34, 36, 37, 38, 39–40, 42, 43, 45, 72, 99, 113, 150, 151, 154, 161–62, 167, 171, 173, 224, 237–38; importance of sovereignty to, 36, 39, 40, 48, 137, 142, 143, 145, 262; and USSR, 179; and views of RF, 2–3, 239–41, 263–64 See also Bucareli Street agreements; científicos; Cristero rebellion; DSP; ejidos; labor militancy; Mexican Revolution; peasants; PNR; Porfiriato; public health in Mexico; RF; Spain; US; and names of individual presidents; and names of individual states Mexico City, 39, 41, 42, 43; health conditions, 38; public health organization in, 44, 155, 211, 310n110; sanitation, 38 Michoacán, 183, 216, 220 midwives, 42, 43, 324n93, 339n191, 339n198, 340n202; beliefs and practices, 163–65, 167; blamed and critiqued by health units, 162–63, 166–67; and health units, 150–51, 162–67; licensing, 166, 264, 340n200; parteras, 42, 162; temazcalli (steambaths), use of, 164, 339n192; training, 2, 150, 152, 162–66, 163f, 164f, 165f, 264 milk supply/milk hygiene, 44, 121, 133, 152, 190 See also public health Minatitlán, Veracruz See health unit in Minatitlán-Puerto México; health units mines/mining, 126; gold, silver, 36, 77 Miranda, Francisco de P., 117–18, 138f missionaries, 267 See also international health Mississippi, 27, 121, 185; health manuals, 165; training stations, 206 Monroe Doctrine, 48 Morelos, 146, 170, 324n93, 355n277; and tourism, 256; unrest in, 183, 256, 341n230 See also health units; health units in Morelos; labor militancy; malaria; peasants; Zapata Morones, Luis, 81, 127 Morrow, Dwight, 126, 128 mortality rates, 37–38, 38t, 41, 109, 251–52, 254, 255, 256, 323n72, 360n86 See also epidemics; infant mortality; malaria; vital statistics; yellow fever mosquitoes See Aedes aegypti; Anopheles; malaria; yellow fever Mozambique, 279 National Baptist Education Society, 17 National (Autonomous) University of Mexico, Faculty of Medicine, 42, 220 See also DSP; medical education; physicians Navarro, Vicente, 362n5 Necator Americanus See hookworm New Orleans, 53 www.Ebook777.com Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com New York City health department, 152, 198, 204, 211 New York Times, 45 Nicaragua See Central America nicolaítas, 216, 231 See also Arreguín Vélez; Díaz Barriga; Martínez Báez Nicolle, Charles, 258–59 Noguchi, Hideyo, 56–57, 59, 239, 245t, 318n228 See also yellow fever; yellow fever campaign in Mexico North American Review, 17 North Carolina, 89, 121, 204 Nuevo León, 212t, 216, 231 nurses, 264, 345n78; and health units, 156–62; IHD on quality and training of Mexico’s, 161, 210–11, 349n167; licensing, 169; public health and visiting, 145, 150, 151, 152, 154, 156–61, 157f, 170, 190, 335n146; schools of nursing, 31, 152, 166, 210, 211; training and fellowships, 2, 31, 156, 161, 196, 198, 210–12, 210t, 212t, 213f, 291t; University of Toronto School of Nursing, 198, 204, 211, 291t See also Brazil; Castor; Coronel; public health education; school of public health nutrition, 33, 38, 106, 182, 190, 211, 243, 245t, 251 See also Deeks; hookworm Oaxaca, 2, 77, 324n93 Obregón, Alvaro, 51–52, 57, 58, 60, 64, 68, 69, 73–74, 127, 252, 262, 316n194, 331n43, 344n31 obstetrics/gynecological care, 159, 166, 169 See also maternal and child health; midwives Ocaranza, Fernando, 49f, 138f occupational health See DSP; hookworm campaign in Mexico; public health Office International d’Hygiène Publique (International Office of Public Hygiene, OIHP), 8, 32, 45, 232, 268, 273 See also international health; LNHO ❧ index 425 oil/oil companies, 3, 17, 36, 40–41, 57, 68, 126, 130, 176, 222, 283, 353n237, 353n240; Associated Oil Managers, 56; El Aguila, 94, 222, 353n237; La Huasteca, 94; nationalization of, 3, 14, 223–24, 225–26, 237, 246; production, 52; Standard Oil, 20, 38, 51, 52, 225, 237, 239, 322n35, 354n254 onchocerciasis, 231, 252–53, 359n61 Organization of American States See International Conference of American States Ornelas, Adán, 231, 291t Ortíz Mariotte, Carlos, 292t, 360n94 Ortíz Rubio, Pascual, 127 Osorio, José J., 199, 292t outhouses See hookworm OXFAM, 281 Pachuca See Hidalgo Palace of Fine Arts (Palacio de Bellas Artes), 190, 192f, 194–95, 195f, 235f Palmer, Steven, 323n55 Pan American Child Congresses, 154 See also child health and welfare; puericulture; women Pan American Health Organization (PAHO) See Pan American Sanitary Bureau Pan American Sanitary Bureau (PASB), 8, 12, 32, 34, 45, 119, 154, 171, 249, 253, 268, 273–74 See also international health; WHO Panama/Panama Canal, 27, 32, 33 Pani, Alberto, 38, 310n110 parasitology, 5, 15, 25, 30 See also malaria Paris green See malaria; yellow fever Parran, Thomas, 194, 249 Partido de la Revolución Mexicana (Party of the Mexican Revolution, PRM), 224 Partido Nacional Revolucionario (National Revolutionary Party, PNR), 127, 176, 224, 331n45 www.Ebook777.com Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com 426 ❧ index Pasteur, 43 Pasteur, Louis, 5, 44 Pasteur Institute See Institut Pasteur Payne, George, 231, 330n19, 360n94 Pearce, Richard, 30 peasants, 36, 37, 39, 40, 52–53, 68–69, 81, 83–84, 89–91, 92, 142, 144, 173, 175–76, 194, 215–16, 219, 264–65, 342n5; Confederation of Mexican Peasants, 176, 181 See also ejidos; labor militancy; Mexico Peking Union Medical College See China Medical Board Peña, Bernardo, 88, 98 penicillin, 273, 274 See also public health “peons.” See hookworm campaign in Mexico; peasants; RF People’s Health Movement, 281, 283 Pershing, John, 40 Peru, 28 philanthropy, 2, 7, 8–9, 12, 15, 22; and capitalism/business, 8, 17, 23, 246–47, 308n75; and government, 22, 34, 145; and international health, 9–10, 25, 32, 48, 237, 240, 262, 282; and medical education, 29; replacing charity, 17 See also Carnegie; RF; Rockefeller Sr Philippines, 8, 27, 32, 50 physicians (allopathic): education and training, 2, 29–31, 42, 198; elites, 12, 16, 31, 42–43, 101, 199; French influence on, 30, 42–43, 100, 155; and licensing, 44, 169–70; and midwives, 43, 162–67; and oil nationalization, 223; and pregnancy/childbirth, 156–59; professional power, 4, 12, 42, 60, 102; reception of RF and IHB/D, 16, 60, 75–76, 100, 101, 112, 168, 169–70, 240–41, 263–64; US influence on, 42 See also DSP; health units; hookworm campaign in Mexico; IHB; IHD; maternal and child health; medical education; obstetrics; public health education; social medicine; traditional healers; yellow fever Pinard, Adolphe, 153, 155 See also puericulture plague See epidemics Plan de Ayala, 39 plumbing See sanitation Point IV plan See Truman; US Department of State polio, 280 political movements See Calles; Cárdenas; labor militancy; Mexico; peasants; PNR; PRM population control See international health; women Porfiriato, 36–39, 43, 44, 46, 118 See also Díaz, Porfirio Portes Gil, Emilio, 127 positivism, positivists See científicos, Porfiriato pregnancy/prenatal care See health units; maternal and child health; midwives; nurses; obstetrics; puericulture; women primary health care See WHO privies See hookworm Progressive Era, 7, 17, 20, 197, 301n1 prostitutes, 43, 44, 119, 185 Protomedicato/health boards, 6, 42 See also Superior Council of Public Health Providence, Rhode Island, 121, 204, 329n16 Pruneda, Alfonso, 49f, 50, 51, 138f, 212, 235, 237; biography, 66–67, 68f; and hookworm campaign, 62, 64, 70, 75, 92, 93, 103 public health: bureaucratization/ institutionalization, 6–7, 9–10, 11, 15; dental hygiene, 131, 158; development in Latin America, 6, 31; development in the US, 7, 121, 152, 204–5, 329n16; development in the USSR, 6, 121; economic benefits of, 5, 6, 25, 50, 63; in Europe, 5–6, 22, 25, 34, 152–54; and experts/expertise/ professionals, 5, 6, 7, 15, 34, 46, www.Ebook777.com Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com 162, 263; ideologies, 6, 9, 25, 33, 43; industrial/business interests, 5, 6, 9, 32–33, 68; and laboratoryorientation, 6, 25, 30, 31, 44, 128–29, 198, 204, 207, 231; measures, 5, 7, 25, 27, 42, 43, 218; vs medicine, 29–30, 92; and municipal government/ urbanization, 5, 7, 34, 38, 42, 43–44, 45; scientific model of, 5–6, 9, 10, 15, 25, 34, 101, 118, 168, 202, 204, 250, 263; and social movements, 5, 6, 7, 22, 143; and social reformers, 5, 152, 161–62; social vs technical orientation 6, 9, 25–26, 124, 143, 167, 195, 202, 250, 251, 261, 270, 272–74, 276, 278, 279, 282, 283; and the state, 5–7, 15, 22, 38, 42, 45, 46, 118–19, 173; and voluntarism, 6, 7, 22, 120, 152; and worker productivity, 5, 16, 25, 32, 33, 63, 68, 265 See also bacteriology; DSP; engineers; epidemics; IHB; IHD; international health; nurses; parasitology; physicians; public health education; RF; sanitation; schools of public health; training stations; vital statistics; women public health education and professionalization, 2, 175, 196–215, 276; curricula and degrees, 29–30, 105, 198, 199, 200–202, 212–13, 214; influence of RF programs, 199–204, 211–12, 215, 227, 229, 233, 348n126, 355n291, 362n6; in Mexico, 31, 205, 212–14, 213f; RF fellowships, 2, 9, 11, 29, 30–31, 105, 196–204, 200f, 203t, 233, 239, 245t, 258t, 272, 289–93t, 347n112, 348n126, 355n291, 362n117; RF and founding of graduate public health education, 29, 197, 307n67; RF spending in Mexico on, 202, 207, 210, 244–45t, 258t; RF tours to US/Canada by DSP officials, ❧ index 427 2, 196–97, 204–5, 245t, 329n16; RF-DSP training stations, 31, 161, 168, 196, 205–12, 206f, 209f, 210t, 212t, 239 See also engineers; IHB; IHD; nurses; physicians; RF; Rose; schools of public health; training stations public health in Mexico: diseases, epidemics, and living conditions, 34, 35, 37–38, 41, 44, 45, 69, 72, 207; history of, 11, 34–35, 41–47, 118–19, 311n131, 313n152, 317n215; influence in Latin America, 144, 194; influences from Europe, 12, 42, 43–44, 116, 152, 201–2, 240, 261, 312n139; international health involvement (pre-DSP), 45–46; and poverty, 84, 89, 92, 123, 156, 189, 209; pre-Columbian influences, 41, 43, 153; research, 101, 153, 181, 190, 194, 201, 231–32, 252; in rural areas, 43–44, 67, 108, 115, 118, 143, 216–18, 220; and US values, 95, 100, 102, 105; views of foreign observers, 45, 47, 50, 51, 315n173, 315n174, 315–16n181 See also DSP; child health and welfare; epidemics; health units; hookworm; IHB; IHD; infant mortality; Liceaga; malaria; maternal and child health; mortality rates; nurses; physicians; public health; public health education; RF; Sanitary Codes; Superior Council of Public Health; traditional healers; yellow fever Puebla, 146 puericulture, 12, 43, 153, 155 See also child health and welfare; maternal and child health Puerto México See health unit in Minatitlán-Puerto México; health units Puerto Rico, 8, 19, 27, 73, 121, 330n19 purgatives See hookworm quarantine and isolation, 5, 6, 43, 45, 48, 53, 150 See also epidemics; international health; public health www.Ebook777.com Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com 428 ❧ index Querétaro, 40, 139, 146, 173 Quintana Roo, 53, 252 rabies, 44, 46, 133 railroads, 17, 36, 37, 39 Rajchman, Ludwik, 268, 274 Read, Florence, 79–80 Red Cross, 48, 50, 211 Reed, Walter, 27 research See hookworm; malaria; physicians; public health in Mexico; RF; yellow fever respiratory diseases, 38, 41, 100, 190 See also tuberculosis Revista Médica Veracruzana, 75 Rivera, Diego, 232, 234, 235f, 237–38 robber barons, 17 Rockefeller Center, 234, 235f, 237–38 Rockefeller family, 15, 21, 22, 234, 235, 238, 322n35 Rockefeller Foundation (RF), 9–11, 15–16; accountability, 9, 33, 261, 272, 281; administrators and managers, 10, 15, 22; budget and finances, 18, 20–21, 128, 242; Cárdenas and Six-Year Plan, reaction to, 179–81, 183; comparisons of Mexico and Brazil, 104, 186, 198, 259; comparisons of Mexico and US South/rural regions, 3, 121, 140, 161, 168, 185, 189, 259; comparisons of Mexico and USSR, 3, 52, 58, 232, 323n61; criticism of in US, 19, 23; entry to Mexico, 13, 15, 16, 47–48, 50–52; evaluation/ reception of, 10–12, 51, 112, 132, 168, 299n22; founding of, 9, 17–18, 20–23; goals/philosophy/values, 9–10, 25–26, 33, 115, 124, 143, 261, 272–73, 270t, 365n52; international reach and strategy, 2, 9, 21, 26, 28, 30–31, 32, 33–34, 150, 197–98, 267–68; and Latin America and the Caribbean, 2–3, 21, 24, 30–31, 48, 50, 249, 258t, 259, 307n70; model of public health, 2, 9, 10, 13–14, 16, 242, 250, 265; motto and mission, 2, 9, 10, 20, 238, 240; and oil nationalization, 224–25, 227; organization of, 9, 10–11, 21, 29–30, 306n59; principles of international health, 269–73, 270t; and relationship with Mexico, vi, 1–4, 10, 11–12, 15–16, 47–48, 51–53, 59–60, 95–96, 108–9, 113, 115–18, 125, 172–74, 175, 179, 180–81, 196, 224, 232–33, 235, 237–38, 239–41, 242–43, 250, 257, 259–61, 263, 267–68; and Rockefeller business interests, 20, 21, 222, 225; and scientific philanthropy, 17–18, 238; support for science and medicine, 18, 21, 23, 25, 28, 241, 246; trustees and board, 9, 15, 20, 21, 33; and US foreign policy, 15, 24, 25, 32, 33–34, 48, 105, 198, 226, 246–47, 259; and US State Department, 24, 33–34, 50–51, 246, 252, 263 See also China Medical Board; DSP; General Education Board; Harrar; health units; hookworm campaign in Mexico; IHB; IHD; international health; International Health Commission; International Education Board; Mexican Agricultural Program; Mason; philanthropy; public health education; Rockefeller, Jr.; Rose; Russell, Frederick; Sawyer; schools of public health; Strode; Vincent; yellow fever campaign in Mexico; Yellow Fever Commission Rockefeller Foundation Division of Medical Education, 21, 30, 214–15, 306n59; surveys of Latin American medical schools 30, 214 See also Gregg; Lambert; medical education; Pearce Rockefeller Foundation Division of Medicine and Public Health, 30, 66, 249, 306n59 Rockefeller Foundation International Health Board See International Health Board www.Ebook777.com Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com Rockefeller Foundation International Health Division See International Health Division Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research, 18, 232 Rockefeller, John D Jr., 18, 21, 23, 234, 235f Rockefeller, John D Sr., 17–18, 21, 26, 240, 302n4; biography, 17, 238; business interests, 17, 20, 22, 225, 316n198; and Cárdenas compared, 238–39; plaque honoring in Mexico, 194–95, 235, 236f, 237, 238 See also oil; RF Rockefeller, Nelson, 228, 234, 243 See also Rivera; US Department of State Rockefeller Sanitary Commission for the Eradication of Hookworm, 18–20, 29, 83, 97, 197, 303n11 See also Gates, Frederick; Rockefeller Sr.; Rose; Stiles Rodríguez, Abelardo, 127 Rodríguez, José María, 46, 47f, 50, 51, 118 Roosevelt, Franklin D, 204, 34, 176, 226, 242, 243 See also “Good Neighbor” policy; oil; US Department of State Rose, Wickliffe, 21, 22, 23f, 332n53; biography, 22; and IHB, 24–26, 27–28, 128; and Mexico, 48, 50, 51, 64; public health education, 29, 197–98, 214; role of hookworm, 25–26, 113, 266; and Rockefeller Sanitary Commission, 18–19; and yellow fever, 27–28 Rosenau, Milton, 202 Rotary International, 280 rural health See DSP; health units; IHB; IHD; LNHO; RF Russell, Frederick, 65f, 168; biography, 22; and Carr, 70–71, 73, 106–7, 123; cooperative health units, 123; hookworm campaign, 64, 70–71, 87, 91, 95, 106–7, 109; IHD orientation, 128–29; learning from Mexico, 64, 115; and RF fellowships, 199, ❧ index 429 355n291; visits to/views of Mexico, vi, 75, 93, 94–96, 102, 103, 105, 200, 241; and Warren 81, 87, 91, 94–95, 103, 105, 107, 251 See also IHB; IHD; RF Russell, Paul, 273 Russia See USSR San Andrés Tuxtla, Veracruz, 83–84, 97–98 Sánchez, Guadalupe, 69, 73–74 Sand, René, 274 Sanitary Codes, 12; Mexico (1891), 38, 43, 44; Mexico (1902), 118; Mexico (1926), 12, 100, 119–20, 127, 141; Mexico (1934), 144, 173, 190; PASB (1924), 8, 119 sanitary units See health units sanitation, 19, 25, 26, 28, 38, 41, 42, 44, 45, 46, 49–50, 55, 59, 117, 121, 133, 142, 143, 150, 178, 190, 195–96, 204, 219, 226, 230, 243, 246, 278 See also hookworm; public health; public health in Mexico São Paulo See medical education; schools of public health Sardinia, Italy, 27, 254 Sawyer, Wilbur, 22, 130, 252, 272, 355n287 schoolchildren/school health, 44, 86f, 133, 155, 158, 335n 134, 338n175 See also DSP; health units; hookworm; public health schools of public health, 9, 29–30, 204; in Europe, 31; Johns Hopkins, 1, 29–30, 124, 137, 142, 145, 197, 198, 199, 204, 211, 232, 289–93t, 330n19, 347n106, 362n6; Harvard, 29–30, 197, 198, 289–93t; in Latin America, 31; Mexican School of Public Health, 67, 202, 212–14, 228, 232, 247–48; in North America, 29; and RF, 29–31; University of São Paulo, 31; University of Toronto, 29, 204 See also public health education; RF; Rose Secretaría de Educación Pública See Vasconcelos www.Ebook777.com Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com 430 ❧ index Secretaría de Salubridad y Asistencia (Secretariat of Health and Welfare, SSA), 10, 108, 247–48 sewage See sanitation sharecroppers, tenant, 16, 37, 40 See also peasants; Mexico Sheffield, James, 33–34 Sheppard-Towner Act, 152, 336n149 See also maternal and child health; women shoe-wearing See hookworm; hookworm campaign in Mexico Silva, Rafael, 49f, 138f, 140, 141f, 142, 143, 146, 149, 258 See also Bustamante; DSP Siurob, José: biography, 181; and DSP priorities/image, 181–83, 187, 193f, 210, 216, 345n76, 345n77; and RF/IHD, 186, 188f, 203, 228, 236f, 237, 252, 263; RF tour to North America, 204–5 See also DSP; health units; IHD; RF Six-Year Plan See Cárdenas; DSP smallpox, 35, 38, 41, 46, 118, 130; vaccination, 19, 43, 44, 46, 119, 133, 150, 159, 170, 181, 190, 229, 230f, 315n181; WHO campaign, 277–78, 283 Smillie, Wilson G., 71, 78, 92, 322n41, 322n47 See also hookworm; hookworm campaign in Mexico; RF Smith, Hugh, 246, 247 Soberón y Parra, Galo, 254 See also malaria social medicine, 144, 175, 216, 261, 272, 274, 352n218 social reform See Progressive Era; public health; women social security See IMSS social welfare See child health and welfare; Mexico; public health; US; women Solórzano, Armando, 53, 316n195 Solórzano Morfín, Juan, 76f, 78, 81, 86, 88, 92, 93; biography, 75; critique of hookworm campaign, 98, 101–2, 107, 326n160 See also hookworm campaign in Mexico Sonora, 51, 194 Soper, Frederick, 27, 273–74, 276, 363n14 See also IHD; malaria; PASB; RF; yellow fever; WHO Soviet Union See USSR Spain, 121, 136, 202; colonialism in Mexico, 6, 35–36, 37, 40, 41–42, 178; Spanish American War, 8; Spanish Civil War, 179 See also colonialism and international health Special Commission for the Yellow Fever Campaign See yellow fever campaign in Mexico Sri Lanka See Ceylon Stalin, Joseph, 177 Štampar, Andrija, 274 Standard Oil See oil; RF; Rockefeller Sr Stepan, Nancy, 154 Stern, Alexandra, 155 Stiles, Charles Wardell, 18, 19, 20, 303n9 Stoll, Norman, 71 See also hookworm Strode, George, 22, 221, 248, 355n291, 360n94 Superior Council of Public Health, 44–45, 46, 50, 53, 314n163, 314n167 See also Liceaga; public health in Mexico Supervised District See Morelos syphilis See venereal diseases Tabasco, 71, 77, 95 Tampico, Tamaulipas, 50, 53, 56, 59, 71, 74, 315n177 teachers, 143, 144, 151, 154, 158, 162, 169, 178, 213, 219, 326n146 See also DSP; education Tejeda, Adalberto, 58, 68–69, 74, 342n5, 351n198 Tennant, Mary, 152, 210–11 Tennessee, 204, 298n17 Tenochtitlán, 41 Texcoco, Lake, 41 Tierra Blanca, Veracruz See health units; health units in Veracruz; Veracruz www.Ebook777.com Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com Tlaxcala, 71, 76–77, 78, 183, 315n169, 323n72, 349n158 See also hookworm campaign in Mexico traditional healers, 16, 42, 43, 83, 162, 168, 261, 264, 339n186; botanical doctors, 194, 313n146; curanderos, 83, 85, 168–71, 324n93; homeopaths, 42; and physician social service, 216, 220, 341n229; resistance to IHD-DSP efforts, 169–70, 171–72, 174, 264 See also midwives traditional healing (beliefs and practices), 43, 83, 85, 164, 167, 169, 171, 313n146, 324n93, 341n211, 341n212; European, 42; GrecoRoman, 42, 160; Ixbut, 153; preColumbian influences, 12, 41, 43 training stations, 31, 161, 168 186, 196, 205–12, 214, 222, 239; administration and funding, 147t, 207, 210, 244–45t; Cuernavaca, 206, 206f, 210, 210t, 212t, 231; educational approach, 207–9; graduates, 210t, 212t; and Mexican School of Public Health, 213; Tacuba, 211, 212t, 228; Xochimilco, 207–11, 210t See also Bailey; Bustamante; DSP; Hernández Lira; malaria; public health education tropical health/medicine/disease, 5, 27–28, 33, 42–43, 45, 46, 116, 302n8, 307n67, 348n134 See also hookworm; imperialism; international health; ISET; public health; yellow fever Trotsky, Leon, 179 Truman, Harry S., 249, 357n32 tuberculosis, 26, 31, 38, 44, 101, 117, 133, 137, 190, 194, 231, 271, 279, 353n240; lack of RF campaign against, 251–52, 257 Túxpam, Veracruz, 56, 57–58, 319n240 See also yellow fever campaign in Mexico ❧ index 431 Tuxtepec, Veracruz See health units; health units in Veracruz; Veracruz; yellow fever campaign in Mexico typhoid/typhoid vaccination, 90, 119, 128, 133, 145, 159, 190, 196, 199, 207 typhus, 31, 35, 38, 46, 48, 50, 171, 256, 258, 273, 315n174, 315n177 UNAM See National University of Mexico uncinariasis See hookworm UNICEF, 278 unions See labor militancy; peasants United Fruit Company, 28, 32–33, 308n82 See also Deeks United Kingdom See Great Britain United Nations, 249, 281; Expanded Program in Technical Assistance (PEAT), 275; UNRRA, 27 United States: comparisons of Mexico and the USSR, 128, 179; diplomatic/economic/political relations with Mexico, 3, 15, 33, 36, 50, 60, 74, 126, 128, 176, 226, 237, 316n197, 322n35; and international health, 32–34, 243, 246–47, 249–50, 281–82, 308n82; invasions of Mexico, 3–4, 39–40, 48, 316n198; and Latin America, 8, 28, 32–33, 34, 198, 199, 229, 243, 263; military and public health interests, 7, 27, 48, 50, 129, 357n31, 360n94; nineteenth-century capitalism in, 17; perceptions of health in Mexico as threat to US, 45, 47, 50, 51, 315n174, 315–16n181; public health organization, 7, 298n17; social conditions and unrest in, 16, 17, 19, 22–23; southern/rural regions, 18–20, 27, 29, 83, 97, 121, 166, 298n17 See also Bucareli Street agreements; Committee of Cultural Relations; “Good Neighbor” policy; Mexico; RF; Rockefeller Sanitary Commission; US Department of State; and individual cities and states; and names of individual presidents www.Ebook777.com Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com 432 ❧ index United States Army Board, 32 United States Children’s Bureau, 152 United States Department of Agriculture, 256–57 United States Department of State, 24, 33, 34, 50, 51, 74, 243, 246, 252, 263; Institute of Inter-American Affairs (IIAA), 242, 243, 246–47, 249, 263, 357n27; and oil dispute with Mexico, 64, 226, 246, 354n261; Point IV plan, 249–50, 357n32 See also Bucareli Street agreements; Morrow United States Marine and Hospital Service, 47–48, 315n177 See also USPHS United States-Mexico Border Public Health Association, 357n31 United States National Board of Health, United States Public Health Service (USPHS), 8, 32, 48, 59, 141, 204, 308n82; Public Health Reports, 315n175 United States State Department See United States Department of State Universidad Michoacana, 216 University of Chicago, 17 University of Toronto See nurses, schools of public health Uruguay, 8, 154 USSR: and Mexican health and social policy, 12, 116, 177, 202, 329n227, 352n219; public health organization, 6, 121, 330n18; and Rockefeller Foundation, 21, 52; and WHO, 274, 277, 278 See also Cárdenas; communism; public health; RF vaccination See international health; public health; smallpox Varela, Gerardo, 204, 289t Vargas, Luis, 201, 256, 265, 290t, 348n134 Vasconcelos, José, 69, 178, 237, 322n34 Vaughan, Mary Kay, 338n182 Vaughn, Emmett, 58, 70–71, 74–75, 90 See also hookworm campaign in Mexico; yellow fever campaign in Mexico venereal diseases, 38, 100, 133, 120, 159, 181, 185, 190, 229, 251 See also public health; public health in Mexico Venezuela, 31, 211, 258t, 261, 283 See also Barrio Adentro Veracruz, 222, 251, 322n34, 324n93; caudillos and political unrest, 39, 52, 58, 68–69, 73–75, 94–96, 263, 265; history of public health in, 42, 44, 136, 313n150, 317n215; hookworm campaign in, 77–99, 115; malaria research in, 253, 257; US occupation of, 4, 39–40, 48, 50, 237; yellow fever campaign in, 51–60 See also Alvarado; Bustamante; Carr; Córdoba; epidemics; Jara; health units; hookworm campaign in Mexico; labor militancy; malaria; Obregón; oil; peasants; San Andrés Tuxtla; Tejeda; traditional healers; Túxpam; Vaughn; Warren; yellow fever campaign in Mexico Villa, Pancho, 39–40 Villanueva, Aquilino, 137, 138f Vincent, George, 33–34, 50, 65 Viniegra, Julio, 149, 150, 206f, 334n133 vital statistics, 12, 15, 32, 38, 44, 133, 149–50, 159, 209, 230, 329n16 See also health units; mortality; public health; public health in Mexico von Pettenkofer, Max, Wallace, Henry, 225, 242 Warren, Andrew, 67f, 249, 251, 265; assessment of hookworm campaign, 113; biography, 66; and Calles, 93, 103–5; and DSP, 81, 86, 101, 103, 105, 115; hookworm treatment, 79–80, 81, 86–88; and IHB/RF home office, 79–80, 87–88, 91, 93; and latrine-building, 89, 91–92, 97; www.Ebook777.com Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com launch of hookworm campaign, 76–77; and tuberculosis in Veracruz, 251–52; and Veracruz unrest, 75, 80, 92, 93–95, 326n146; views on rural Mexicans, 76, 85, 87, 88, 89–92, 97 See also hookworm campaign in Mexico; IHB water supply See public health; sanitation Weaver, Warren, 242, 248f, 356n21 See also Mexican Agricultural Program Welch, William, 21, 29 West Indies See hookworm wet nurses, 44, 153 See also child health and welfare; maternal and child health White, Joseph, 55 Why Health is Important to US Foreign Policy, 282 Willis-Molloy salt-flotation technique, 71 See also hookworm Wilson, Woodrow, 39–40, 50, 237 women, 81, 151–56, 161–62, 174; birth control, 160; child-bearing and-rearing advice, 152, 156–65, 167, 338n170; eugenics/ puericulture, 154–55; feminism in Latin America, 153–54, 337n157, 337n162; -focused movements in Europe, 163–54, 336n152; -focused movements in Mexico, 153–55, 192; -focused movements in the US, 152, 336n149, 336n150; maternal roles, 150, 155, 158, 160, 167; maternalism and policymaking, 153–54, 155, 345n76, 336n150, 336n152; population health/control, 281, 366n55; as public health/social reformers, 5, 152, 154 See also health units; hookworm campaign in Mexico; maternal and child health; midwives; nurses; teachers; traditional healers World Bank, 279, 282 World Health Organization (WHO), 22, 32, 167, 249, 273–79, 283; Alma-Ata declaration and primary ❧ index 433 health care, 278–79, 280; Commission on Social Determinants of Health, 282; Global Malaria Eradication Campaign, 27, 257, 274, 276–77; Smallpox Eradication Campaign, 277–78; World Health Assembly, 201, 273, 274, 277, 283 See also PASB; UN World War I, 40, 251 See also international health; Mexico; US World War II, 34, 214, 226, 229, 242, 243, 246, 256 See also international health; Mexico; US Wyman, Walter, 45, 314n164 yaws, 274, 275 yellow fever, 305n48, 315n174, 317n215; description of disease, 27–28; key centers theory, 28; and migrants, 27, 57; RF campaigns in Latin America, 3, 28, 31, 50, 56; sylvan (“jungle” form), 28 See also Aedes aegypti; Brazil; Carter; epidemics; international health; Liceaga; RF; Yellow Fever Commission yellow fever campaign in Mexico (Special Commission for the Yellow Fever Campaign), 13, 51–60; agreement and selection of Veracruz as center of, 51–53, 322n35; antilarval vs sanitary focus, 55; approach and organization, 53; breeding sites, 55, 56, 59; budget and expenditures, 53, 55, 59, 65, 244–45t, 321n20; cases and deaths, 51, 57, 58, 59, 317n206; coercion, 55–56, 335n139; and DSP, 55, 56–57, 58–60; home inspections, 53, 54f, 55, 59, 57, 59; use of larvicidal fish, 53, 55, 56, 57; Noguchi vaccine, 56–57, 59, 239, 245t, 318n228; and Obregón, 51–52, 58, 60, 64, 316n194; and oil companies, 56, 222, 353n231; personnel, 53, 55; petroleum-spraying, 53, 55, 56, 57; popular resistance, 57–58; reception, 53–55, 57, 59; research, 59; www.Ebook777.com Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com 434 ❧ index yellow fever (continued) RF efforts to launch, 51–52 See also Brioso Vasconcelos; Carranza; Connor; Cross; DSP; Graham Casasús; IHB; Lyster; Obregón; Pruneda; RF; Túxpam; Veracruz; yellow fever; Yellow Fever Convention; Yucatán Yellow Fever Commission, 28 See also IHB Yellow Fever Convention, First (1921), 53, 59, 319n244 Yucatán, 53, 56, 59, 71, 153–54 Zapata, Emiliano, 39, 40, 146 Zimmerman telegram, 40 www.Ebook777.com ... Tunisia Kim Pelis Marriage of Convenience: Rockefeller International Health and Revolutionary Mexico Anne-Emanuelle Birn www.Ebook777.com Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com Marriage of Convenience Rockefeller... statistics; the training of professionals; the awakening of public health consciousness; the building of institutions; the application of these developments to the health of populations around the... Bernardo Gastélum, director of DSP 2.13 DSP organizational chart, 1928 2.14 Outside cover of DSP pamphlet, The Story of a Boy 2.15 Inside of DSP pamphlet, The Story of a Boy 2.16 Separate men’s