Facts on file encyclopedia of the enlightenment 1674 1809

Encyclopedia of the enlightenment REVISED EDITION Peter Hanns Reill University of California, Los Angeles Consulting Editor Ellen Judy Wilson Principal Author Encyclopedia of the Enlightenment, Revised Edition Copyright © 2004, 1996 by Book Builders Incorporated All rights reserved No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage or retrieval systems, without permission in writing from the publisher For information contact: Facts On File, Inc 132 West 31st Street New York NY 10001 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Wilson, Ellen Judy Encyclopedia of the Enlightenment / Peter Hanns Reill, consulting editor; Ellen Judy Wilson, principal author.—Rev ed p cm Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 0-8160-5335-9 Enlightenment—Encyclopedias Philosophy—Encyclopedias I Reill, Peter Hanns II Title B802.W48 2004 937.25'03—dc22 2003022973 Facts On File books are available at special discounts when purchased in bulk quantities for businesses, associations, institutions, or sales promotions Please call our Special Sales Department in New York at (212) 967-8800 or (800) 322-8755 You can find Facts On File on the World Wide Web at http://www.factsonfile.com Text design by Joan M Toro Cover design by Cathy Rincon Printed in the United States of America VB FOF 10 This book is printed on acid-free paper CONTENTS List of Illustrations iv Preface to the Revised Edition vii Introduction ix How to Use This Book xii Chronology xiv Entries A to Z Selected Bibliography 643 Index 647 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Royal palace at Versailles John Adams Jean Le Rond d’Alembert George III William and Mary 18th-century map of the stars Johann Sebastian Bach Jeremy Bentham William Blackstone Georges-Louis Leclerc, comte de Buffon Edmund Burke Domestic clothmaking Catherine II (the Great) Marquise du Châtelet Antoine and Marie-Anne Lavoisier, by David Alchemical-chemical lab Workers carrying and examining tea Bird beaks and feet Ships in front of East India Company warehouse Étienne Bonnot de Condillac Marie-Jean Caritat, marquis de Condorcet Grand orrery, by Rowley Residenztheater, Munich The Death of Socrates, by David “The Signing of the Declaration of Independence,” by Savage Madame du Deffand René Descartes Denis Diderot Coat of arms of the East India Company Engraving from Émile Page from the Encyclopédie Birds from the Encyclopédie iv 11 13 17 25 34 49 58 75 78 92 97 102 104 105 107 116 121 123 125 128 137 140 142 145 152 159 168 173 175 176 List of Illustrations Portrait/frontispiece of Equiano’s autobiography A Young Girl Reading, by Fragonard Benjamin Franklin Freemasons Louis XVI and the Paris mob Parisian women march to Versailles to demand the return of Louis XVI to Paris Mrs Garrick, by Gainsborough Engraving of Ferdinando Galiani Luigi Galvani “Ancient of Days” by Blake Salon of Madame Geoffrin, by Debucourt Edward Gibbon Johann Wolfgang von Goethe Henri, Abbé Gregoire Broken Eggs, by Greuze Drawing of the residence of governor-general of the West Indies, Guadeloupe Island Franỗois-Dominique Toussaint Louverture George Frederick Handel Johann Gottfried Herder Frontispiece for Leviathan Marriage la Mode: “The Marriage Settlement,” by Hogarth “Orgy at Rose Tavern,” by Hogarth Monument of George Washington David Hume Francis Hutcheson Political cartoon featuring John Bull Mineral technology, from the Encyclopédie Thomas Jefferson, by Peale The Hoshana Rabba festival Immanuel Kant Laocoon Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Mademoiselle de Lespinasse Lending library, Margate, 1700s Louis XIV Louis XVI The Death of Marat, by David Maria Theresa Queen Marie-Antoinette with Her Children, by Élizabeth Vigée Lebrun Frère Jacques performing surgery Moses Mendelssohn Victor de Riqueti, marquis de Mirabeau “John Law Crowned by Folly” Charles-Louis de Secondat, baron de la Brède et de Montesquieu 187 201 205 210 213 214 218 219 222 227 229 231 235 245 247 249 253 260 268 273 276 277 281 284 289 294 297 307 311 318 333 338 341 346 354 357 369 370 372 381 384 394 395 397 v vi List of Illustrations Montgolfier hot-air balloon Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, at age seven, with his father and sister Kassel Wilhelmshohe, by Eleazar Zeisig “The Horse America, throwing his Master” Formal garden, Hatfield House Pantheon, Rome Reflecting telescope Cover art, Gulliver’s Travels Scene from The Magic Flute Thomas Paine Monticello Frederick the Great Franỗois Quesnay Madame de Pompadour, portrait by Boucher Joseph Priestley 18th-century public sanitation projects Oxford Canal lock Interior of public health facility-hospital, Middlesex “Louis XVI and Malesherbes,” political cartoon Enslaved Africans Allegorical representation of America’s struggle for independence Mrs Siddons as the Tragic Muse Bill of Rights The Kaisersaal, Würzburg The Last Words of Jean-Jacques Rousseau, by Moreau le Jeune Friedrich Schiller, sketch by Professor Weitsch Benjamin Thompson, count Rumford La Reveuse, by Greuze Adam Smith British coffeehouse Mathematician Karl Gauss Illustration from Gulliver’s Travels “Agriculture, Ploughing,” engraving from the Encyclopédie Actor James Quin as Coriolanus, engraving The Capture of Carthage, by Tiepolo David Rittenhouse Stalking Turkey Anne-Robert-Jacques Turgot, baron de lAulne Giovan Battista Vico Voltaire (Franỗois-Marie Arouet) Engraving of Captain Cook in the Sandwich Islands Gilles, by Watteau “Portland vase,” by Wedgwood Christian Wolff Mary Wollstonecraft 401 406 409 415 417 421 424 430 435 442 444 451 454 465 471 474 475 483 484 491 506 508 510 517 525 535 538 547 558 560 573 581 585 588 591 597 598 601 612 619 621 626 628 635 636 PREFACE TO THE REVISED EDITION The revised edition of the Encyclopedia of the Enlightenment expands upon the first in many ways Inspired by the latest scholarship on the 18th century, it incorporates new themes and extends others It contains 140 new, updated, or expanded articles Among the new themes are two of major significance: the Enlightenment in a global context and what is sometimes called the “CounterEnlightenment,” that is, the interest in spiritualism and esotericism that emerged in the late 18th century A third theme, religion and the Enlightenment, received significant attention in the first edition but has been enriched in the present one by the inclusion of several new articles Contemporary scholarship increasingly has demonstrated that the Enlightenment was a global movement, affecting peoples across the Earth in ways positive and negative and also borrowing and transforming ideas from the cultures of lands “discovered” by Europeans Articles such as “colonialism,” “imperialism,” “Haitian Revolution,” “orientalism,” “Noble Savage,” “voyages of discovery,” “picturesque,” and many more chart the Enlightenment’s spread and impact as well as its reception of non-European cultural impulses Although there were many articles in the first edition that covered issues centering on spiritualism and esotericism, movements usually considered outside the pale of the Enlightenment, they are now complemented by articles on “hermeticism,” “magic,” and “secret societies.” The first edition challenged the traditional view of the Enlightenment as a body of thought opposed to religion, and recent research has underlined the fact that it was not There was indeed a “religious Enlightenment,” a movement toward tolerance within religious establishments, a renewal of belief based on the translation and application of Enlightenment concepts into religious terms, and a modernization of religious practice that gave great weight to individual experience New articles on “Gallicanism,” the “Great Awakening,” “millenarianism,” and the “Abbé Henri Gregoire,” among others, make this point clearer Through the addition of new articles, as well as the expansion of earlier ones, other central issues of the Enlightenment receive new emphasis in this edition The topic of political thought and action, an issue as vital to us today as it was to the men and women of the Enlightenment, now includes articles on “rights,” “justice,” “revolution,” “capital punishment,” “civil society,” “virtue,” and “honor,” which, when read with the crossreferenced articles, provide the reader with a thorough introduction to the central political questions we have inherited from the Enlightenment We also address the Enlightenment’s utilitarian side by introducing articles on “statistics,” “demography,” “public health,” “probability,” “free trade,” and “capitalism,” tools and concepts developed during the Enlightenment to assist in the practical goal of improving society Guided by contemporary scholarship, which has also looked at the Enlightenment as a broad movement engaging much of Europe’s and America’s educated elite, we also include articles on the “Republic of Letters,” “cosmopolitanism,” “politeness,” and the “Radical Enlightenment.” Finally, we have increased our coverage of the arts and sciences as well as the already strongly represented areas of gender and race The new volume thus remains faithful to our original goal of presenting the Enlightenment in all its wonderful depth and complexity Students will find that this volume can help them meet the demands of the recently formulated national standards for world history and American history Lay readers, in turn, will find in its vii viii Preface to the Revised Edition pages an opportunity to meet the many ways that the Enlightenment contributed to creating the world and the crucial issues of the 21st century In all, this second edition of the Encyclopedia of the Enlightenment offers the most comprehensive single-volume coverage of the Enlightenment in print —Peter Hanns Reill INTRODUCTION The Enlightenment is one of the crucial periods in Western history For both admirers and critics alike, it is considered the beginning of modernity, the time when the basic questions facing our world were posed, though not answered, at least adequately As such, the Enlightenment can be seen from two vantage points On the one hand, its shapers and followers undertook a far-ranging critique of the world they had inherited All aspects of traditional life—religion, political organization, social structure, science, human relations, human nature, history, economics, and the very grounds of human understanding—were subjected to intense scrutiny and investigation On the other hand, proponents of the Enlightenment attempted to establish adequate grounds for a clearer and surer understanding of these topics In short, the Enlightenment was characterized by the dynamic between criticism and innovation Both sides of this equation—the criticisms leveled and the solutions proposed—still shape much of our contemporary culture The traditional definitions of the Enlightenment have located the source for these activities in its supposed veneration of reason In fact, the Enlightenment is often called the “Age of Reason.” The title is misleading on two counts It seems to imply that the proponents of the Enlightenment were abstract thinkers, more concerned with utopian proposals than with practical solutions But more important, it suggests that reason as an activity was enshrined over everything else, that recognition of the passions, desires, and the senses was largely ignored Both assumptions are incorrect However one evaluates Enlightenment proposals, one basic strain runs through them all, namely a great disdain for abstract answers based upon empty logic Perhaps the worst epithet one could hurl at an opponent was that he or she was a victim of “the spirit of systems.” One need look at only three of the problems directly addressed—legal reform, economics, and political reform— to apprehend the pragmatic bent of Enlightenment thought Cesare Beccaria, in his epoch-making work On Crimes and Punishments, boldly launched an attack upon torture, the death penalty, and a judicial system that favored the wealthy and powerful over the poor and the weak; it inaugurated a widespread movement that led to the curtailment of torture, limited the death penalty, and instituted the beginnings of prison reform Economic reorganization became the central plank in the Physiocratic program and was revolutionized by Adam Smith in The Wealth of Nations, which laid out an economic program that still enjoys great popularity today Political theory found its direct application in the new constitutions established during the last third of the century, the most prominent being the American and French experiments; Jefferson’s Declaration of Independence and the writings of Madison, Jay, and Hamilton supporting the new federal constitution still reverberate as does the equally, if not more influential, Declaration of the Rights of Man penned during the French Revolution Most of the political assumptions Americans hold dear—separation of church and state, the balance of power, and protection of individual rights as embodied in the Bill of Rights—are direct, pragmatic applications of Enlightenment theory Not only was the Enlightenment critical of abstract reasoning and utopian solutions, it also laid the basis for the critique of reason by rediscovering the darker side of human nature—the passions, desires, and sensations Seventeenth-century assertions of the primacy of human reason as the defining feature of human existence (embodied by Descartes’s assertion “I think, therefore I am”) soon came under attack Feeling and sensation replaced reason as the grounds upon which all human understanding and activity were founded Beginning with the formulations of Locke progressing through those of Condillac, Hume, Reid, Rousseau, and culminating in Kant’s Critique of Reason, reason as an autonomous activity, inborn and universally distributed, was subjected to a thoroughgoing reevaluation In the process, new areas of human experience became the subject of reflection: They included the concept of the sublime in literature, attempts ix 656 Index Alexander Monro 396 John Turberville Needham 419 La Nouvelle Héloise 429 Peter I 450 picturesque 455–456 Republic of Letters 504 Joshua Reynolds 508 Rome 523 Adam Smith 557 Venice 610 Horace Walpole 623 Nicolaus Ludwig Zinzendor 642 Gravesande, Willem Jacob’s 88, 151, 192, 243, 428 Gray, Thomas 60, 226, 239, 243–244, 623, 629 Great Awakening 171–172, 244, 393, 504 great chain of being 244 Johann Friedrich Blumenbach 61–62 Charles Bonnet 65 Georges Cuvier 136 degeneration 146 Dictionnaire philosophique 158 Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz 339 microscope 391 John Turberville Needham 420 race 492 Emanuel Swedenborg 579 Gregoire, Henri Abbé 245, 245–246, 494 Greuze, Jean-Baptiste xv c, 160, 230, 246–247, 247, 276, 547 Grimm, Friedrich Melchior, baron von 126, 155, 157, 159, 184, 247, 266, 342, 373, 505 Grub Street 78, 238, 248, 313, 581 Guadeloupe 71, 248–249, 249, 254 Guardi, Francesco 89, 249–250, 591, 611 Gulliver’s Travels (Jonathan Swift) 250, 348, 430, 581 Gustav III of Sweden 230, 250–251, 374, 395, 578 H Hadley, John 252 Haitian Revolution xvii c, 71, 252–254, 253, 596–597 Hales, Stephen 57, 103, 254–255 Halle, University of 255 Johan Christoph Adelung Aufklärung 27 Carl Friedrich Bahrdt 37 biology 57 cameralism 87 Christian Garve 223 George Frederick Handel 259 Friedrich Hoffmann 275 medicine 380 Johann David Michaelis 390 Friedrich Christoph Oetinger 433 Pietism 457 Johann Christian Reil 500 Hermann Samuel Reimarus 501 Johann Salomo Semler 546 Philipp Jakob Spener 567 Georg Ernst Stahl 571 Johann Peter Süssmilch 577–578 Christian Thomasius 590 universities 607 University of Göttingen 240 Johann Joachim Winckelmann 634 Friedrich August Wolf 634 Christian Wolff 635 Nicolaus Ludwig Zinzendor 642 Haller, Albrecht von xv c, 255–256 Paul-Joseph Barthez 42 Johann Friedrich Blumenbach 61 Hermann Boerhaave 63 Théophile de Bordeu 66 Denis Diderot 159 epigenesis 184 generation 225 Julien Offray de La Mettrie 330 Carolus Linnaeus 345 medicine 380, 382 preformation theory 469 Republic of Letters 505 Johann Friedrich Schiller 535 scientific academies 541 Lazzaro Spallanzani 566 Switzerland 582 University of Göttingen 240 Robert Whytt 630 Johann Georg Zimmermann 641 Halley, Edmond xiv c, 26, 71, 149, 256, 425, 472, 527, 597 Hamann, Johann Georg 256–258, 267, 302, 386, 577 Hamilton, Alexander ix, 5, 258–259, 307, 308, 363, 399, 606, 625 Hamilton, Sir William 259, 359, 360 Handel, George Frederick xiv c, xv c, 259–260, 260 Karl Friedrich Abel Wilhelm Friedemann Bach 35 baroque style 40 Arcangelo Corelli 130 Germany 230 Christoph Willibald Gluck 233 Franz Joseph Haydn 265 London 352 music 408 prostitution 477 Giuseppe Domenico Scarlatti 533 Carl Stamitz 572 Gottfried Bernhard Swieten 580 theater 588 Venice 611 happiness 261 Declaration of Independence 142 Epicurean philosophy 183 Pierre Gassend 224 Thomas Jefferson 308 Immanuel Kant 319 moral philosophy 403 Lodovico Antonio Muratori 408 natural law 414 natural rights 415 nature 418 politeness 460 political theory 462 rights 511 Adam Smith 558 technology and instrumentation 586 United States Bill of Rights 605 United States of America 606 Hapsburg Empire xv c, xvi c, 261–262 anticlericalism 20 Austria 28 baroque style 39 Ludwig van Beethoven 46 Budapest 74 bureaucracy 76 dynastic states 166 education 171 enlightened absolutism Miklós József Esterházy 189 Eugène of Savoy 190 Frederick II 207 French Revolution 213 Germany 230 Haskalah 263 Johann Gottfried Herder 268 Holy Roman Empire 278 Hungary 287 Italy 301 Joseph II of Austria 313 literacy 347 Maria Theresa of Austria 370–371 medicine 383 mercantilism 387 Montesquieu 398 Johannes von Müller 406 Peter I 450 Pietism 457 Prussia 479 religion 502 rococo 518 serfdom 551 Josef von Sonnenfels 562 Spain 565 toleration 594 War of the Austrian Succession 624 Wealth of Nations 628 Hargreaves, James xvi c, 262, 298 Harrison, John 95, 262, 353, 622 Hartley, David 157, 182, 262–263, 284, 351, 402, 472, 480, 481, 599 Haskalah (Jewish Enlightenment) 263, 310–312, 385, 413, 503 See also Enlightenment Hastings, Warren 263–264 Haydn, Franz Joseph xvii, c, 264–265 Austria 29 Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach 32 Ludwig van Beethoven 46 Joseph Boulogne 71 Muzio Clementi 119 The Creation 134 empfindsamer Stil 174 Miklós József Esterházy 189 Freemasons 210 Mannheim school 368 music 409 neoclassicism 421 piano 455 Gottfried Bernhard Swieten 580 symphony orchestra 583 Vienna 613 viola 614 Haywood, Eliza xiv c, 265–266, 280, 430, 509 heliocentric 266 astronomy 25 Copernican Revolution 127–128 Nicolaus Copernicus 129 deism 146 John Theophilus Desaguliers 151 Bernard Le Bovier de Fontenelle 198 Galileo Galilei 219 Pierre Gassend 224 geocentric 229 John Hadley 252 Johannes Kepler 323 orrery 440 On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres 433, 434 Scientific Revolution 542 telescope 587 Helvétius, Anne-Cathérine de Ligniville D’Autricourt, Madame 82, 100, 266, 266–267, 617 Helvétius, Claude-Adrien xv c, 266–267 aesthetics atheism 26 marchese di Beccaria 46 Berlin Academy 52 Nicolas-Antoine Boulanger 70 capital punishment 94 Clement XIII 118 democracy 149 education 170 Encyclopédie 176 enlightened despotism 155 enthusiasm 183 Epicurean philosophy 183 freedom 209 French Academy of Sciences 212 genius 227 Marie-Thérèse Rodet Geoffrin 230 Anne-Cathérine Helvétius 266 Bavarian Illuminati 293 Joseph de Lalande 328 Pierre de Marivaux 373 materialism 375 Montesquieu 399 moral philosophy 402 orientalism 439 perfectibility 447, 448 political theory 462 progress 475 psychology 480, 481 radical Enlightenment 494 Guillaume-Thomas-Franỗois de Raynal 497 religion 504 Benedict de Spinoza 569 Herder, Johann Gottfried xvi c, 267–269, 268 aesthetics Nicolas-Antoine Boulanger 70 Josef Dobrovsky´ 164 Adam Ferguson 196 freedom 209 Germany 230 Johann Wolfgang von Goethe 235 Johann Georg Hamann 256 history 272 Bavarian Illuminati 293 intuition and imagination 300 Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi 302 Karl-August 320 language 332, 333 Moses Mendelssohn 386 Johann David Michaelis 390 Montesquieu 399 Justus Möser 405 race 492 Johann Friedrich Schiller 535 August Ludwig von Schlözer 537 Benedict de Spinoza 569 Madame de Staël 571 Sturm und Drang 576 sublime 577 Giovan Battista Vico 613 vitalism 616 Christoph Martin Wieland 631 hermeticism 269–270, 544 Herschel, William 26, 270, 358, 527, 587 Hildebrandt, Johann Lukas von 190, 270, 422, 613 Histoire des deux Indes (Guillaume Raynal) 159, 253, 270–271, 596 Historical and Critical Dictionary (Pierre Bayle) 44, 87, 147, 182, 250, 271, 285, 426, 487, 556, 569, 631 history 271–273 anthropology 19 Gottfried Arnold 24 biblical criticism 54 Bildung 56 Johann Friedrich Blumenbach 62 Henry St John Bolingbroke 64 Charles Bonnet 65 Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet 68 Charles Burney 79 degeneration 146 Discourse on the Origins of Inequality 162 Dissenters 163 Jean-Baptiste Du Bos 165 empiricism 174 Faust 193 Adam Ferguson 196 Bernard Le Bovier de Fontenelle 198 Johann Christoph Gatterer 224 Pietro Giannone 231 Edward Gibbon 231–232 Gothic revival 239 Johann Georg Hamann 257 Johann Gottfried Herder 267, 268 The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire 144 David Hume 285 Illuministi 293 Jan Ingen-Housz 298 Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres 299 intuition and imagination 299, 300 Italy 300 Immanuel Kant 320 Angelica Kauffman 321 Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz 339 Gabriel Bonnot de Mably 361 James Madison 362 Thomas Robert Malthus 367 Milan 392 John Millar 392 Montesquieu 397 Johannes von Müller 406 Lodovico Antonio Muratori 408 John Turberville Needham 420 Isaac Newton 425 Franỗois-Andrộ-Adrien Pluquet 459 Antoine-Franỗois Prộvost 470 Joseph Priestley 472 progress 474 Protestantism 478 relations 502 William Robertson 514–515 romanticism 521 Scotland 544 Johann Salomo Semler 546 Siècle de Louis XIV 554 Richard Simon 555 Philipp Jakob Spener 567 Benedict de Spinoza 569 The Spirit of Laws 569 John Toland 593 Two Treatises of Government 603 universities 607 University of Göttingen 240 Giovan Battista Vico 612 vitalism 616 Constantin-Franỗois Chasseboeuf Volney 617 Voltaire 618 Friedrich August Wolf 635 History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, The (Edward Gibbon) 144, 231, 398 Hobbes, Thomas 273, 273–275 aesthetics Aphra Behn 47 civil society 111 Index Declaration of Independence 142 deism 147 England 178 Epicurean philosophy 183 equality 186 freedom 209 Pierre Gassend 223 Claude-Adrien Helvétius 267 John Jay 306 Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz 339 John Locke 350 moral philosophy 401, 402 natural rights 416 noble savage 428 political theory 461, 462 Samuel Pufendorf 487 radical Enlightenment 494 rights 511, 512 Scientific Revolution 542 sentimental fiction 548 Social Contract 559 Philipp Jakob Spener 567 Benedict de Spinoza 569 The Spirit of Laws 570 technology and instrumentation 586 Two Treatises of Government 603 United Provinces of Netherlands 605 virtue 614 Hoffmann, Friedrich 63, 275, 291, 380, 452 Hogarth, William xv c, 47, 109, 135, 164, 183, 223, 246, 275–276, 276, 345, 353, 477, 495, 518, 599 Holbach, Paul-Henri Thiry d’ xvi c, 276–278, 277 anthropology 19 atheism 26 Berlin Academy 52 Nicolas-Antoine Boulanger 70 capital punishment 94 cosmopolitanism 130 deism 148 Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion 157 Denis Diderot 159 encyclopedists 177 enlightened despotism 155 enthusiasm 183 Adam Ferguson 196 Marie-Thérèse Rodet Geoffrin 230 Friedrich Melchior Grimm 247 Anne-Cathérine Helvétius 266 Bavarian Illuminati 293 Julie-Jeanne-Eléonore de Lespinasse 342 Pierre de Marivaux 373 materialism 375 moral philosophy 402 radical Enlightenment 494 Guillaume-Thomas-Franỗois de Raynal 497 Republic of Letters 505 social institutions 560 Giovan Battista Vico 613 Constantin-Franỗois Chasseboeuf Volney 617 Holy Roman Empire 278 Aufklärung 27 Bernardo Bellotto 48 Brandenburg 72 Calvinism 85 Camisards 88 class and rank 114 Cologne 120 democracy 149 Denmark 150 education 171 France 201 Frankfurt 204 French Revolution 215 Germany 230 Johann Wolfgang von Goethe 235 Jacques-Claude-Marie-Vincent de Gournay 241 grand tour 241 Friedrich Melchior Grimm 247 Hapsburg Empire 261 Haskalah 263 Jansenism 306 Joseph II of Austria 313 justice and the law 315 Karl-August 320 Johannes Kepler 323 Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz 338 literature 348 Louis XIV of France 354 Lutheranism 358 Maria Theresa of Austria 370 Milan 392 Montesquieu 398 moral philosophy 402 Johannes von Müller 406 Pieter van Musschenbroek 411 Balthasar Neumann 422 phlogiston theory 452 Poland 459 political theory 461 Protestantism 478 Prussia 479 Samuel Pufendorf 487 religion 502 rococo 518 Roman Catholicism 519 Rome 522 Rosicrucians 523 Scotland 544 separation of church and state 549–550 social institutions 560 Spain 565 Christian Thomasius 589 Benjamin Thompson 528 universities 607 University of Göttingen 240 Vienna 613 homosexuality 211, 278–279 honor 279–280 Houdon, Jean-Antoine xvi c, 211, 266, 280–281, 281, 421 Huguenots xiv c, 281–282 Amsterdam 14 Pierre Bayle 44 Berlin 51 Calvinism 85 Camisards 88 Marie Condorcet 124 John Theophilus Desaguliers 151 Franỗois Fộnelon 194 France 201 freedom 208 David Garrick 223 Geneva 225 Louis XIV of France 355 Montesquieu 398 Persian Letters 449 Protestantism 478 religion 502 separation of church and state 550 toleration 594 human nature ix Candide 89 civil society 111 education 170 An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding 182 Johann Georg Hamann 257 Thomas Hobbes 274 Bernard Mandeville 367 paganism 441 Humboldt, Alexander von 240, 282–283, 283, 302, 344, 500, 536, 622 Humboldt, Wilhelm von 164, 282, 283–284, 302, 389, 536 Hume, David ix, x, xv c, xvi c, 284, 284–287 John Adams aesthetics 7, American Revolution 14 anthropology 19 marchese di Beccaria 46 Jeremy Bentham 49, 50 Joseph Black 57 Nicolas-Antoine Boulanger 70 Charles de Brosses 73 Charles Burney 79 civil society 111 Confessions 126 cosmopolitanism 130 René Descartes 154 Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion 156–157 Dictionnaire philosophique 158 Edinburgh 170 An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding 182 enthusiasm 182–183 epistemology 185 freedom 209 free trade 211 Marie-Thérèse Rodet Geoffrin 230 Edward Gibbon 231 Johann Gottfried Herder 268 Historical and Critical Dictionary 271 history 272 The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire 144 Paul-Henri Thiry d’Holbach 277 John Jay 306 justice and the law 315 Immanuel Kant 318 landscapes 330 language 332 John Locke 351 James Macpherson 362 Pierre de Marivaux 373 Moses Mendelssohn 386 John Millar 392 moral philosophy 402 optimism 438 paganism 442 progress 475 psychology 480 pyrrhonism 487, 488 race 492 reason 498 Thomas Reid 500 Republic of Letters 505 rights 512 Jean-Jacques Rousseau 525 Royal Society of Edinburgh 527 science of man 540 Scotland 544 skepticism 556 Adam Smith 557, 558 superstition 577 sympathy 582 John Tillotson 592 A Treatise of Human Nature 598–599 Giovan Battista Vico 613 Hungary 287 Austria 29 Budapest 74 Calvinism 85 dynastic states 166 Miklós József Esterházy 189 Hapsburg Empire 261 Jews and Judaism 312 Montesquieu 398 Poland 459 serfdom 551 Hunter, John 57, 89, 184, 287–288, 288, 298, 309, 382, 395–396, 544, 566 Hunter, William 139, 184, 287, 288, 298 Huntsman, Benjamin 288 Hutcheson, Francis 7, 14, 111, 284, 288–289, 289, 402, 448, 511, 544, 558, 627 Hutton, James 57, 170, 289–290 I iatrochemistry 10, 56, 63, 275, 288, 291, 291, 571 iatromechanics 56, 63, 255, 275, 291, 419, 571, 615 Idéologie 156, 292 Idéologues 292 Pierre-Jean-Georges Cabanis 82 Marie Condorcet 125 Antoine-Louis-Claude Destutt de Tracy 156 education 170 empiricism 174 French Academy of Sciences 213 Franz Joseph Gall 221 Idéologie 292 Montesquieu 399 perfectibility 448 progress 475 reason 498 science of man 540 Constantin-Franỗois Chasseboeuf Volney 617 Illuminati, Bavarian 292–293 Aufklärung 27 Austria 29 Carl Friedrich Bahrdt 37 Freemasons 210 Joseph II of Austria 314 perfectibility 448 reason 499 Rosicrucians 524 secret societies 544, 545 social institutions 561 Josef von Sonnenfels 562 Illuministi 28, 197, 293–294, 561 imperialism 294, 294–296, 507 Inchbald, Elizabeth 296 individualism 296 cosmopolitanism 131 René Descartes 153 Johann Georg Hamann 257 Industrial Revolution 298 John Locke 350 music 408 natural rights 415 political theory 462 romanticism 521 Adam Smith 558 Social Contract 560 Sturm und Drang 576 Industrial Revolution 296–298, 297 Matthew Boulton 71 civil society 111 Henry Cort 130 Abraham Darby 138 England 178 James Hargreaves 262 Methodism 390 Thomas Newcomen 422 New Lanark 422 power loom 469 revolution 507 Scotland 544 Adam Smith 558 spinning jenny 567 spinning mule 567–568 steam engine 574 threshing machine 590, 591 Jethro Tull 601 James Watt 626 Josiah Wedgwood 628 Joseph Wright 639 Arthur Young 640 657 Ingen-Housz, Jan 298–299, 299, 309, 580 Ingres, Jean-Auguste-Dominique 141, 299, 421 inoculation 299 Jean Le Rond d’Alembert 12 Jan Ingen-Housz 298 Edward Jenner 309 Cotton Mather 377 medicine 383 public health 482 Gerard van Swieten 580 Mary Wortley 397 intuition and imagination 299–300 aesthetics Aufklärung 27 enthusiasm 183 epistemology 185 genius 226 Johann Christoph Gottsched 241 Johann Georg Hamann 257 Johann Gottfried Herder 268 literature 348 progress 475 psychology 480 pyrrhonism 488 reason 498 romanticism 521 earl of Shaftesbury 553 Italy x, 300–301 See also specific headings, e.g.: Milan biology 56 Charles de Brosses 73 Georges-Louis Leclerc Buffon 75 Friedrich Rudolf Ludwig Canitz 90 cartography 95 Anne-Claude-Philippe de Levis Caylus 99 Clement XIV 118 colonialism 122 Nicolaus Copernicus 129 cosmopolitanism 130 Charles-Pinot Duclos 166 Jean-Honoré Fragonard 200 Henry Fuseli 217 Pietro Giannone 230 Edward Gibbon 231 Gobelins tapestry 234 Carlo Goldoni 238 grand tour 241 Thomas Gray 243 Jean-Baptiste Greuze 246 George Frederick Handel 260 Hapsburg Empire 261 Holy Roman Empire 278 Illuministi 293 Jansenism 305 Jews and Judaism 310 justice and the law 315 Angelica Kauffman 321 Pierre de Laclos 326 literacy 347 Montesquieu 398 Lodovico Antonio Muratori 408 neoclassicism 421 opera 435–437 Palladian style 444 Peter I 450 picturesque 455–456 Piedmont 456 Poland 460 Protestantism 478 public health 482, 483 publishing 484, 485 Jean-Philippe Rameau 495 Joshua Reynolds 508 George Romney 523 secret societies 545 sensibility 548 earl of Shaftesbury 552 Jacques-Germain Soufflot 563 658 Index style galant 576 theater 588 toleration 594 Turin 602 Pietro Verri 611 Giovan Battista Vico 612 Mary Wortley 397 Joseph Wright 639 Johann Georg Zimmermann 641 J Jacobi, Friedrich Heinrich x, xvi c, xvii c, 196, 235, 256, 269, 293, 300, 302–303, 343, 386, 569 Jacobins 269, 303–304, 494, 515, 559 Jacobites 209, 304–305, 544, 545 Jansenism 305306 anticlericalism 20 Aufklọrung 28 ẫtienne-Franỗois Choiseul 110 Clement XII 117 Robert-Franỗois Damiens 138 Encyclopộdie 176 Eugốne of Savoy 190 Febronianism 194 Franỗois Fộnelon 195 Jesuits 310 Julien Offray de La Mettrie 329 Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz 338 Louis XIV of France 355 Nicolas de Malebranche 365 Sebastiano José de Carvalho e Mello Pombal 464 Quarrel between the Ancients and the Moderns 490 Roman Catholicism 520 Jardin des Plantes 140, 306, 329, 335, 408 Jay, John ix, 14, 258, 306–307, 363, 399, 606 John Adams Jefferson, Thomas ix, xvi c, 307, 307–309 John Adams American Philosophical Society 13 American Revolution 14 Joel Barlow 38 colonialism 122 Common Sense 122 Declaration of Independence 141, 142 deism 148 Antoine-Louis-Claude Destutt de Tracy 156 Pierre-Samuel Dupont de Nemours 166 Benjamin Franklin 205 freedom 209 Henri Gregoire 246 Alexander Hamilton 259 Anne-Cathérine Helvétius 266 Historical and Critical Dictionary 271 Jean-Antoine Houdon 280 Francis Hutcheson 289 Jardin des Plantes 306 Gabriel Bonnot de Mably 361 James Madison 362 optimism 438 Thomas Paine 443 picturesque 456 Joseph Priestley 471 publishing 486 race 493 revolution 506 rights 511 David Rittenhouse 514 secret societies 545 slavery 557 United States of America 606 George Washington 625 Jenner, Edward xvii c, 298, 299, 309, 482 Jesuits xvi c, 309–310 Jean Le Rond d’Alembert 10 ancien régime 15 anticlericalism 20 René-Lous de Voyer de Paulmy Argenson 22 Aufklärung 28 Pierre Bayle 44 Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet 67 Antoine Calmet 84 Candide 89 Charles III of Spain 101 China 106 ẫtienne-Franỗois Choiseul 110 Clement XIII 117 Clement XIV 118 Marie Condorcet 124 René Descartes 151 Denis Diderot 158 education 171 Bernard Le Bovier de Fontenelle 198 Élie-Cathérine Fréron 216 Henri Gregoire 245 Historical and Critical Dictionary 271 Bavarian Illuminati 293 Jansenism 305 Joseph de Lalande 328 Gabriel Bonnot de Mably 361 Maria Theresa of Austria 371 Jean-Franỗois Marmontel 373 Franz Anton Mesmer 389 Montesquieu 399 Lodovico Antonio Muratori 407 orientalism 439 Sebastiano José de Carvalho e Mello Pombal 464 marquise de Pompadour 465 Portugal 468 Antoine-Franỗois Prộvost 470 Guillaume-Thomas-Franỗois de Raynal 497 religion 504 Maximilien Robespierre 515 Roman Catholicism 520, 521 Emmanuel-Joseph Sieyès 554 Spain 565 universities 607 Alessandro Volta 617 Voltaire 618 Jews and Judaism 310–312, 311 Aufklärung 27 Henri Gregoire 246 Haskalah 263 Joseph II of Austria 314 Moses Mendelssohn 384–386 millenarianism 393 religion 502 Josef von Sonnenfels 562 Benedict de Spinoza 568–569 University of Göttingen 240 Johnson, Samuel xv c, 312–313 Bluestocking 61 Edmund Burke 77 Charles Burney 79 Fanny Burney 79 David Garrick 223 Oliver Goldsmith 238 Thomas Gray 243 Grub Street 248 Charlotte Ramsay Lennox 341 James Macpherson 362 Elizabeth Montagu 396 Hannah More 403 novel 431 probability 473 prostitution 477 Joshua Reynolds 508 Richard Brinsley Sheridan 553 She Stoops to Conquer 554 Adam Smith 557 social institutions 560 theater 589 Tom Jones 595 travel literature 597 Sarah Trimmer 599 The Vicar of Wakefield 611 Joseph II of Austria 313–314, xvi c absolutism Austria 29 Belgium 48 Catherine II 98 Cologne 120 Così fan Tutte 130 education 171 enlightened absolutism enlightened despotism 155 enlightened monarchs 395 Febronianism 194 Frankfurt 204 Hapsburg Empire 261, 262 Haskalah 263 Hungary 287 Bavarian Illuminati 293 Jews and Judaism 312 Josephinism 314–315 Wenzel Anton von Kaunitz 322 Louis XVI of France 357 The Magic Flute 365 Maria Theresa of Austria 370 Milan 392 Le Nozze di Figaro 432 philosopher-king 452 Sebastiano José de Carvalho e Mello Pombal 464 progress 476 religion 504 separation of church and state 550 serfdom 551 Gottfried Bernhard Swieten 580 toleration 595 Josephinism 29, 194, 314, 314–315, 520 justice and the law ix, 315–316 Sir William Blackstone 58–59 capital punishment 93–94 civil society 111 colonialism 120 Essays on Crimes and Punishments 188–189 France 203 Pietro Giannone 230–231 lettres de cachet 343 parlements 446–447 Peter I 450 Joseph Priestley 472 publishing 486 rights 511 United States Bill of Rights 605 United States Constitution 605–606 K Kant, Immanuel ix, xi, xvi c, xvii c, 317–320, 318 aesthetics 7, anthropology 20 Aufklärung 27 Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten 43 Ruggiero Giuseppe Boscovich 66 cosmopolitanism 130 deism 148 René Descartes 154 Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion 157 education 170 epistemology 185 Johann Georg Adam Forster 199 freedom 209 Christian Garve 223 Germany 230 Johann Georg Hamann 257 Johann Gottfried Herder 269 William Hogarth 276 David Hume 286 intuition and imagination 300 Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi 303 Heinrich von Kleist 324 Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock 325 Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz 340 Lutheranism 359 Moses Mendelssohn 385, 386 moral philosophy 403 natural law 414 Christoph Friedrich Nicolai 426 perfectibility 448 physico-theology 453 progress 475 psychology 480, 481 race 492 reason 498–499 rights 512, 513 Johann Friedrich Schiller 536 skepticism 556 Mme de Staël 571 sublime 577 Emanuel Swedenborg 579 vitalism 616 Christian Wolff 635 women and the Enlightenment 637 Karl-August, duke of Weimar 267, 293, 320–321 Karl Wilhelm Ferdinand, duke of Braunschweig-Wolfenbüttel 321, 412 Kauffman, Angelica 321–322 Kaunitz, Wenzel Anton von, Prince von Kaunitz-Rietberg xv c, 4, 161, 194, 233, 261, 314, 322, 371, 392, 438, 530 Kay, John 198, 298, 322 Kent, William 73, 179, 322–323, 331, 444, 455–456, 519 Kepler, Johannes 128, 220, 269, 323, 339, 375, 506 Kingdom of the Two Sicilies 101, 259, 298, 323–324, 359, 395 Kleist, Heinrich von 217, 324, 348 Klopstock, Friedrich Gottlieb 233, 324325, 362, 602 L Laclos, Pierre-Ambroise-Franỗois Choderlos de xvi c, 326–327, 344, 348, 430 Lagrange, Joseph-Louis xvii c, 11, 26, 52, 175, 191, 200, 212, 327, 334, 376, 541 laissez-faire 22, 108, 219, 298, 328, 453 Lalande, Joseph-Jộrụme Le Franỗais de 26, 166, 211, 212, 328 Lamarck, Jean-Baptiste-PierreAntoine de Monet de xvii c, 56, 57, 65, 124, 136, 146, 328–329, 491, 538 Lambert, Anne-Thérèse de Marguenat de Courcelles, marquise de 198, 329, 373, 489, 560 La Mettrie, Julien Offray de 329–330 atheism 26 automata 29 Berlin Academy 52 Clement XIV 118 enthusiasm 183 Frederick II 207 freedom 209 Claude-Adrien Helvétius 267 materialism 375 psychology 480, 481 publishing 485 radical Enlightenment 494 religion 504 Benedict de Spinoza 569 United Provinces of Netherlands 605 Jacques de Vaucanson 610 Lancret, Nicolas 330, 353 landscapes 330–332, 455, 575, 639 language 332–333 Georges-Louis Leclerc Buffon 76 Chemical Revolution 104 Étienne Bonnot de Condillac 123 Antoine-Louis-Claude Destutt de Tracy 156 Josef Dobrovsky´ 164 Émile 173 Johann Gottfried Herder 268 Wilhelm von Humboldt 283 Idéologie 292 Mikhail Vasilivich Lomonosov 351 Joseph Priestley 472 progress 475 Emanuel Swedenborg 579 John Horne Tooke 596 Constantin-Franỗois Chasseboeuf Volney 617 Laokoon (Gotthold Ephraim Lessing) 9, 333, 333–334, 342, 421 Laplace, Pierre-Simon, marquis de xvii c, 334–335 Jean Le Rond d’Alembert 11 astronomy 26 Claude-Louis Berthollet 54 Chemical Revolution 106 Marie Condorcet 125 empiricism 175 Leonhard Euler 190 Jean-Baptiste-Joseph Fourier 200 French Academy of Sciences 212 James Hutton 290 Joseph-Louis Lagrange 327 mathematics and mechanics 376 Emanuel Swedenborg 579 Alessandro Giuseppe Antonio Anastasio Volta 618 La Serva Padrona (Giovanni Battista Pergolesi) 448 La Tour, Maurice-Quentin de 230, 335 Lavater, Johann Kaspar 57, 62, 89, 109, 217, 256, 335, 345, 531 Lavoisier, Antoine-Laurent xvii c, 335–336 affinity chemistry ancien régime 15 Torbern Olof Bergman 50 Claude-Louis Berthollet 54 Joseph Black 57 caloric 85 Chemical Revolution 103, 106 classification 115 Étienne Bonnot de Condillac 124 Jacques-Louis David 141 French Academy of Sciences 212 Stephen Hales 255 Pierre-Simon Laplace 334 Franz Anton Mesmer 389 phlogiston theory 452 Index Joseph Priestley 471 science 538 Georg Ernst Stahl 571 subtle fluids 577 Benjamin Thompson 528 Alessandro Giuseppe Antonio Anastasio Volta 618 Law, John 336–337, 394, 395, 395, 564 Leeuwenhoek, Antoni van 18, 57, 225, 337, 391, 469 Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm x, xiv c, xvi c, 337–341, 338 aesthetics alchemy 10 Aufklärung 27 Battle of the Buffoons 43 Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten 43 Berlin 52 Berlin Academy 52 Daniel Bernoulli 53 Johann Jakob Bodmer 62 Charles Bonnet 65 Ruggiero Giuseppe Boscovich 66 Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet 67 Calvinism 86 Candide 89 cartography 95 Mme du Châtelet 102 China 108 Samuel Clarke 113 Anthony Collins 119 cosmopolitanism 131 René Descartes 152 epistemology 184 Eugène of Savoy 190 Leonhard Euler 191 freedom 209 French Academy of Sciences 212 Antonio Genovesi 228 Germany 230 great chain of being 244 Edmond Halley 256 Johann Gottfried Herder 267 Friedrich Hoffmann 275 Jan Ingen-Housz 299 Immanuel Kant 317 Karl Wilhelm Ferdinand 321 Joseph-Louis Lagrange 327 Lutheranism 359 Nicolas de Malebranche 366 mathematics and mechanics 376 Pierre-Louis Moreau de Maupertuis 379 mechanical philosophy 380 Moses Mendelssohn 384 moral philosophy 401, 402 Lodovico Antonio Muratori 408 natural law 413 Isaac Newton 424 Friedrich Christoph Oetinger 433 optimism 438 orientalism 439 perfectibility 448 political theory 461 preformation theory 469 probability 473 progress 475 psychology 480, 481 rationalism 496 Republic of Letters 505 rights 511 scientific academies 540 scientific method 541 Scientific Revolution 542 Social Contract 559 Benedict de Spinoza 569 Georg Ernst Stahl 571 Emanuel Swedenborg 579 Emmerich de Vattel 610 Voltaire 619 Christian Wolff 635 lending libraries See social institutions of the Enlightenment Lennox, Charlotte Ramsay xv c, 266, 280, 341, 430, 549 Lespinasse, Julie-JeanneEléonore de 11, 52, 123, 144, 341, 341–342, 505, 560 Lessing, Gotthold Ephraim x, xvi c, 342–343 aesthetics 7–9 Aufklärung 28 biblical criticism 55 Daniel Niklaus Chodowiecki 109 freedom 209 Freemasons 210 Germany 230 Johann Christoph Gottsched 241 Johann Georg Hamann 257 Johann Gottfried Herder 267 William Hogarth 276 Bavarian Illuminati 293 intuition and imagination 300 Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi 303 Karl Wilhelm Ferdinand 321 Laokoon 333–334 literature 348 Lutheranism 359 Moses Mendelssohn 384, 386 Nathan the Wise 412–413 neoclassicism 421 Christoph Friedrich Nicolai 426 paganism 442 race 493 Hermann Samuel Reimarus 501 religion 504 Johann Friedrich Schiller 535 Johann Salomo Semler 547 separation of church and state 550 Benedict de Spinoza 569 Sturm und Drang 576 toleration 595 Wilhelm Tell 632 Johann Joachim Winckelmann 634 Letters on Toleration (John Locke) 343, 349, 351, 594 lettres de cachet (sealed letters) 343, 378, 394, 530 libertine 117, 144, 279, 280, 344, 431, 444, 468, 495 See also pornography liberty Samuel Clarke 113 freedom 209 free trade 212 French Revolution 215 homosexuality 279 Thomas Jefferson 308 Joseph II of Austria 314 radical Enlightenment 494 Reflections on the Revolution in France 499 United States Bill of Rights 605 United States Constitution 606 A Vindication of the Rights of Woman 614 Wilhelm Tell 632 Lichtenberg, Georg Christoph 240, 276, 344–345, 557 Linnaeus, Carolus (Carol von Linné) xv c, 37, 50, 57, 63, 75, 115, 124, 139, 345–346, 491, 541, 578 Lisbon earthquake xv c, 346–347 Marie-Antoinette 371 Candide 89 Nicolas Desmarest 155 nature 416 optimism 438 Sebastiano José de Carvalho e Mello Pombal 464 Portugal 468 Giuseppe Domenico Scarlatti 534 literacy 346, 347 Common Sense 123 Grub Street 248 literature 348 Methodism 390 museums 408 Paris 446 Pietism 457 Protestantism 478 publishing 485 social institutions 561 The Spectator 566 literature 347–349 See also novel; poetry; sentimental fiction; travel literature; specific authors, e.g.: Blake, William aesthetics Jean Le Rond d’Alembert 12 Battle of the Buffoons 43 Jeanne Le Prince de Beaumont 45 Aphra Behn 47–48 Sébastien-Roch-Nicholas Chamfort 100 classicism 115 Confessions 126 William Congreve 126 John Dryden 164–165 genius 226 Gothic revival 239 Gothic romance 239–240 Grub Street 248 Franz Joseph Haydn 265 Samuel Johnson 312 Georg Christoph Lichtenberg 345 music 409 nature 416 Jacques Necker 418 neoclassicism 420 paganism 442 Persian Letters 448–449 politeness 460 political theory 463 publishing 484–486 Jean-Jacques Rousseau 524 Louis-Claude de Saint-Martin 530–531 Claude-Henri de Saint-Simon 532 Johann Friedrich Schiller 534–536 sensibility 547 sentimental fiction 548–549 Richard Brinsley Sheridan 553 She Stoops to Conquer 553–554 The Spectator 566 Mme de Staël 571 Philip Dormer Stanhope 106 Richard Steele 574 Sturm und Drang 576 sublime 577 Christian Thomasius 590 travel literature 597–598 Voltaire 618 George Washington 625 Christoph Martin Wieland 631 women and the Enlightenment 638 Locke, John ix, xiv c, 349–351 absolutism John Adams Joseph Addison aesthetics Jean Le Rond d’Alembert 11 American Revolution 14 Anglicans 18 Francis Bacon 36 Jeremy Bentham 49 George Berkeley 51 Sir William Blackstone 58 Georges-Louis Leclerc Buffon 76 civil society 111 class and rank 115 Anthony Collins 119 colonialism 122 Étienne Bonnot de Condillac 123 cosmopolitanism 131 Declaration of Independence 141, 142 deism 147 René Descartes 154 Antoine-Louis-Claude Destutt de Tracy 156 Dictionnaire philosophique 158 Denis Diderot 160 Discourse on the Origins of Inequality 162–163 education 170 Jonathan Edwards 172 empiricism 174 Encyclopédie 176 England 178 Epicurean philosophy 183 epistemology 184 equality 186 Essays on Crimes and Punishments 188 Gaetano Filangieri 197 freedom 209 French Revolution 215 Antonio Genovesi 228 Glorious Revolution 232 Johann Georg Hamann 257 Alexander Hamilton 258 David Hartley 262 Claude-Adrien Helvétius 267 Thomas Hobbes 274 David Hume 284 Idéologie 292 Idéologues 292 individualism 296 John Jay 306 Jews and Judaism 311 Samuel Johnson 312 Immanuel Kant 318 language 332 Letters on Toleration 343 literacy 347 Louis XIV of France 356 Nicolas de Malebranche 366 medicine 380 Moses Mendelssohn 385 moral philosophy 402 natural law 414 natural rights 416 Isaac Newton 424 Pamela 445 perfectibility 447 political theory 461, 462 Joseph Priestley 471 Principia mathematica 472 progress 475 property 476 psychology 480, 481 reason 498 religion 502–504 revolution 506 rights 511, 512 The Rights of Man 513 Maximilien Robespierre 515 Jean-Jacques Rousseau 526 sensibility 547 sentimental fiction 548 separation of church and state 550 earl of Shaftesbury 552 slavery 557 Social Contract 559 The Spirit of Laws 570 659 John Toland 593 toleration 594 A Treatise of Human Nature 598 Tristram Shandy 600 Catharine Trotter 600 Two Treatises of Government 602–603 United States Bill of Rights 605 United States of America 606 universities 607 A Vindication of the Rights of Woman 614 Voltaire 618 Lomonosov, Mikhail Vasilivich 351–352 London 352 London Corresponding Society 352–353 Longhi, Pietro 293, 353 longitude 95, 149, 353 Louis XIV of France (1638–1715) xiv c, 354, 354–356, 484 absolutism aesthetics Amsterdam 14 ancien régime 15 René-Lous de Voyer de Paulmy Argenson 21 aristocratic resurgence 22 baroque style 39 Pierre Bayle 44 Henry St John Bolingbroke 64 Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet 67 Henri de Boulainvilliers 70 bureaucracy 77 Calvinism 86 Camisards 88 capitalism 93 cartography 95 Anne-Claude-Philippe de Levis Caylus 99 Charles III of Spain 101 class and rank 114 classicism 115 Marie Condorcet 124 Franỗois Couperin 133 John Theophilus Desaguliers 151 divine right of kings 163 England 178 Eugốne of Savoy 189 Franỗois Fénelon 194 France 201, 203 French Academy of Sciences 212 Gallicanism 222 David Garrick 223 Geneva 225 Félicité de Genlis 228 Gobelins tapestry 233 history 272 Huguenots 282 Jansenism 305 Jardin des Plantes 306 John Law 337 Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz 338 libertine 344 Pierre de Marivaux 373 René-Nicolas-CharlesAugustin de Maupeou 377 mercantilism 387 Mississippi Bubble 394 Montesquieu 398, 399 Moscow 404 Suzanne Necker 419 Paris 445 parlements 446, 447 Persian Letters 449 political theory 462 pornography 468 Protestantism 478 religion 502 Royal Palace at Versailles separation of church and state 550 660 Index separation of powers 550 Siècle de Louis XIV 554 Spain 565 toleration 594 Voltaire 619 Waldensians 623 William III and Mary II 633 Sir Christopher Wren 638 Louis XVI of France (1754–93) xvii c, 357, 357–358 ancien régime 15 aristocratic resurgence 22 Austrian Netherlands 29 comtesse du Barry 42 Charles-Alexandre de Calonne 84 ẫtienne-Franỗois Choiseul 110 class and rank 114 Marie Condorcet 124 diamond necklace scandal 157 Franỗois Fộnelon 195 France 203 French Revolution 213 Nicolas-Joseph-Laurent Gilbert 232 Haitian Revolution 254 Johann Gottfried Herder 269 Jacobins 304 Pierre de Laclos 326 Louis XV of France 356 Chrétien-Guillaume de Malesherbes 366 Marie-Antoinette 371–373 Jacques Necker 418 Thomas Paine 443 Maximilien Robespierre 515 Louis-Antoine-Léon de SaintJust 530 Emmanuel-Joseph Sieyès 554 Anne-Robert-Jacques Turgot 602 Mary Wollstonecraft 636 Louis XV of France (ca 1700–74) xiv c, 356 ancien régime 15 Marc-Pierre de Voyer Argenson 21 René-Lous de Voyer de Paulmy Argenson 21 comtesse du Barry 42 Benedict XIV 49 Claude-Louis Berthollet 54 Thộophile de Bordeu 66 Franỗois Boucher 68 Charles de Brosses 73 Jean Calas 83 Charles-Alexandre de Calonne 84 class and rank 114 Angộlique-Marguộrite du Coudary 132 Robert-Franỗois Damiens 138 Encyclopédie 176 enlightened absolutism enlightened monarchs 395 Jean-Honoré Fragonard 200 France 203 Gobelins tapestry 234 Carlo Goldoni 238 Histoire des deux Indes 270 Jesuits 310 John Law 336 Chrộtien-Guillaume de Malesherbes 366 Marie-Antoinette 371 Jean-Franỗois Marmontel 373 Renộ-Nicolas-CharlesAugustin de Maupeou 377, 378 Mississippi Bubble 394 Jeanne-Antoinette Pompadour 464 pornography 468 Franỗois Quesnay 490 Victor de Riqueti 394 comte de Saint-Germain 530 secret societies 544 Sèvres 552 Anne-Robert-Jacques Turgot 601 Voltaire 619 Lunar Society of Birmingham 71, 139, 358, 471, 527 Lutheranism 358–359 Anglicans 16 Johann Christian Bach 33 Immanuel Kant 317 Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz 340 Johann Lorenz von Mosheim 405 Pietism 456 Protestantism 478, 479 Hermann Samuel Reimarus 501 On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres 434 synergy 583 Nicolaus Ludwig Zinzendor 642 Lyon, Emma (Lady Hamilton) 259, 359–360 M Mably, Gabriel Bonnot de, Abbé 361, 404 Macpherson, James xvi c, 59, 243, 348, 362 Madison, James ix, xvii c, 5, 38, 258, 307, 362–363, 399, 443, 605, 606, 625 Madrid 234, 282, 363, 473, 534, 565 magic 270, 363–364, 390, 544, 577 See also paganism Magic Flute, The (Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart) 314, 364–365, 406, 631 Magnasco, Alessandro 365 magnetism 389 Maid Mistress, The See Serva Padrona, La Malebranche, Nicolas de xiv c, 67, 154, 340, 365–366, 401, 420, 470, 620 Malesherbes, ChrétienGuillaume de 176, 366, 378, 484 Malthus, Thomas Robert xvii c, 91, 92, 150, 367, 578 Manchester Literacy and Philosophical Society 367, 527 Mandeville, Bernard xiv c, 111, 147, 212, 267, 367–368, 399, 402, 459, 553, 570 Mannheim school 112, 368, 410, 572 Marat, Jean-Paul 368–370, 369, 375 Marggraf, Andreas Sigismund 370, 452 Maria Theresa of Austria xv c, 370, 370–371 René-Lous Argenson 21 Austria 29 cameralism 87 capital punishment 94 Charles III of Spain 101 ẫtienne-Franỗois Choiseul 110 Cologne 120 education 171 enlightened absolutism Freemasons 211 Christoph Gluck 233 Hapsburg Empire 261 Hungary 287 Bavarian Illuminati 293 Jan Ingen-Housz 298 inoculation 299 Jesuits 310 Joseph II of Austria 313 Josephinism 314 Wenzel von Kaunitz 322 Louis XVI of France 357 The Magic Flute 365 Milan 392 Balthasar Neumann 422 partitions of Poland 447 Peter I 450 Pietism 457 serfdom 551 Seven Years’ War 552 Josef von Sonnenfels 562 Gerard van Swieten 580 Gottfried Bernhard Swieten 580 Vienna 613 War of the Austrian Succession 624 Marie-Antoinette-JoséphineJeanne d’Autriche 42, 83, 110, 157, 233, 357, 358, 371–373, 372, 465, 468, 613 Marivaux, Pierre Carlet de Chamblain de xv c, 230, 239, 329, 373 Marmontel, Jean-Franỗois 41, 176, 177, 216, 230, 266, 342, 373, 373–374, 419, 602 Marriage of Figaro, The See Nozze di Figaro, Le Mass in B Minor (Johann Sebastian Bach) 35, 374 materialism 374–375 mathematics and mechanics 375–376 Jean d’Alembert 10–11 Daniel Bernoulli 53 Jakob I and Johann I Bernoulli 54–55 China 108 Samuel Clarke 113 René Descartes 151–155 Leonhard Euler 190–191 Jean-Baptiste Fourier 200 Galileo Galilei 219–221 Willem Jacob’s Gravesande 243 hermeticism 270 Thomas Jefferson 307 Immanuel Kant 319 Joseph-Louis Lagrange 327 Pierre-Simon Laplace 334–335 Gottfried Leibniz 339 Thomas Malthus 367 Pierre de Maupertuis 378–379 mechanical philosophy 379 Isaac Newton 423–425 Principia mathematica 472 probability 473–474 science 539 statistics 572–573 Brook Taylor 585 Mather, Cotton 204, 376–377 Maupeou, René-Nicolas-CharlesAugustin de 42, 343, 356, 377–378 Maupertuis, Pierre-Louis Moreau de 378–379 astronomy 26 Battle of the Buffoons 43 Berlin Academy 52 biology 57 Cộsar-Franỗois Cassini de Thury 96 Mme du Deffand 144 Denis Diderot 159 epigenesis 184 Leonhard Euler 190 Frederick II 207 French Academy of Sciences 212 generation 225 Joseph de Lalande 328 language 332 Mme du Châtelet 102 Montesquieu 399 philosopher-king 451 Scientific Revolution 543 Anne-Robert-Jacques Turgot 602 Voltaire 619 McAdam, John Loudon 379 mechanical philosophy 379–380 absolutism animism 19 atheism 26 Aufklärung 27 Francis Bacon 36 barometer 38 Paul-Joseph Barthez 41 Daniel Bernoulli 53 Marie-Franỗois-Xavier Bichat 55 biology 57 Hermann Boerhaave 63 Calvinism 87 Chemical Revolution 103 Étienne Bonnot de Condillac 123–124 Copernican Revolution 128 Ralph Cudworth 135 William Cullen 136 René Descartes 154 Denis Diderot 159 Freemasons 209 French Academy of Sciences 212 Galileo Galilei 221 Pierre Gassend 224 Johann Wolfgang von Goethe 237 David Hartley 263 Thomas Hobbes 273 Friedrich Hoffmann 275 John Hunter 288 iatrochemistry 291 iatromechanics 291 individualism 296 Immanuel Kant 318–319 Julien Offray de La Mettrie 330 Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz 339 Louis XIV of France 355 Nicolas de Malebranche 365 materialism 374–375 mathematics and mechanics 376 medicine 380 Marin Mersenne 388 moral philosophy 401, 402 nature 416 Isaac Newton 423 Jean-Antoine Nollet 428 political theory 461 preformation theory 469 Principia mathematica 472 psychology 481 rationalism 496 rights 511 Rosicrucians 524 science 539 scientific method 541 Scientific Revolution 542 separation of powers 550 Georg Ernst Stahl 571 Johann Peter Süssmilch 578 sympathy 582 vitalism 615 medicine 380–383, 381 See also inoculation; midwifery; specific individuals, e.g.: Reil, Johann Christian anthropology 19 Paul-Joseph Barthez 41 Marie-Franỗois-Xavier Bichat 55 Hermann Boerhaave 63 Pieter Camper 88 Chemical Revolution 103 William Cullen 135 Erasmus Darwin 139 René Descartes 154 Encyclopédie 176 Franz Joseph Gall 221–222 Luigi Galvani 222–223 Oliver Goldsmith 238 Albrecht von Haller 256 David Hartley 262 hermeticism 270 iatrochemistry 291 iatromechanics 291 Idéologie 292 Jan Ingen-Housz 298 Jews and Judaism 311 Samuel Johnson 313 Jean de Lamarck 328 Julien Offray de La Mettrie 329 Carolus Linnaeus 345 Jean-Paul Marat 368 Cotton Mather 377 Alexander Monro 396 Moscow 405 Pieter van Musschenbroek 411 natural philosophy 414 psychology 480 public health 482483 Franỗois Quesnay 490 rationalism 496 Benjamin Rush 528 Johann Friedrich Schiller 535 August Ludwig von Schlözer 537 science 538 Scientific Revolution 542 Georg Ernst Stahl 571 Gottfried Bernhard Swieten 580 universities 606, 607 University of Göttingen 240 University of Halle 255 vitalism 615 voyages of discovery 622 Johann Joachim Winckelmann 634 Meissen works 383–384, 465, 552 Mendelssohn, Moses x, xv c, xvi c, xvii c, 384, 384–386 Aufklärung 27 deism 148 freedom 209 genius 227 Germany 230 Johann Christoph Gottsched 241 Johann Georg Hamann 257 Haskalah 263 Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi 302, 303 Jews and Judaism 311 Immanuel Kant 320 Johann Kaspar Lavater 335 Gotthold Ephraim Lessing 342 Nathan the Wise 413 Christoph Friedrich Nicolai 426 paganism 442 psychology 481 religion 504 Johann Friedrich Schiller 535 separation of church and state 550 Benedict de Spinoza 569 Sturm und Drang 576 sublime 577 toleration 595 Mengs, Anton Raphael 102, 118, 141, 241, 363, 386–387, 421, 591–592, 634 mercantilism 387 cameralism 88 capitalism 91 China 107 colonialism 120 Denmark 151 Index enlightened absolutism France 202 free trade 211 Antonio Genovesi 228 Alexander Hamilton 258 Illuministi 294 Industrial Revolution 298 laissez-faire 328 Jacques Necker 418 Physiocrats 453–454 Adam Smith 558 South Sea Bubble 564 Spain 565 Johann Peter Süssmilch 578 Robert Walpole 624 Wealth of Nations 627 Mercier, Louis-Sébastien 31, 150, 387–388 Mercier de la Rivière, Paul-Pierre 155, 388, 453, 490 Mersenne, Marin 388–389 René Descartes 152 epistemology 184 Galileo Galilei 220 Pierre Gassend 224 Thomas Hobbes 273 Louis XIV of France 355 mechanical philosophy 380 pyrrhonism 488 Rosicrucians 523 scientific academies 540 scientific method 541 Scientific Revolution 542 skepticism 556 Mesmer, Franz Anton 60, 83, 335, 389–390, 453, 531 Methodism 59, 88, 172, 178, 182, 364, 390, 448, 457, 499, 503 See also Wesley, Charles; Wesley, John Michaelis, Johann David 390–391, 427 microscope 183, 225, 337, 370, 391, 543, 586 midwifery 89, 132, 391 Milan 391–392 Millar, John 111, 209, 272, 392–393, 544 millenarianism 393–394 Mirabeau, Victor de Riqueti, marquis de 155, 166, 386, 394, 394, 453, 490 Mississippi Bubble 337, 394–395, 395, 564 monarchs, enlightened 3, 155–156, 395 See also specific monarchs, e.g.: Charles III of Spain; specific types of monarchs, e.g.: absolutism Monro, Alexander (Secundus) 57, 298, 382, 395–396, 544, 616 Montagu, Elizabeth [Robinson] 60, 241, 299, 396, 467, 508, 514, 637 Montagu, Lady Mary Wortley 396, 396–397, 560 Montesquieu, Charles-Louis de Secondat, baron de La Brède et de x, xiv c, xv c, 397, 397–400 absolutism John Adams American Revolution 14 René-Lous Argenson 22 marchese di Beccaria 46 Benedict XIV 49 Henry St John Bolingbroke 64 Nicolas-Antoine Boulanger 70 Catherine II 97 China 106 civil society 111 Mme du Deffand 144 deism 147 Antoine Destutt de Tracy 156 Denis Diderot 158 Jean-Baptiste Du Bos 165 England 178 enlightened despotism 155 equality 187 Adam Ferguson 196 Gaetano Filangieri 197 France 201 freedom 209 Freemasons 211 French Revolution 216 Marie-Thérèse Rodet Geoffrin 230 Glorious Revolution 232 Oliver Goldsmith 239 Alexander Hamilton 258 Johann Gottfried Herder 268 history 272 Thomas Hobbes 274 honor 280 John Jay 306 Jews and Judaism 311 justice and the law 315 Anne-Thérèse Lambert 329 literature 348 James Madison 362 Louis-Sébastien Mercier 388 Abbé Morelly 404 Justus Möser 405 Johannes von Müller 406 natural law 414 orientalism 439 paganism 442 Persian Letters 448–449 political theory 462 pornography 468 property 476 Guillaume-Thomas-Franỗois de Raynal 497 Maximilien Robespierre 515 romanticism 521 science of man 540 separation of powers 550–551 Josef von Sonnenfels 562 The Spirit of Laws 569–570 Madame de Staël 571 travel literature 597 Two Treatises of Government 603 United Provinces of Netherlands 605 United States of America 606 Venice 610 Giovan Battista Vico 613 Voltaire 620 women and the Enlightenment 637 Montgolfier, Jacque-Étienne and Michel-Joseph xvi c, 400, 401 Monticello (Virginia) 444 moral philosophy 400–403 aesthetics Joseph Butler 81 capital punishment 94 Étienne Bonnot de Condillac 124 cosmopolitanism 130 Ralph Cudworth 135 René Descartes 152 Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion 156 Denis Diderot 160 education 170 England 178 An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding 182 Epicurean philosophy 183 Adam Ferguson 195 Frederick II 208 genius 226 Johann Georg Hamann 257 happiness 261 Thomas Hobbes 274 David Hume 284 Francis Hutcheson 289 individualism 296 Thomas Jefferson 308 Immanuel Kant 317 Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz 337 Bernard Mandeville 367–368 materialism 374 natural law 413 natural religion 415 perfectibility 448 Franỗois-Andrộ-Adrien Pluquet 459 political theory 461 Richard Price 470 John Pringle 473 psychology 479 rationalism 496 Thomas Reid 500 relations 502 religion 503 rights 511 science 538 Scotland 544 sensibility 547–548 separation of church and state 550 earl of Shaftesbury 553 Adam Smith 557 Benedict de Spinoza 568 sympathy 582 Christian Thomasius 590 toleration 595 universities 607 Moravian Brethren xv c, 403, 433, 456–457, 478, 642 More, Hannah 133, 396, 403–404, 477, 485, 637 Morelly, Abbé 361, 404 Moscow 38, 404–405, 450, 531, 607 Möser, Justus 405 Mosheim, Johann Lorenz von 405–406 Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus xvii c, 406, 406–407 Austria 29 Johann Christian Bach 33 Pierre-Augustin Beaumarchais 45 Ludwig van Beethoven 46 Joseph Boulogne 71 Clement XIV 118 Così fan Tutte 130 Don Giovanni 164 empfindsamer Stil 174 Miklós József Esterházy 189 Charles-Simon Favart 193 Freemasons 210 Christoph Willibald Gluck 233 grand tour 241 Franz Joseph Haydn 264 Joseph II of Austria 314 The Magic Flute 364–365 Mannheim school 368 Franz Anton Mesmer 389 music 409 neoclassicism 421 Le Nozze di Figaro 432 opera 437 Giuseppe Parini 445 piano 455 serfdom 551 La Serva Padrona 552 Carl Stamitz 572 Gottfried Bernhard Swieten 580 symphony orchestra 583 theater 588 Vienna 613 viola 614 Christoph Martin Wieland 631 Müller, Johannes von 240, 407, 537 Munich 407 Muratori, Lodovico Antonio 300, 392, 398, 407–408, 612 museums 408 music 408–411, 409 See also opera; specific composers, e.g.: Bach, Johann Sebastian; specific compositions, e.g.: The Magic Flute aesthetics Jean Le Rond d’Alembert 12 baroque style 40 Catherine II 98 clarinet 112 empfindsamer Stil 174 Encyclopédie 176 Galileo Galilei 220 Germany 230 Italy 301 Angelica Kauffman 321 Nicolas Lancret 330 John Locke 351 London 352 Louis XIV of France 354 Louis XV of France 356 Mannheim school 368 Pierre-Louis Moreau de Maupertuis 378 Milan 392 nature 416 neoclassicism 420 New Lanark 423 paganism 442 Paris 445 Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi 449 piano 454–455 politeness 460 political theory 463 marquise de Pompadour 465 sensibility 547 social institutions 561 Josef von Sonnenfels 562 style galant 576 symphony orchestra 582–583 Brook Taylor 585 viola 614 Musschenbroek, Pieter van 57, 88, 102, 192, 243, 298, 411 N Nathan the Wise (Gotthold Ephraim Lessing) 342, 384, 412–413, 595, 632 natural history 139–140, 413 natural law 413–414 anthropology 19 Jean-Jacques Burlamaqui 79 civil society 111 Ralph Cudworth 135 divine right of kings 164 enlightened absolutism enlightened despotism 155 equality 186 Frederick II 208 Haitian Revolution 253 Johann Georg Hamann 257 Histoire des deux Indes 271 justice and the law 315 Lisbon earthquake 347 John Locke 350 Gabriel Bonnot de Mably 361 Louis-Sébastien Mercier 388 John Millar 392 moral philosophy 400 Abbé Morelly 404 natural rights 415 On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres 433 Physiocrats 453 political theory 461, 462 progress 474 Samuel Pufendorf 487 pyrrhonism 488 rationalism 496 reason 498 rights 511 comte de Saint-Germain 530 Claude-Henri de Saint-Simon 532 661 science 538, 539 Scientific Revolution 542 separation of church and state 550 skepticism 556 Social Contract 559 The Spirit of Laws 570 Sturm und Drang 576 Christian Thomasius 589 John Toland 593 Two Treatises of Government 603 Emmerich de Vattel 608 Wealth of Nations 627 natural philosophy x, 414 Samuel Clarke 113 Anthony Collins 119 Nicolaus Copernicus 129 René Descartes 152 Jonathan Edwards 172 empiricism 174 Encyclopédie 176 Epicurean philosophy 183 Adam Ferguson 195 Galileo Galilei 221 Pierre Gassend 224 Willem Jacob’s Gravesande 243 Thomas Hobbes 273 Alexander von Humboldt 283 David Hume 284 Jesuits 309 Immanuel Kant 317 Julien Offray de La Mettrie 329 Madame du Châtelet 102 Isaac Newton 425 Carsten Niebuhr 427 physico-theology 453 pornography 467 Joseph Priestley 471 rationalism 496 rights 511 science 538 Lazzaro Spallanzani 566 Emanuel Swedenborg 579 Voltaire 620 Christian Wolff 635 natural religion 414–415 The Age of Reason Anglicans 18 anthropology 20 William Blake 59 Joseph Butler 81 China 108 Samuel Clarke 113 deism 146–148 René Descartes 152 Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion 156–157 enthusiasm 182 Freemasons 209 Histoire des deux Indes 271 Hermann Samuel Reimarus 501 religion 503 On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres 433 Roman Catholicism 520 Scientific Revolution 543 John Toland 593 toleration 594 natural rights 415, 415–416 American Revolution 14 aristocratic resurgence 22 association movement 25 Franỗois-Noel Babeuf 32 Jeremy Bentham 50 Marie Condorcet 124 cosmopolitanism 131 Declaration of the Rights of Man 143 Thomas Jefferson 308 John Locke 350 natural law 414 opera 437 662 Index Thomas Paine 443 Richard Price 470 Samuel Pufendorf 487 rights 509 The Rights of Man 513 Maximilien Robespierre 515 United States Bill of Rights 605 United States of America 606 nature x, 416–418, 417 Jacques-Henri Bernardin de Saint-Pierre 53 biology 56 Johann Friedrich Blumenbach 62 Ruggiero Giuseppe Boscovich 67 Joseph Butler 81 Chemical Revolution 103 classicism 115 Copernican Revolution 128 Discourse on the Origins of Inequality 162 English garden 179 Ferdinando Galiani 219 Johann Wolfgang von Goethe 236 Gothic romance 239 Francisco José de Goya y Lucientes 241 grand tour 241 Willem Jacob’s Gravesande 243 Thomas Gray 244 great chain of being 244 Eliza Haywood 265 Johann Gottfried Herder 268 history 271 Alexander von Humboldt 283 Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz 339 Lisbon earthquake 347 Cotton Mather 377 natural law 413 natural rights 415 neoclassicism 420 Isaac Newton 423 optimism 438 orientalism 439 Palladian style 444 perfectibility 448 Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi 449 physico-theology 453 political theory 461 radical Enlightenment 494 Jean-Philippe Rameau 495 On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres 433 Joshua Reynolds 508 Rosicrucians 523 marquis de Sade 529 Johann Friedrich Schiller 536 science 538 scientific method 541 earl of Shaftesbury 553 Social Contract 559 The Sorrows of Young Werther 562 George Stubbs 575 Sturm und Drang 576 sublime 576 subtle fluids 577 sympathy 582 travel literature 598 utility 607 The Vicar of Wakefield 612 vitalism 615 women and the Enlightenment 637 Necker, Jacques 3, 22, 84, 114, 176, 280, 357, 418–419, 419, 570 Necker, Suzanne Curchon de Nasse 159, 231, 418, 419, 570 Needham, John Turberville, Abbé xv c, 57, 184, 225, 419–420, 566 Nelson, Admiral Horatio 359–360 neoclassicism 420–422, 421 See also classicism aesthetics baroque style 38 Berlin 52 Franỗois Boucher 69 Edmund Burke 78 Jacques-Louis David 141 Gobelins tapestry 234 Johann Georg Hamann 257 Laokoon 334 Gotthold Ephraim Lessing 342 Anton Raphael Mengs 387 music 409 Pompeii 466 rococo 518 George Romney 523 Sèvres 552 Jacques-Germain Soufflot 563 Sturm und Drang 576 George Washington 625 Christoph Martin Wieland 631 Johann Joachim Winckelmann 634 Neumann, Balthasar xiv c, 120, 137, 422, 518, 591 Newcomen, Thomas 298, 422, 574 New Eloise, The See Nouvelle Héloise, La New Lanark 422–423 Newton, Isaac x, xiv c, 423–425, 424 alchemy 10 atheism 26 Aufklärung 27 Francis Bacon 36 Daniel Bernoulli 53 Charles Burney 79 cartography 95 Cộsar-Franỗois Cassini de Thury 96 Henry Cavendish 99 Mme du Châtelet 102 Samuel Clarke 113 Anthony Collins 119 Étienne Bonnot de Condillac 123 Copernican Revolution 128 cosmopolitanism 131 deism 146 Joseph-Nicolas Delisle 149 John Theophilus Desaguliers 151 René Descartes 154 Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion 157 Dictionnaire philosophique 158 Discourse on Method 162 empiricism 175 Epicurean philosophy 183 epistemology 184 Benjamin Franklin 206 Freemasons 209 free trade 212 Pierre Gassend 224 Antonio Genovesi 228 Willem Jacob’s Gravesande 243 Edmond Halley 256 hermeticism 269 Jan Ingen-Housz 299 Immanuel Kant 319 Pierre-Simon Laplace 334 Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz 338 longitude 353 Louis XIV of France 356 Nicolas de Malebranche 366 Jean-Paul Marat 368 mathematics and mechanics 375, 376 Pierre-Louis Moreau de Maupertuis 378 mechanical philosophy 380 millenarianism 393 Montesquieu 399 Jean-Antoine Nollet 428 physico-theology 453 Joseph Priestley 471 probability 473 reason 498 religion 502 Republic of Letters 505 revolution 506 Royal Society of London 527 science 538, 539 scientific method 541–542 Scientific Revolution 542 subtle fluids 577 Brook Taylor 585 A Treatise of Human Nature 598 United States of America 606 universities 607 Voltaire 618 Nicolai, Christoph Friedrich 223, 227, 235, 257, 335, 342, 384, 425–427, 563 Niebuhr, Carsten 427 noble savage 427–428, 516, 584, 598 Nollet, Jean-Antoine, Abbé 60, 103, 136, 212, 411, 428–429, 543 Nouvelle Héloise, La (JeanJacques Rousseau) 184, 429, 431 novel 429–431, 430 See also specific novelists; specific novels Nozze di Figaro, Le (Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart) 45, 130, 164, 406, 432, 437, 551, 552, 588 O Oetinger, Friedrich Christoph 10, 433 On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres (Nicolaus Copernicus) 25, 127, 129, 220, 433–435 opera 435, 435–438 The Beggar’s Opera 47 Joseph Boulogne 71 Ranieri de’Calzabigi 87 Canaletto 89 Così fan Tutte 130 Sophie Cottin 132 Don Giovanni 164 Miklós József Esterházy 189 Frederick II 207 John Gay 224–225 Christoph Willibald Gluck 233 Carlo Goldoni 238 George Frederick Handel 260 Franz Joseph Haydn 264 Illuministi 294 Italy 301 Louis XIV of France 355 The Magic Flute 364–365 Mannheim school 368 Milan 392 music 409 Le Nozze di Figaro 432 Orfeo ed Eurydice 438–439 Paris 445 marquise de Pompadour 465 Antoine-Franỗois Prộvost 470 Jean-Philippe Rameau 495 Giuseppe Domenico Scarlatti 533 La Serva Padrona 551–552 Richard Brinsley Sheridan 553 Georg Philipp Telemann 586, 587 theater 588 Venice 611 optimism 438, 498, 540 Orfeo ed Eurydice (Christoph Willibald Gluck) 112, 437, 438–439 orientalism 439–440 See also China orrery 440 Oudry, Jean-Baptiste 440 P paganism 27, 441–442, 503 See also magic Paine, Thomas xvi c, xvii c, 442, 442–443 The Age of Reason 9–10 American Revolution 14 Joel Barlow 37, 38 William Blake 60 Common Sense 122–123 cosmopolitanism 130 Declaration of Independence 141 deism 148 radical Enlightenment 494 The Rights of Man 513 Benjamin Rush 528 secret societies 545 John Horne Tooke 596 A Vindication of the Rights of Woman 614 Palladian style 4, 98, 197, 239, 307, 323, 443–444, 444, 638 Pamela, or Virtue Rewarded (Samuel Richardson) 196, 266, 373, 444–445, 468, 509, 548, 615 Parini, Giuseppe 445 Paris 445–446 Park, Mungo 446 parlements (French royal courts of law) 446–447 absolutism ancien régime 15 anticlericalism 20 aristocratic resurgence 22 Belgium 48 Benedict XIV 49 Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet 67 bureaucracy 76 Charles-Alexandre de Calonne 84 ẫtienne-Franỗois Choiseul 110 class and rank 114 Clement XIII 117 Robert-Franỗois Damiens 138 France 202, 203 Jansenism 305 Jesuits 310 lettres de cachet 343 Louis XIV of France 354 Louis XVI of France 357 Louis XV of France 356 René de Maupeou 377, 378 Montesquieu 398 political theory 462–463 publishing 485 religion 504 Roman Catholicism 520 Anne-Robert-Jacques Turgot 601–602 partitions of Poland 261, 447, 460, 466, 559 perfectibility 447–448 Edmund Burke 78 Marie Condorcet 124 Discourse on the Origins of Inequality 162 Encyclopédie 176 Freemasons 209 genius 227 William Godwin 234 Claude-Adrien Helvétius 267 Thomas Jefferson 308 Thomas Robert Malthus 367 moral philosophy 402 nature 418 Pompeii 466 progress 474 Rosicrucians 524 Benedict de Spinoza 569 Pergolesi, Giovanni Battista 40, 43, 293, 410, 448, 551–552, xv c Persian Letters (Montesquieu) 147, 329, 348, 397, 448–449, 569, 597 Peter I (the Great) xiv c, 450 Catherine II 96 class and rank 114 Joseph-Nicolas Delisle 149 Étienne-Maurice Falconet 192 Josephinism 314 Antoni van Leeuwenhoek 337 Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz 338 Mikhail Vasilivich Lomonosov 351 Moscow 404 Jean-Baptiste Oudry 440 Bartolomeo Rastrelli 496 Saint Petersburg 531 Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences 531 scientific academies 541 Sweden 578 Philadelphia 450–451 American Philosophical Society 13 Joel Barlow 37 Common Sense 122 Declaration of Independence 141 Olaudah Equiano 187 Benjamin Franklin 205 French Revolution 214 Great Awakening 244 Alexander Hamilton 258 John Jay 306 James Madison 362 museums 408 Quakers 489 David Rittenhouse 513 Benjamin Rush 528 scientific academies 541 social institutions 561 United Provinces of Netherlands 604 United States Constitution 605 United States of America 606 George Washington 625 philosopher-king 206, 250, 387, 451, 451–452 philosophes (philosophers) 452, 484 absolutism American Revolution 14 ancien régime 15 anticlericalism 20 Marc-Pierre de Voyer Argenson 21 atheism 26 Aufklärung 27 Battle of the Buffoons 43 Jeremy Bentham 49 Jacques-Henri Bernardin de Saint-Pierre 52 Nicolas-Antoine Boulanger 71 Camisards 88 capital punishment 94 Sébastien-Roch-Nicholas Chamfort 100 Chemical Revolution 103 ẫtienne-Franỗois Choiseul 110 Copernican Revolution 128 Declaration of the Rights of Man 143 deism 148 democracy 149 Denis Diderot 158 Encyclopédie 176 enthusiasm 182, 183 Essays on Crimes and Punishments 188 Franỗois Fộnelon 194 Adam Ferguson 196 France 201 Index Benjamin Franklin 206 freedom 208 Freemasons 211 Ferdinando Galiani 219 Geneva 225 Glorious Revolution 232 Friedrich Melchior Grimm 247 Anne-Cathérine Helvétius 266 Claude-Adrien Helvétius 267 history 272 Huguenots 282 David Hume 286 Italy 300 Thomas Jefferson 308 Karl Wilhelm Ferdinand 321 Wenzel Anton von Kaunitz 322 Joseph de Lalande 328 Maurice-Quentin de La Tour 335 Julie-Jeanne-Eléonore de Lespinasse 341 Louis XV of France 356 Chrétien-Guillaume de Malesherbes 366 Jean-Franỗois Marmontel 373 John Turberville Needham 419 Paris 445 parlements 446 philosopher-king 451 pornography 468 publishing 484 pyrrhonism 488 radical Enlightenment 494 Guillaume-Thomas-Franỗois de Raynal 497 religion 503 Republic of Letters 505 Maximilien Robespierre 516 Roman Catholicism 520 Jean-Jacques Rousseau 524 Benjamin Rush 528 science 538 science of man 540 siècle des lumières 554 social institutions 560 Benedict de Spinoza 569 toleration 594 Anne-Robert-Jacques Turgot 602 Two Treatises of Government 603 United Provinces of Netherlands 605 utility 607 virtue 614, 615 vitalism 616 Waldensians 623 philosophy See specific disciplines, e.g.: aesthetics; specific philosophers, e.g.: Hobbes, Thomas phlogiston theory 452 Torbern Olof Bergman 50 Claude-Louis Berthollet 54 Joseph Black 57 Henry Cavendish 99 Chemical Revolution 103, 104 Friedrich Hoffmann 275 James Hutton 290 Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier 336 Andreas Sigismund Marggraf 370 Joseph Priestley 472 Carl Wilhelm Scheele 534 Georg Ernst Stahl 571 Alessandro Volta 618 phrenology 221, 452–453, 500 physico-theology 56, 285, 453, 458, 499, 578 Physiocrats 453–455, 454 Pierre-Jean-Georges Cabanis 82 Charles-Alexandre de Calonne 84 Catherine II 97 China 108 Declaration of the Rights of Man 143 Denmark 151 Pierre-Samuel Dupont de Nemours 166 Franỗois Fộnelon 195 Gaetano Filangieri 197 France 201 freedom 208 Ferdinando Galiani 219 Antonio Genovesi 228 Jacques de Gournay 241 Illuministi 294 Karl-August 320 laissez-faire 328 Gabriel Bonnot de Mably 361 mercantilism 387 Louis-Sébastien Mercier 388 Jacques Necker 418 perfectibility 448 Victor de Riqueti 394 serfdom 551 Adam Smith 557 Spain 565 toleration 594 Anne-Robert-Jacques Turgot 602 Wealth of Nations 627, 628 piano 409, 454–455 picturesque 331, 455–456, 518 Piedmont 201, 270, 300, 456, 602, 623 Pietism 456–457 Gottfried Arnold 23 Aufklärung 27 William Blake 59 Denmark 151 August Hermann Francke 204 Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi 302 Immanuel Kant 317 Johann Kaspar Lavater 335 Letters on Toleration 343 literacy 347 Moravian Brethren 403 Friedrich Christoph Oetinger 433 perfectibility 448 Protestantism 478 Quakers 489 reason 499 Hermann Samuel Reimarus 501 religion 503 Johann Salomo Semler 546 Philipp Jakob Spener 567 Georg Ernst Stahl 571 synergy 583 Christian Thomasius 590 University of Halle 255 John Wesley 630 Nicolaus Ludwig Zinzendor 642 Piranesi, Giovanni Battista 118, 293, 457 Pius VI (pope) 457–458 Pix, Mary 458, 637 Pluche, Noël-Antoine 458–459 Pluquet, Franỗois-Andrộ-Adrien xvii c, 459 poetry 6, 37, 90, 119, 342, 373, 374, 403, 404 See also specific poets, e.g.: Pope, Alexander Poland 459–460 Joel Barlow 38 Bernardo Bellotto 48 Jacques-Henri Bernardin de Saint-Pierre 52 Brandenburg 72 Calvinism 85 Catherine II 97 ceramic arts 100 China 108 Daniel Niklaus Chodowiecki 109 Clement XIV 118 Nicolaus Copernicus 129 enlightened monarchs 395 Freemasons 210 Élie-Cathérine Fréron 216 Germany 230 Holy Roman Empire 278 Hungary 287 Madame du Châtelet 102 Mass in B Minor 374 neoclassicism 421 partitions of Poland 447 Stanislaw Augustus Poniatowski 466–467 Protestantism 478 On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres 433 serfdom 551 Social Contract 559 Georg Philipp Telemann 586 Voltaire 619 Abraham Gottlob Werner 628 politeness 460–461 political theory ix, 461–464 See also specific headings, e.g.: Locke, John absolutism John Adams 4–6 ancien régime 15 anthropology 19 René-Lous Argenson 22 association movement 25 Aufklärung 27 Jeremy Bentham 49–50 Edmund Burke 78 capital punishment 94 class and rank 114 colonialism 120 democracy 149 Denis Diderot 158 Émile 172 England 178 Epicurean philosophy 183 equality 186 Essays on Crimes and Punishments 188 Frederick II 208 French Revolution 216 William Godwin 234 Johann Wolfgang von Goethe 238 Alexander Hamilton 258 happiness 261 Thomas Hobbes 273 David Hume 286 Francis Hutcheson 289 Illuministi 293 individualism 296 Italy 300 Thomas Jefferson 308 Immanuel Kant 319 Letters on Toleration 343 literacy 347 John Locke 349–351 Gabriel Bonnot de Mably 361 James Madison 362–363 Montesquieu 397–400 Abbé Morelly 404 Thomas Paine 442–443 Richard Price 470 property 476 religion 504 rights 511 The Rights of Man 513 Jean-Jacques Rousseau 524 August Ludwig von Schlözer 537 Scotland 544 separation of church and state 550 separation of powers 550–551 Social Contract 559–560 Benedict de Spinoza 568 The Spirit of Laws 569–570 Johann Friedrich Struensee 575 toleration 594 Two Treatises of Government 602–603 United States Constitution 606 United States of America 606 John Wilkes 633 William III and Mary II 634 Pombal, Sebastiano José de Carvalho e Mello, marquês de xv c, 117, 395, 464, 468 Pompadour, Jeanne-Antoinette Poisson, marquise de xv c, 464–465, 465 Marc-Pierre de Voyer Argenson 21 Franỗois Boucher 68 Jean Calas 83 ceramic arts 100 Jean-Baptiste-Simộon Chardin 101 ẫtienne-Franỗois Choiseul 110 Robert-Franỗois Damiens 138 Étienne-Maurice Falconet 192 Jean-Honoré Fragonard 200 Élie-Cathérine Fréron 216 Marie-Thérèse Rodet Geoffrin 230 Jesuits 310 Louis XV of France 356 Jean-Franỗois Marmontel 373 rococo 518 Saint-Germain 530 Sốvres 552 Jacques-Germain Soufflot 563 Voltaire 619 Pompeii 90, 465–466 Poniatowski, Stanislaw Augustus 48, 97, 216, 230, 395, 460, 466–467 Pope, Alexander x, xv c, 467, 553 Henry St John Bolingbroke 64 William Congreve 126 John Gay 225 Gulliver’s Travels 250 Stephen Hales 255 Eliza Haywood 265 homosexuality 279 landscapes 331 literature 348 Moses Mendelssohn 385 Isaac Newton 424 physico-theology 453 rococo 519 social institutions 560 Philip Dormer Stanhope 106 Stowe 575 Tom Jones 595 Voltaire 618 porcelain xiv c, 383–384 See also Meissen works; Sèvres pornography 467–468, 476, 529 See also libertine; Sade, marquis de Portugal 468 absolutism anticlericalism 20 George Gordon Byron 81 Clement XIII 117 Clement XIV 118 colonialism 120 East India Company 169 John Hunter 287 Jesuits 310 justice and the law 315 Lisbon earthquake 346 John Turberville Needham 419 Sebastiano Pombal 464 Protestantism 478 publishing 485 Roman Catholicism 519 Giuseppe Domenico Scarlatti 534 scientific academies 541 663 slavery 557 Spain 565 toleration 594 voyages of discovery 620 power loom 23, 96, 298, 469, 568, 586, 626 Prandtauer, Jakob 39, 469 preformation theory 62, 65, 183, 225, 255, 379, 391, 396, 419, 469470, 566, 599 Prộvost, Antoine-Franỗois 348, 470 Price, Richard 14, 163, 286, 470–471, 494, 633, 637 Priestley, Joseph xvi c, 471, 471–472 American Revolution 14 biology 57 Sir William Blackstone 59 William Blake 60 Henry Cavendish 99 Chemical Revolution 103 cosmopolitanism 130 Declaration of Independence 141 Dissenters 163 Stephen Hales 255 David Hartley 263 Jan Ingen-Housz 298 Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier 336 Lunar Society of Birmingham 358 phlogiston theory 452 radical Enlightenment 494 Thomas Reid 500 Carl Wilhelm Scheele 534 Georg Ernst Stahl 571 Alessandro Volta 618 John Wilkes 633 Principia mathematica (Isaac Newton) x, 102, 112, 113, 256, 425, 472, 541, 619 Pringle, John 57, 298, 472–473, 527, 616, 630 probability 334–335, 470, 473–474, 488, 498, 539 progress 474, 474–476, 475 property 476–477 prostitution 279, 476–477 Protestantism 477–479 Anglicans 16 Aufklärung 28 baroque style 38 Pierre Bayle 44 Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion 157 Dissenters 163 England 177 Gallicanism 222 Huguenots 281 Jansenism 306 Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz 340 Letters on Toleration 343 literacy 347 Lutheranism 358–359 Methodism 390 religion 502 On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres 434 Roman Catholicism 519 Scientific Revolution 543 Scotland 543 separation of church and state 549 Spain 565 John Toland 593 toleration 594 women and the Enlightenment 637 Nicolaus Ludwig Zinzendor 642 Prussia 479 Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach 32 Berlin 51 Brandenburg 72 bureaucracy 76 664 Index Catherine II 97 Daniel Niklaus Chodowiecki 109 ẫtienne-Franỗois Choiseul 110 class and rank 114 Clement XIV 118 Diplomatic Revolution of 1756 160 dynastic states 166 enlightened despotism 155 France 203 Frederick II 206–208 French Revolution 215 Johann Wolfgang von Goethe 237 Haitian Revolution 254 Haskalah 263 Holy Roman Empire 278 Huguenots 282 Wilhelm von Humboldt 283 Italy 301 Jews and Judaism 312 Immanuel Kant 317 Karl-August 320 Karl Wilhelm Ferdinand 321 Wenzel Anton von Kaunitz 322 Heinrich von Kleist 324 Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock 325 Julien Offray de La Mettrie 330 literacy 347 Louis XIV of France 355 Louis XV of France 356 Maria Theresa of Austria 371 Jean-Franỗois Marmontel 374 materialism 375 Pierre-Louis Moreau de Maupertuis 379 Moses Mendelssohn 384 mercantilism 387 partitions of Poland 447 Peter I 450 philosopher-king 452 Pietism 457 Poland 460 political theory 463 Stanislaw Augustus Poniatowski 466 Protestantism 479 publishing 485 Samuel Pufendorf 487 Guillaume-Thomas-Franỗois de Raynal 497 Johann Christian Reil 500 religion 504 Republic of Letters 505 Roman Catholicism 521 scientific academies 540 serfdom 551 Seven Years’ War 552 Siècle de Louis XIV 554 Emmanuel-Joseph Sieyès 555 Social Contract 559 social institutions 561 Spain 565 Georg Ernst Stahl 571 Sturm und Drang 576 Gottfried Bernhard Swieten 580 Christian Thomasius 590 toleration 595 universities 607 University of Halle 255 War of the Austrian Succession 624 Wealth of Nations 628 psychology 479–482 aesthetics Jean Le Rond d’Alembert 11 Aufklärung 27 biblical criticism 54 Charles Bonnet 65 Pierre-Jean-Georges Cabanis 82–83 capital punishment 94 Anthony Collins 120 Étienne Bonnot de Condillac 123 Ralph Cudworth 135 René Descartes 152 Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion 157 Denis Diderot 159 Jean-Baptiste Du Bos 165 education 170 Jonathan Edwards 172 empiricism 174, 175 England 178 epistemology 184 equality 186 Essays on Crimes and Punishments 188 Adam Ferguson 196 Bernard Le Bovier de Fontenelle 198 Galileo Galilei 220 Franz Joseph Gall 221 Johann Christoph Gatterer 224 Gothic romance 239 Johann Georg Hamann 257 happiness 261 David Hartley 262–263 Claude-Adrien Helvétius 267 history 271 Thomas Hobbes 274 David Hume 284 Francis Hutcheson 289 Idéologie 292 Idéologues 292 individualism 296 intuition and imagination 299 Thomas Jefferson 308 Immanuel Kant 318 Georg Christoph Lichtenberg 345 John Locke 349–351 materialism 374 medicine 380 Moses Mendelssohn 386 moral philosophy 402 nature 416 perfectibility 447 phrenology 452–453 Pietism 457 Joseph Priestley 472 rationalism 496 reason 499 relations 502 religion 502 rights 511 science of man 540 Scotland 544 sensibility 547 sentimental fiction 548 skepticism 556 A Treatise of Human Nature 598 universities 607 Giovan Battista Vico 612 public health 474, 482–483, 483 publishing 42, 484, 484–486, 505, 566–567, 574, 637 Pufendorf, Samuel 486–487 American Revolution 14 civil society 111 Declaration of Independence 142 Germany 230 Johann Gottfried Herder 268 history 272 Thomas Hobbes 274 natural law 413 political theory 461 rights 511 Social Contract 559 The Spirit of Laws 570 Christian Thomasius 589 Emmerich de Vattel 610 pyrrhonism 271, 487–488 Q Quakers 59, 77, 187, 343, 448, 451, 489, 499, 503, 531, 557, 632 Quarrel between the Ancients and the Moderns 7, 19, 43, 115, 195, 199, 329, 355, 489490, xiv c Quesnay, Franỗois xv c, xvi c, 91, 166, 176, 212, 241, 388, 394, 453, 490, 602, 627 R race vii, 62, 120, 142, 246, 491, 491–494 radical Enlightenment 439, 494–495 Rake’s Progress (William Hogarth) 495 Rameau, Jean-Philippe xv c, 12, 40, 43, 69, 87, 329, 374, 410, 436, 495–496 Rastrelli, Bartolomo 496, 518, 531 rationalism 496–497 aesthetics Gottfried Arnold 24 Aufklärung 27 Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten 44 classification 115 Samuel Taylor Coleridge 119 Étienne Bonnot de Condillac 123 deism 146 René Descartes 152 Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion 156 empiricism 174 enlightened monarchs 395 An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding 182 epistemology 184 equality 186 August Hermann Francke 204 Frederick II 208 Antonio Genovesi 228 Johann Georg Hamann 257 Johann Gottfried Herder 269 David Hume 284 Immanuel Kant 318 Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz 339 Gotthold Ephraim Lessing 342 Moses Mendelssohn 385 moral philosophy 401 natural law 413 natural religion 415 Isaac Newton 423 On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres 433 progress 475 psychology 480 pyrrhonism 488 reason 499 Robinson Crusoe 516 romanticism 522 comte de Saint-Germain 530 Louis-Claude de Saint-Martin 531 skepticism 556 Benedict de Spinoza 568–569 Emanuel Swedenborg 579 Jonathan Swift 581 John Tillotson 592 A Treatise of Human Nature 598 University of Halle 255 Giovan Battista Vico 612 Raynal, Guillaume-ThomasFranỗois de (Abbộ) xvi c, 497–498 anthropology 20 demography 150 Denis Diderot 159 enlightened despotism 155 Marie-Thérèse Rodet Geoffrin 230 Haitian Revolution 253 Histoire des deux Indes 270, 271 Industrial Revolution 298 Julie-Jeanne-Eléonore de Lespinasse 342 slavery 557 Toussaint Louverture 596 travel literature 598 reading clubs See social institutions of the Enlightenment reason ix, 498–499 aesthetics The Age of Reason 10 Jean Le Rond d’Alembert 12 anthropology 19 anticlericalism 20 René-Lous Argenson 22 Aufklärung 27 Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten 43 Pierre Bayle 44 Jeremy Bentham 49 Jacques-Henri Bernardin de Saint-Pierre 53 William Blake 59 Johann Jakob Bodmer 62 Johann Jakob Breitinger 72 Georges-Louis Leclerc Buffon 76 bureaucracy 76 Pierre-Jean-Georges Cabanis 82 Calvinism 87 Samuel Clarke 113 classicism 115 Samuel Taylor Coleridge 119 Anthony Collins 120 Marie Condorcet 124 Così fan Tutte 130 Ralph Cudworth 135 deism 146 Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion 157 Denis Diderot 160 divine right of kings 163 education 170 Émile 172 empiricism 174 English garden 179 An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding 182 enthusiasm 182 epistemology 184 Faust 193 Bernard Le Bovier de Fontenelle 198 Benjamin Franklin 206 Freemasons 209 French Revolution 214, 216 Johann Christoph Gatterer 224 genius 226 Edward Gibbon 232 Gothic revival 239 Gothic romance 239 Johann Christoph Gottsched 241 Gulliver’s Travels 250 Johann Georg Hamann 257 Eliza Haywood 265 Claude-Adrien Helvétius 267 Johann Gottfried Herder 267 Historical and Critical Dictionary 271 history 272 David Hume 285 Francis Hutcheson 289 Industrial Revolution 298 intuition and imagination 299 Jansenism 306 Thomas Jefferson 308 Immanuel Kant 317 Pierre de Laclos 326 language 332 Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz 339 Gotthold Ephraim Lessing 342 libertine 344 John Locke 350 The Magic Flute 364 Nicolas de Malebranche 365 mathematics and mechanics 375 Methodism 390 Montesquieu 398 moral philosophy 400, 403 Justus Möser 405 natural law 413 natural religion 415 nature 416 neoclassicism 420 Isaac Newton 423 La Nouvelle Héloise 429 optimism 438 paganism 441 Palladian style 443 perfectibility 447 Persian Letters 449 phrenology 453 Physiocrats 453 Pompeii 466 Richard Price 470 progress 474 Samuel Pufendorf 487 pyrrhonism 488 radical Enlightenment 494 rationalism 496 religion 503 rights 511 Robinson Crusoe 517 romanticism 522 Rosicrucians 523 Jean-Jacques Rousseau 526 Louis-Claude de Saint-Martin 531 science 538 science of man 540 Scientific Revolution 542 self-interest 545 Johann Salomo Semler 547 sensibility 548 sentimental fiction 548 earl of Shaftesbury 553 skepticism 556 Adam Smith 557 Benedict de Spinoza 568 Laurence Sterne 574 superstition 577 Christian Thomasius 589 John Tillotson 592 Matthew Tindal 592 John Toland 593 toleration 594 Two Treatises of Government 603 Giovan Battista Vico 612 A Vindication of the Rights of Woman 614 John Wesley 630 Christoph Martin Wieland 631 women and the Enlightenment 637 Réaumur, René-Antoine Ferchault de 428, 469, 499, 599 Reflections on the Revolution in France (Edmund Burke) 78, 443, 471, 499, 513, 614, 636 Reid, Thomas ix, x, 14, 286, 402, 453, 472, 480, 499–500, 544 Reil, Johann Christian 28, 57, 240, 382, 482, 500–501, 528 Reimarus, Hermann Samuel 148, 359, 501, 547 relations 501–502 religion vii, 502–504 See also theology; specific types of religion, e.g.: Roman Catholicism The Age of Reason 9–10 anthropology 19 Index anticlericalism 20 Jean-Baptiste de Boyer Argens 20 Gottfried Arnold 24 atheism 27 Henry St John Bolingbroke 64 Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet 67–68 Henri de Boulainvilliers 70 Nicolas-Antoine Boulanger 70 Charles de Brosses 73 Robert Burns 80 Antoine Calmet 83–84 Camisards 88 China 106, 107 Samuel Clarke 113 Clement XII 117 colonialism 120 James Cook 126 Nicolaus Copernicus 129 deism 146 Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion 156–157 Adam Ferguson 196 Bernard Le Bovier de Fontenelle 198 France 202 freedom 208 Gallicanism 222 Félicité de Genlis 228 Johann Wolfgang von Goethe 235 Great Awakening 244 great chain of being 244 Johann Georg Hamann 257 hermeticism 269–270 history 271 The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire 144 Thomas Hobbes 274 Paul-Henri Thiry d’Holbach 277–278 Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi 302 Jews and Judaism 310, 312 Joseph II of Austria 314 Josephinism 314–315 Immanuel Kant 318, 319 Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock 324 Johann Kaspar Lavater 335 Gotthold Ephraim Lessing 342 Letters on Toleration 343 libertine 344 John Locke 350, 351 Louis XIV of France 355 Cotton Mather 376–377 medicine 382 Moses Mendelssohn 386 millenarianism 393–394 Moravian Brethren 403 natural religion 414–415 Suzanne Necker 419 Friedrich Christoph Oetinger 433 optimism 438 paganism 441–442 physico-theology 453 Pius VI 457–458 Noël-Antoine Pluche 458–459 political theory 463 Joseph Priestley 472 progress 476 Protestantism 477–479 psychology 479 pyrrhonism 487 Franỗois Quesnay 490 radical Enlightenment 494 reason 499 Hermann Samuel Reimarus 501 Republic of Letters 504 Johann Friedrich Schiller 535 science 538 science of man 540 sensibility 547 separation of church and state 549–550 slavery 557 Benedict de Spinoza 569 Mme de Staël 571 superstition 577 Emanuel Swedenborg 579 John Toland 593 travel literature 598 Sarah Trimmer 599, 600 United Provinces of Netherlands 605 United States Bill of Rights 605 virtue 614 George Washington 625 women and the Enlightenment 638 Thomas Woolston 638 Republic of Letters 153, 338, 504–506 revolution 506, 506–508 See also American Revolution; French Revolution Reynolds, Joshua xvi c, 508, 508–509 James Boswell 68 Edmund Burke 77 Charles Burney 79 Henry Fuseli 217 David Garrick 223 Oliver Goldsmith 238 William Hunter 288 Samuel Johnson 313 Angelica Kauffman 321 Elizabeth Montagu 396 neoclassicism 421 rococo 518 George Romney 523 Richard Brinsley Sheridan 553 Richardson, Samuel xv c, 509 Clarissa 112–113 Henry Fielding 196 Sarah Fielding 197 Pierre de Laclos 326 Charlotte Ramsay Lennox 341 libertine 344 literature 348 Pierre de Marivaux 373 Pamela 444–445 pornography 468 probability 473 sentimental fiction 548 Tom Jones 595 virtue 615 rights vii, 415–416, 509–513, 510 Rights of Man, The (Thomas Paine) 130, 442, 443, 494, 513, 614 Rittenhouse, David 13, 451, 513–514 Rivals, The (Richard Brinsley) 514 Robertson, William 111, 144, 170, 195, 231, 272, 514515, 527, 544 Robespierre, Maximilien Franỗois Isadore 515516 Franỗois-Noel Babeuf 31 Louis-Antoine de Bougainville 69 Lazare Carnot 94 Jacques-Louis David 141 democracy 149 Antoine Destutt de Tracy 156 equality 186 Jean-Baptiste-Joseph Fourier 200 French Academy of Sciences 213 French Revolution 214 Idéologie 292 Jacobins 304 Pierre de Laclos 326 Joseph de Lalande 328 revolution 507 Louis-Antoine-Léon de SaintJust 530 Claude-Henri de Saint-Simon 532 Emmanuel-Joseph Sieyès 554, 555 Social Contract 559 Mme de Staël 570 Constantin Volney 617 Robinson Crusoe (Daniel Dafoe) 429, 473, 516–517 rococo 517, 517–519 Robert and James Adam aesthetics Cosmas Damian Asam 24 Egid Quirin Asam 24 Austria 29 Johann Sebastian Bach 35 baroque style 38 Berlin 52 Franỗois Boucher 68 ceramic arts 99 chinoiserie 109 Thomas Chippendale 109 Cologne 120 Franỗois Couperin 133 Franỗois de Cuvilliộs 137 English garden 179 Étienne-Maurice Falconet 192 Jean-Honoré Fragonard 201 Thomas Gainsborough 218 Germany 230 Gobelins tapestry 234 Francisco José de Goya y Lucientes 241 Johann Lukas von Hildebrandt 270 William Hogarth 275 Jean-Antoine Houdon 280 Illuministi 294 Nicolas Lancret 330 Maurice-Quentin de La Tour 335 Pietro Longhi 353 Louis XV of France 356 Pierre de Marivaux 373 Meissen works 384 Milan 392 music 408, 409 neoclassicism 420 Balthasar Neumann 422 Jean-Baptiste Oudry 440 Paris 446 marquise de Pompadour 465 Roman Catholicism 520 George Romney 523 Thomas Rowlandson 526 Saint Petersburg 531 sensibility 548 Sèvres 552 George Stubbs 575 style galant 576 sublime 576 Giovanni Battista Tiepolo 591 Roman Catholicism 519–521 The Age of Reason 10 ancien régime 15 Anglicans 16, 17 Gottfried Arnold 24 Johann Christian Bach 33 baroque style 38 comtesse du Barry 42 Pierre Bayle 44 Benedict XIV 49 Henri de Boulainvilliers 70 Jean Calas 83 Calvinism 85 Camisards 88 Candide 89 China 106 Clement XII 117 Clement XIII 117–118 Clement XIV 118 Cologne 120 Marie Condorcet 124 deism 147, 148 Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion 157 Dictionnaire philosophique 158 John Dryden 164 England 177, 178 Febronianism 194 Franỗois Fộnelon 194195 French Revolution 215 Gallicanism 222 Pierre Gassend 224 Edward Gibbon 231 history 272 Huguenots 281 Illuministi 293 Jansenism 305–306 Jesuits 309–310 Josephinism 314 Kingdom of the Two Sicilies 324 Letters on Toleration 343 Louis XIV of France 355 Lutheranism 358, 359 The Magic Flute 365 Jean-Paul Marat 368 Montesquieu 397 moral philosophy 402 Lodovico Antonio Muratori 408 John Turberville Needham 419 Pius VI 457–458 Alexander Pope 467 Protestantism 477, 478 publishing 485 Guillaume-Thomas-Franỗois de Raynal 497 religion 502 rights 511 Rome 522–523 Jean-Jacques Rousseau 524 Scientific Revolution 542 Scotland 543 separation of church and state 549, 550 Richard Simon 556 Josef von Sonnenfels 562 Spain 565 John Tillotson 592 toleration 594 University of Göttingen 240 Voltaire 620 Waldensians 623 Johann Joachim Winckelmann 634 romanticism x, 521–522 aesthetics Aufklärung 28 Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach 32 Ludwig van Beethoven 46 Jacques-Henri Bernardin de Saint-Pierre 53 William Blake 59 Edmund Burke 78 George Gordon Byron 81 Samuel Taylor Coleridge 119 William Cowper 134 epistemology 185 Faust 193 Caspar David Friedrich 217 Henry Fuseli 217 Johann Wolfgang von Goethe 236 Gothic romance 239 Francisco José de Goya y Lucientes 241 Thomas Gray 243 Johann Georg Hamann 258 Johann Gottfried Herder 269 Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres 299 Immanuel Kant 320 Heinrich von Kleist 324 Laokoon 334 music 410 nature 416 665 John Turberville Needham 420 neoclassicism 422 paganism 442 perfectibility 448 reason 499 The Rivals 514 marquis de Sade 529 Louis-Claude de Saint-Martin 531 sensibility 548 sublime 577 Mary Wollstonecraft 636 Rome 522–523 Robert and James Adam Francesco Algarotti 12 baroque style 38 Jean-Jacques Barthélemy 41 Bernardo Bellotto 48 Benedict XIV 49 Ruggiero Giuseppe Boscovich 66 Franỗois Boucher 68 Charles Burney 79 Alessandro Cagliostro 83 Canaletto 89 Antonio Canova 90 Giovanni Giacomo Casanova 96 ẫtienne-Franỗois Choiseul 110 Muzio Clementi 118 Clement XII 117 Clement XIV 118 Arcangelo Corelli 129 Jacques-Louis David 141 Dictionnaire philosophique 158 enlightened absolutism Étienne-Maurice Falconet 192 Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach 197 Jean-Honoré Fragonard 200 France 203 Henry Fuseli 217 Gallicanism 222 Edward Gibbon 231 Francisco José de Goya y Lucientes 241 grand tour 241 Huguenots 281 Wilhelm von Humboldt 283 Bavarian Illuminati 293 Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres 299 Jesuits 310 Jews and Judaism 310 Joseph II of Austria 314 Angelica Kauffman 321 Wenzel Anton von Kaunitz 322 William Kent 322 Lutheranism 358 Anton Raphael Mengs 386 Montesquieu 398 neoclassicism 421 Giovanni Battista Piranesi 457 Protestantism 478 Joshua Reynolds 508 William Robertson 514 Giuseppe Domenico Scarlatti 533 Richard Simon 555 Jacques-Germain Soufflot 563 United Provinces of Netherlands 604 Antonio Vivaldi 616 Johann Joachim Winckelmann 634 Joseph Wright 639 Romney, George 523 Rosicrucians 98, 152, 210, 293, 338, 447, 523–524, 544, 561, 579 Rousseau, Jean-Jacques ix, x, xv c, xvi c, 524–526, 525 American Revolution 14 anthropology 20 666 Index Gottfried Arnold 24 Franỗois-Noel Babeuf 31 Battle of the Buffoons 43 Jacques-Henri Bernardin de Saint-Pierre 52 James Boswell 68 Jean-Jacques Burlamaqui 79 Ranieri de’Calzabigi 87 civil society 111 Clement XIII 118 Étienne Bonnot de Condillac 123 Confessions 125–126 Sophie Cottin 132 Declaration of Independence 142 deism 148 Discourse on the Origins of Inequality 162–163 Maria Edgeworth 169 education 170 Émile 172–173 Encyclopédie 176 encyclopedists 177 Louise d’Épinay 184 equality 186 Charles-Simon Favart 193 freedom 209 French Revolution 216 Geneva 226 Friedrich Melchior Grimm 247 Haitian Revolution 253 Johann Georg Hamann 258 Claude-Adrien Helvétius 267 Historical and Critical Dictionary 271 history 272 Thomas Hobbes 274 honor 280 Jean-Antoine Houdon 281 David Hume 286 Bavarian Illuminati 293 Elizabeth Inchbald 296 intuition and imagination 300 Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi 302 justice and the law 315 Immanuel Kant 317 Maurice-Quentin de La Tour 335 Gabriel Bonnot de Mably 361 Chrétien-Guillaume de Malesherbes 366 Montesquieu 399 Abbé Morelly 404 Johannes von Müller 406 music 410 natural law 414 natural rights 416 noble savage 427–428 La Nouvelle Héloise 429 novel 431 paganism 442 perfectibility 448 Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi 449 philosophes 452 physico-theology 453 Poland 460 politeness 460 political theory 461 progress 475 property 476 Jean-Philippe Rameau 495 Republic of Letters 505 rights 511–513 Maximilien Robespierre 515 Robinson Crusoe 517 romanticism 521 Louis-Claude de Saint-Martin 531 Savoy 533 self-interest 546 Social Contract 559–560 Mme de Staël 570 Two Treatises of Government 603 Giovan Battista Vico 613 A Vindication of the Rights of Woman 614 Voltaire 619 George Washington 625 women and the Enlightenment 637 Nicolaus Ludwig Zinzendor 642 Rowlandson, Thomas 526–527 Royal Society of Edinburgh 57, 136, 170, 195, 289, 396, 527, 541, 544 Royal Society of London 527 Francis Bacon 36 Joseph Banks 37 Johann Friedrich Blumenbach 61 Hermann Boerhaave 63 Louis-Antoine de Bougainville 69 Georges-Louis Leclerc de Buffon 75 Henry Cavendish 99 China 108 Samuel Clarke 113 James Cook 126 William Cullen 136 Erasmus Darwin 139 Joseph-Nicolas Delisle 149 England 178 epistemology 184 Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit 192 Jean-Baptiste-Joseph Fourier 200 Benjamin Franklin 206 Freemasons 209 Willem Jacob’s Gravesande 243 John Hadley 252 Stephen Hales 255 Edmond Halley 256 Sir William Hamilton 259 William Herschel 270 John Hunter 288 William Hunter 288 Pierre-Simon Laplace 334 Antoni van Leeuwenhoek 337 Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz 338 John Locke 349 London 352 Thomas Robert Malthus 367 Cotton Mather 377 Montesquieu 398 John Turberville Needham 419 Isaac Newton 424 Richard Price 471 John Pringle 473 progress 475 Royal Society of Edinburgh 527 scientific academies 540 social institutions 561 Brook Taylor 585 Abraham Trembley 599 Alessandro Volta 617 Robert Whytt 630 Sir Christopher Wren 638 Arthur Young 640 Rumford, Benjamin Thompson, count von 483, 527–528, 538 Rush, Benjamin 443, 528 Russia See also specific headings, e.g.: Catherine II bureaucracy 76 class and rank 114 Clement XIV 118 colonialism 120, 121 Denmark 150 enlightened despotism 155 Johann Georg Adam Forster 199 Germany 230 Haskalah 263 Wilhelm von Humboldt 283 Jews and Judaism 310 Mikhail Vasilivich Lomonosov 351 partitions of Poland 447 Poland 459 Stanislaw Augustus Poniatowski 466 serfdom 551 S Sade, marquis de (DonatienAlphonse-Franỗois) 344, 348, 431, 529, 615 Saint-Germain, comte de 10, 83, 210, 448, 529–530, 531 Saint-Just, Louis-Antoine-Léon de 214, 304, 515, 530 Saint-Martin, Louis-Claude de 10, 210, 448, 503, 530–531 Saint Matthew Passion (Johann Sebastian Bach) (choral work) 35, 531 Saint Petersburg xiv c, 531 Jean Le Rond d’Alembert 12 Francesco Algarotti 12 Berlin 52 Johann Friedrich Blumenbach 61 Franỗois Boucher 68 Catherine II 98 Denis Diderot 159 Leonhard Euler 190 Étienne-Maurice Falconet 192 Friedrich Melchior Grimm 247 Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz 338 Mikhail Vasilivich Lomonosov 351 medicine 383 Moscow 404 opera 437 Orfeo ed Eurydice 439 Peter I 450 John Pringle 473 rococo 518 Saint-Germain 530 August Ludwig von Schlözer 537 theater 588 universities 607 Élisabeth-Louise Vigée Lebrun 613 vitalism 616 Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences xv c, 53, 75, 112, 149, 190, 527, 531–532, 537, 541 Saint-Simon, Claude-Henri, de Rouvroy, comte de 532 salons See also social institutions of the Enlightenment Mme du Châtelet 102 Marie Deffand 144–145 Louise Épinay 184 Anne Helvétius 266 Paul d’Holbach 277 Anne-Thérèse Lambert 329 Julie de Lespinasse 341–342 Marie-Thérèse Rodet 229–230 Elizabeth Montagu 396 Suzanne Necker 419 Sancho, Ignatius 532–533 Savoy 533 Giovanni Giacomo Casanova 96 France 201 Pietro Giannone 231 Huguenots 282 Italy 300 Kingdom of the Two Sicilies 323 Joseph-Louis Lagrange 327 Piedmont 456 Switzerland 582 Turin 602 Scarlatti, Giuseppe Domenico 40, 293, 363, 410, 533–534, 565 Scheele, Carl Wilhelm 9, 103, 336, 452, 534, 571, 618 Schiller, Johann Christoph Friedrich xvi c, xvii c, 534–537, 535 Ludwig van Beethoven 46 Confessions 126 Adam Ferguson 196 Johann Georg Adam Forster 199 freedom 209 Germany 230 Johann Wolfgang von Goethe 236 Wilhelm von Humboldt 283 Karl-August 320 Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock 325 landscapes 331 literature 348 James Macpherson 362 Johannes von Müller 406 neoclassicism 421 Sturm und Drang 576 Switzerland 582 vitalism 616 Christoph Martin Wieland 631 Wilhelm Tell 632 Schlözer, August Ludwig von 537 enlightened despotism 155 Johann Christoph Gatterer 224 Johann Gottfried Herder 268 intuition and imagination 300 Johannes von Müller 406 perfectibility 448 Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences 532 Johann Friedrich Schiller 536 slavery 557 University of Göttingen 240 Giovan Battista Vico 613 science x, 537–540, 538, vii See also specific types of science, e.g.: astronomy alchemy 10 animalculism 19 animism 19–20 Aufklärung 27 Francis Bacon 36 Battle of the Buffoons 43 Berlin Academy 52 Georges-Louis Leclerc de Buffon 74–76 Henry Cavendish 99 China 108 Samuel Clarke 113 Copernican Revolution 128 Charles-Augustin de Coulomb 132–133 Ralph Cudworth 135 deism 147 John Theophilus Desaguliers 151 René Descartes 151–155 Denis Diderot 158 Dissenters 163 Maria Edgeworth 169 education 170 empiricism 174 England 178 epistemology 184 Leonhard Euler 191 Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit 192 Bernard Le Bovier de Fontenelle 198 Johann Georg Adam Forster 199 Benjamin Franklin 206 French Academy of Sciences 212–213 Galileo Galilei 219–221 Luigi Galvani 222–223 Pierre Gassend 224 geocentric 228–229 Gothic revival 239 Willem Jacob’s Gravesande 243 Johann Gottfried Herder 268 hermeticism 269 history 271 Paul-Henri Thiry d’Holbach 278 Alexander von Humboldt 282–283 James Hutton 290 iatrochemistry 291 iatromechanics 291 Idéologues 292 Industrial Revolution 298 intuition and imagination 299 Jansenism 306 Thomas Jefferson 308 Immanuel Kant 318 Pierre-Simon Laplace 334–335 Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier 335–336 Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz 339 literature 348 London 352 Louis XIV of France 354 Lunar Society of Birmingham 358 James Madison 362 Manchester Literacy and Philosophical Society 367 materialism 374–375 mathematics and mechanics 376 Pierre-Louis Moreau de Maupertuis 378–379 medicine 381 Marin Mersenne 388, 389 Moscow 405 nature 416 Isaac Newton 423–425 Jean-Antoine Nollet 428–429 Thomas Paine 443 phlogiston theory 452 Noël-Antoine Pluche 458–459 radical Enlightenment 494 rationalism 496 reason 499 René-Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur 499 relations 502 Royal Society of Edinburgh 527 Royal Society of London 527 Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences 531–532 Claude-Henri de Saint-Simon 532 Carl Wilhelm Scheele 534 science of man 540 scientific method 541–542 Scientific Revolution 542–543 sensibility 547 separation of church and state 550 social institutions 561 subtle fluids 577 Emanuel Swedenborg 579 sympathy 582 Benjamin Thompson 528 Abraham Trembley 599 Anne-Robert-Jacques Turgot 602 universities 607 utility 607 Alessandro Volta 618–619 Abraham Gottlob Werner 628–629 Robert Whytt 630 Christian Wolff 635 women and the Enlightenment 638 Arthur Young 640 science of man 286, 292, 335, 448, 482, 540, 543, 558 Index scientific academies 531–532, 540–541 See also specific academies, e.g.: Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences scientific method 541–542 Scientific Revolution 542–543 astronomy 25 atheism 26 barometer 38 baroque style 38 biology 56 James Bradley 72 caloric 85 Samuel Clarke 113 classification 115 Copernican Revolution 127 deism 146 René Descartes 152 Bernard Le Bovier de Fontenelle 198 Galileo Galilei 221 Pierre Gassend 224 David Hartley 263 Thomas Hobbes 273 Bavarian Illuminati 293 Industrial Revolution 297 Johannes Kepler 323 libertine 344 mathematics and mechanics 375 mechanical philosophy 379 medicine 381 Marin Mersenne 388 moral philosophy 400 natural philosophy 414 nature 416 physico-theology 453 political theory 461 progress 475 religion 502 revolution 506 On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres 433 Royal Society of London 527 science 538 scientific academies 540 scientific method 541 siècle des lumières 554 technology and instrumentation 585 telescope 587 Scotland x, xiv c, 543–544 biology 56 Thomas Blackwell 59 James Boswell 68 Robert Burns 80 George Gordon Byron 81 Calvinism 85 civil society 111 colonialism 121 Anthony Cooper 553 David Dale 138 democracy 149 dynastic states 166 Edinburgh 169–170 Adam Ferguson 195 Freemasons 209 Sir William Hamilton 259 David Hume 286 James Hutton 290 Industrial Revolution 296 Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi 302 Thomas Jefferson 307 Samuel Johnson 312 justice and the law 315 language 333 literacy 347 James Macpherson 362 John Loudon McAdam 379 John Millar 392 moral philosophy 402 neoclassicism 421 New Lanark 422–423 Mungo Park 446 Philadelphia 451 John Pringle 472–473 psychology 480 publishing 485 Republic of Letters 505 rights 512 William Robertson 514 Jean-Jacques Rousseau 525 Royal Society of Edinburgh 527 Benjamin Rush 528 science of man 540 Adam Smith 557 social institutions 561 Lazzaro Spallanzani 566 technology and instrumentation 586 John Toland 593 universities 607 James Watt 626 Robert Whytt 630 secret societies 269, 303, 544–545, 561 See also Freemasons; Illuminati, Bavarian; Rosicrucians self-interest 545–546 civil society 111 Anthony Cooper 553 Discourse on the Origins of Inequality 162 divine right of kings 163 equality 186 David Hartley 263 Claude-Adrien Helvétius 267 David Hume 285 moral philosophy 401 partitions of Poland 447 marquis de Sade 529 Adam Smith 558 Social Contract 559 The Spirit of Laws 570 virtue 615 Wealth of Nations 627 Christoph Martin Wieland 631 Semler, Johann Salomo 10, 55, 270, 546–547, 635 sensibility 547, 547–548 sentimental fiction 548–549 Clarissa 112–113 John Cleland 117, 468 literature 348 Pierre de Marivaux 373 music 409 La Nouvelle Héloise 429 novel 430 Pamela 444–445 pornography 468 Antoine-Franỗois Prộvost 470 Samuel Richardson 509 The Rivals 514 sensibility 548 Richard Brinsley Sheridan 553 Tristram Shandy 600 The Vicar of Wakefield 611 virtue 615 separation of church and state 549–550 American Revolution 14 ancien régime 16 Joel Barlow 37 capital punishment 93 deism 148 enlightened absolutism France 201 French Revolution 216 John Locke 350 James Madison 362 political theory 463 religion 503, 504 toleration 595 United States of America 606 separation of powers 550–551 John Adams American Revolution 14 Declaration of the Rights of Man 143 Essays on Crimes and Punishments 188 France 202 French Revolution 213 James Madison 362 Montesquieu 398 nature 418 political theory 462 The Spirit of Laws 570 Two Treatises of Government 603 United States Constitution 606 United States of America 606 serfdom xvi c, 151, 207, 450, 479, 551, 578 Serva Padrona, La (Giovanni Battista Pergolesi) 43, 551–552 Seven Years’ War xv c, 552 Austria 29 Jacques-Henri Bernardin de Saint-Pierre 52 ẫtienne-Franỗois Choiseul 110 Michel de Crốvecoeur 134 Diplomatic Revolution of 1756 161 France 203 Frederick II 207 Edward Gibbon 231 Guadeloupe 248 Hapsburg Empire 261 John Hunter 287 imperialism 295 Jean de Lamarck 328 Julien Offray de La Mettrie 330 Louis XV of France 356 marquis de Sade 529 Pietro Verri 611 George Washington 624 Sèvres 100, 383, 552 Shaftesbury, Anthony Ashley Cooper, third earl of xiv c, 552–553 aesthetics Joseph Butler 81 deism 147 Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion 157 Denis Diderot 158 enthusiasm 182 David Hume 284 Francis Hutcheson 289 intuition and imagination 300 John Locke 350 Bernard Mandeville 367 moral philosophy 402 perfectibility 448 sentimental fiction 549 sublime 577 virtue 614 Christoph Martin Wieland 631 Sheridan, Richard Brinsley 238, 514, 553, 589 She Stoops to Conquer, or the Mistakes of Night (Oliver Goldsmith) 553–554 Siècle de Louis XIV (Voltaire) 3, 341, 554, 619 siècle des lumières (Enlightenment) 554 Sieyès, Emmanuel-Joseph, Abbé 211, 228, 249, 399, 554–555 Simon, Richard xiv c, 55, 555–556 skepticism 556 Jean Le Rond d’Alembert 12 Jean-Baptiste de Boyer Argens 20 atheism 26 Pierre Bayle 44–45 Aphra Behn 47 George Berkeley 51 René Descartes 152–153 John Dryden 164 An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding 182 Epicurean philosophy 183 epistemology 184 Historical and Critical Dictionary 271 David Hume 284 libertine 344 John Locke 351 Nicolas de Malebranche 366 Moses Mendelssohn 386 natural religion 414 psychology 481 pyrrhonism 487–488 rationalism 496 Thomas Reid 500 religion 503 A Treatise of Human Nature 598 slavery xvii c, 556–557 colonialism 120, 122 Declaration of Independence 142 Olaudah Equiano 187, 188 Benjamin Franklin 206 Freemasons 211 Henri Gregoire 245 Guadeloupe 248 Haitian Revolution 252–254 Alexander Hamilton 258 Histoire des deux Indes 271 Industrial Revolution 298 John Jay 307 Thomas Jefferson 308 Hannah More 403 prostitution 477 Quakers 489 race 491 radical Enlightenment 494 Guillaume-Thomas-Franỗois de Raynal 497 rights 512 Benjamin Rush 528 Ignatius Sancho 533 serfdom 551 social institutions 561 South Sea Company 564 Toussaint Louverture 596 travel literature 598 Josiah Wedgwood 628 William Wilberforce 632 Smith, Adam ix, xvi c, 557–558, 558 American Revolution 14 Joseph Black 57 capitalism 91 civil society 111 class and rank 115 cosmopolitanism 130 Edinburgh 170 Adam Ferguson 195 freedom 209 free trade 212 Christian Garve 223 happiness 261 David Hume 286 James Hutton 289 Illuministi 294 Industrial Revolution 298 Gabriel Bonnot de Mably 361 James Macpherson 362 Thomas Robert Malthus 367 Bernard Mandeville 368 mercantilism 387 moral philosophy 402 New Lanark 423 optimism 438 Physiocrats 454 political theory 462 Thomas Reid 500 rights 512 William Robertson 514 Scotland 544 self-interest 546 The Spirit of Laws 570 sympathy 582 Wealth of Nations 627–628 Smollett, Tobias George 527, 558–559 667 Social Contract (Jean-Jacques Rousseau) 156, 163, 172–173, 186, 209, 216, 317, 476, 512, 525, 559–560, 605 social institutions of the Enlightenment 229–230, 266, 460–461, 560, 560–561, 570–571 See also coffeehouses; salons social science 124–125 Sonnenfels, Josef von 3, 29, 87, 210, 233, 293, 371, 476, 562 Sorrows of Young Werther, The (Johann Wolfgang von Goethe) 235, 302, 426, 431, 562–563, 576 Soufflot, Jacques-Germain xv c, 230, 234, 400, 421, 563 South Sea Bubble 93, 337, 394, 563–564, 564 South Sea Company 93, 563, 564 Spain 564–565 American Revolution 13 anticlericalism 20 Austrian Netherlands 29 baroque style 40 Lord Byron 81 Charles III of Spain 101–102 Clement XIV 118 colonialism 120 Sophie Cottin 131 East India Company 169 enlightened absolutism France 201 Gobelins tapestry 234 Jacques de Gournay 241 Francisco José de Goya y Lucientes 241 Haitian Revolution 254 Huguenots 281 Wilhelm von Humboldt 283 imperialism 294 Jesuits 309 justice and the law 315 Madrid 363 Maria Theresa of Austria 371 Milan 392 Portugal 468 Protestantism 478 publishing 485 Roman Catholicism 519 secret societies 545 Seven Years’ War 552 slavery 557 Bernardo Tanucci 584 William Temple 588 theater 588 toleration 594 Toussaint Louverture 596, 597 voyages of discovery 620, 622 William III and Mary II 633 Spallanzani, Lazzaro 57, 225, 293, 382, 420, 469, 565–566 Spectator, The (Joseph Addison and Richard Steele) 566–567 Joseph Addison Johann Jakob Bodmer 62 Johann Jakob Breitinger 72 Benjamin Franklin 205 Alexander Hamilton 258 Eliza Haywood 266 magic 364 Pierre de Marivaux 373 Antoine-Franỗois Prộvost 469 publishing 486 sentimental fiction 549 Philip Dormer Stanhope 106 Richard Steele 574 Jonathan Swift 581 Spener, Philipp Jakob 456, 567, 642 spinning jenny 23, 198, 262, 298, 322, 567, 567, 626 spinning mule 134–135, 198, 322, 567, 567–568, 626 668 Index Spinoza, Benedict de xiv c, 568–569 Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet 67 deism 147 René Descartes 152 epistemology 184 freedom 209 Claude-Adrien Helvétius 267 Johann Gottfried Herder 267 Historical and Critical Dictionary 271 Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi 303 Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz 338 Gotthold Ephraim Lessing 342–343 Georg Christoph Lichtenberg 345 Moses Mendelssohn 385, 386 Montesquieu 399 moral philosophy 401, 402 Nathan the Wise 413 natural law 413 paganism 442 perfectibility 448 psychology 481–482 pyrrhonism 487 radical Enlightenment 494 reason 498 Richard Simon 555 A Treatise of Human Nature 598 Voltaire 620 Spirit of Laws, The (Montesquieu) 569–570 Nicolas-Antoine Boulanger 70 Antoine Destutt de Tracy 156 Jean-Baptiste Du Bos 165 enlightened despotism 155 Adam Ferguson 196 French Revolution 216 Glorious Revolution 232 Louis-Sébastien Mercier 388 Montesquieu 397 Persian Letters 449 political theory 463 pornography 468 separation of powers 550 Mme de Staël 571 Staël, Anne-Louise-Germaine Necker, Madame de 166, 226, 418, 431, 532, 570–571, 614, 638 Stahl, Georg Ernst 571–572 alchemy 10 animism 18, 19 Paul-Joseph Barthez 41 Torbern Olof Bergman 50 Marie-Franỗois-Xavier Bichat 55 Hermann Boerhaave 63 Théophile de Bordeu 66 Chemical Revolution 104 René Descartes 154 Albrecht von Haller 255 Friedrich Hoffmann 275 medicine 380 phlogiston theory 452 vitalism 615 Robert Whytt 630 Stamitz, Carl 572 statistics 335, 473, 572–573, 573 steam engine 71, 138, 298, 422, 574, 626 Steele, Richard xiv c, 574 Joseph Addison Johann Jakob Bodmer 62 Johann Jakob Breitinger 72 William Congreve 126 Benjamin Franklin 205 Grub Street 248 Alexander Hamilton 258 literature 348 Pierre de Marivaux 373 Alexander Pope 467 Antoine-Franỗois Prộvost 470 publishing 486 sensibility 548 sentimental fiction 549 slavery 557 The Spectator 566 Jonathan Swift 581 Robert Walpole 624 Mary Wortley 397 Sterne, Laurence xvi c, 109, 257, 508, 527, 574–575, 600 Stowe 74, 323, 331, 575 Struensee, Johann Friedrich, graf von 110, 151, 395, 575 Stubbs, George 575–576, 577 Sturm und Drang (literary movement) 576 Aufklärung 28 Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach 32 Ludwig van Beethoven 47 empfindsamer Stil 174 freedom 209 genius 226 Franz Joseph Haydn 265 Johann Gottfried Herder 269 Georg Christoph Lichtenberg 345 literature 348 Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart 406 Jean-Jacques Rousseau 526 Johann Friedrich Schiller 535 style galant 576 Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach 32 Johann Christian Bach 33 baroque style 40 Franỗois Couperin 133 empfindsamer Stil 174 Franz Joseph Haydn 265 Nicolas Lancret 330 Mannheim school 368 music 408, 409 piano 455 rococo 517 sensibility 548 Georg Philipp Telemann 587 sublime ix, 7, 78, 183, 193, 239, 241, 256, 331, 348, 416, 455–456, 576–577 subtle fluids 85, 206, 577 superstition 158, 232, 274, 278, 476, 559, 577, 620 Süssmilch, Johann Peter 150, 332, 577–578 Sweden 578 China 108 colonialism 120 Denmark 150 René Descartes 152 Freemasons 210 Marie-Thérèse Rodet Geoffrin 230 Gustav III of Sweden 250–251 Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier 336 Carolus Linnaeus 346 Lutheranism 358, 359 Jean-Franỗois Marmontel 374 Peter I 450 phlogiston theory 452 Protestantism 479 Samuel Pufendorf 487 race 491 Republic of Letters 505 August Ludwig von Schlözer 537 William Temple 588 Swedenborg, Emanuel xv c, 59, 66, 210, 433, 503, 531, 541, 579 Swieten, Gerard van 579–580 Austria 29 Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach 33 Johann Sebastian Bach 35 Hermann Boerhaave 63 Pierre-Jean-Georges Cabanis 82 The Creation 134 Freemasons 211 Jan Ingen-Housz 298 Wenzel Anton von Kaunitz 322 Maria Theresa of Austria 371 medicine 383 Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart 406 progress 476 Gottfried Bernhard Swieten 580 universities 607 Swieten, Gottfried Bernhard, baron van 265, 580 Swift, Jonathan xv c, 580–581, 581 George Berkeley 51 Henry St John Bolingbroke 64 William Congreve 126 John Dryden 164 Gulliver’s Travels 250 Eliza Haywood 265 literature 348 novel 430 Alexander Pope 467 Philip Dormer Stanhope 106 Richard Steele 574 Stowe 575 William Temple 588 travel literature 597 Voltaire 618 Mary Wortley 397 Switzerland x, 582 Anglicans 16 Cosmas Damian Asam 24 Jakob I and Johann I Bernoulli 54 Johann Jakob Bodmer 62 James Boswell 68 Nicolas-Antoine Boulanger 70 Antoine Calmet 84 Lazare Carnot 94 Giovanni Giacomo Casanova 96 cosmopolitanism 130 democracy 149 education 170 Leonhard Euler 190 France 201 Geneva 225 Germany 230 Edward Gibbon 231 grand tour 241 Holy Roman Empire 278 Wilhelm von Humboldt 283 Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock 325 Johann Kaspar Lavater 335 Jean-Paul Marat 368 Franz Anton Mesmer 389 Milan 392 Johannes von Müller 406 Suzanne Necker 419 Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi 449 Protestantism 479 publishing 485 Guillaume-Thomas-Franỗois de Raynal 497 Republic of Letters 505 rococo 517 Jean-Jacques Rousseau 524 social institutions 561 University of Göttingen 240 Emmerich de Vattel 608 Christoph Martin Wieland 631 Wilhelm Tell 632 Mary Wortley 397 Arthur Young 640 sympathy 582 Paul-Joseph Barthez 41 William Blake 60 civil society 111 Denis Diderot 160 Discourse on the Origins of Inequality 162 happiness 261 David Hartley 263 history 272 Friedrich Hoffmann 275 David Hume 285 Illuministi 294 moral philosophy 402 nature 418 rights 512 Adam Smith 557 Laurence Sterne 574 vitalism 615 symphony orchestra 112, 582–583, 614 synergy 583 T Tahiti 476, 584, 621 Tanucci, Bernardo, marchese 101, 219, 228, 301, 324, 395, 541, 584–585 Taylor, Brook 210, 585 technology and instrumentation 585, 585–586 Sir Richard Arkwright 23 automata 29–30 barometer 38 Charles-Augustin de Coulomb 133 Samuel Crompton 134–135 Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit 192 flying shuttle 198 John Hadley 252 John Harrison 262 William Herschel 270 Benjamin Huntsman 288 Antoni van Leeuwenhoek 337 longitude 353 Lunar Society of Birmingham 358 microscope 391 orrery 440 David Rittenhouse 514 science 539 telescope 587 Telemann, Georg Philipp 32, 40, 130, 230, 437, 576, 586–587 telescope 587 astronomy 26 Copernican Revolution 128 Galileo Galilei 220 John Hadley 252 William Herschel 270 Johannes Kepler 323 microscope 391 On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres 435 Scientific Revolution 543 skepticism 556 technology and instrumentation 586 Temple, William 587–588 theater 588, 588589 Pierre de Beaumarchais 45 Franỗois Boucher 69 Catherine II 98 William Congreve 126 Hannah Cowley 133 Charles-Simon Favart 193 Henry Fielding 196 David Garrick 223 Carlo Goldoni 238 Eliza Haywood 266 homosexuality 279 Elizabeth Inchbald 296 Louis XIV of France 355 Louis XV of France 356 Mannheim school 368 Louis-Sébastien Mercier 387 millenarianism 393 Paris 445 political theory 463 marquise de Pompadour 465 The Rivals 514 She Stoops to Conquer 553–554 social institutions 561 Josef von Sonnenfels 562 Catharine Trotter 600 Jean-Antoine Watteau 627 theology 589 Carl Friedrich Bahrdt 36–37 Calvinism 85 Samuel Clarke 113, 114 Clement XIII 117 Clement XIV 118 Copernican Revolution 127 enthusiasm 182 generation 225 Edward Gibbon 231 Johann Georg Hamann 257 heliocentric 266 hermeticism 269 history 271 Huguenots 281 Jansenism 305 Kingdom of the Two Sicilies 323 Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz 339 Cotton Mather 377 Marin Mersenne 388 Johann Lorenz von Mosheim 405 natural philosophy 414 John Turberville Needham 419 Isaac Newton 424 Jean-Antoine Nollet 428 Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi 449 physico-theology 453 Pietism 456 Noël-Antoine Pluche 459 Franỗois-Andrộ-Adrien Pluquet 459 Joseph Priestley 471472 Protestantism 478 psychology 482 religion 503 Roman Catholicism 519 science 538 science of man 540 Johann Salomo Semler 546–547 Emmanuel-Joseph Sieyès 554 Lazzaro Spallanzani 566 Emanuel Swedenborg 579 John Tillotson 592 travel literature 598 University of Göttingen 240 Christoph Martin Wieland 631 Johann Joachim Winckelmann 634 Thomasius, Christian 170, 204, 255, 268, 359, 457, 511, 589–590 threshing machine 590, 591 Tiepolo, Giovanni Battista xv c, 102, 241, 249, 293, 353, 363, 591, 591–592, 611 Tillotson, John 393, 592 Tindal, Matthew 20, 147, 592 Tissot, Samuel-Auguste-AndréDavid 592–593 Toland, John 147, 210, 228, 277, 593 toleration xvi c, 593–595 The Age of Reason 10 American Revolution 14 Amsterdam 14 ancien régime 16 Anglicans 17 association movement 24 Aufklärung 27 Pierre Bayle 45 Belgium 48 Berlin 51 Edmund Burke 78 Calvinism 87 Camisards 88 Candide 89 Index capital punishment 93 Catherine II 97 Ralph Cudworth 135 Daniel Defoe 145 deism 147 Dictionnaire philosophique 158 England 177 enlightened absolutism Franỗois Fộnelon 195 Johann Georg Adam Forster 199 France 201 Frederick II 207 freedom 209 Freemasons 209 Germany 230 Gustav III of Sweden 251 The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire 144 homosexuality 279 Huguenots 282 Thomas Jefferson 308 Jews and Judaism 311 Joseph II of Austria 313 Josephinism 314 Karl Wilhelm Ferdinand 321 Gotthold Ephraim Lessing 342 John Locke 350 Jean-Franỗois Marmontel 374 Moses Mendelssohn 385 Montesquieu 398 Nathan the Wise 412, 413 natural religion 415 Suzanne Necker 419 paganism 441 Philadelphia 451 political theory 463 Protestantism 478 Quakers 489 religion 502 The Rights of Man 513 Roman Catholicism 520 separation of church and state 549 Benedict de Spinoza 569 Johann Friedrich Struensee 575 Christian Thomasius 590 John Toland 593 Anne-Robert-Jacques Turgot 602 United Provinces of Netherlands 604 United States of America 606 University of Göttingen 240 Francis Adrian Van der Kemp 608 Voltaire 620 Waldensians 623 William III and Mary II 634 Tom Jones (Henry Fielding) 595 Tooke, John Horne 353, 596 Toussaint Louverture, FranỗoisDominique xvii c, 253, 254, 596597 transit of Venus 26, 50, 126, 149, 256, 328, 514, 597, 597, 621 travel literature 19, 73, 179, 198, 199, 348, 448–449, 597–598, 617 Treatise of Human Nature, A (David Hume) 156, 182, 185, 284, 500, 540, 598–599 Trembley, Abraham 57, 225, 226, 469, 599, 616 Trimmer, Sarah 599–600 Tristram Shandy (Laurence Sterne) 574–575, 600 Trotter, Catharine 458, 600–601 Tull, Jethro 601 Turgot, Anne-Robert-Jacques, baron de l’Aulne xvi c, 601–602 John Adams Charles de Brosses 73 Pierre-Jean-Georges Cabanis 82 Chemical Revolution 103 class and rank 114 Marie Caritat Condorcet 124 Mme du Deffand 144 Pierre-Samuel Dupont de Nemours 166 education 170 encyclopedists 177 enlightened despotism 155 Ferdinando Galiani 219 Marie-Thérèse Rodet Geoffrin 230 Jacques de Gournay 241 Anne Helvétius 266 Claude-Adrien Helvétius 267 Julie-Jeanne-Eléonore de Lespinasse 342 Louis XVI of France 357 Chrétien-Guillaume de Malesherbes 366 Louis-Sébastien Mercier 388 Jacques Necker 418 Physiocrats 453 progress 476 Franỗois Quesnay 490 Maximilien Robespierre 515 serfdom 551 toleration 594 Wealth of Nations 627 Turin 602 Bernardo Bellotto 48 Daniel Bernoulli 53 Charles Burney 79 Pietro Giannone 231 Gobelins tapestry 234 Illuministi 293 Wenzel Anton von Kaunitz 322 Joseph-Louis Lagrange 327 opera 436 Piedmont 456 Jean-Jacques Rousseau 524 scientific academies 541 Two Treatises of Government (John Locke) 18, 178, 186, 232, 349, 462, 602–603, 605 U United Provinces of Netherlands 604–605 John Adams American Revolution 13 Amsterdam 14–15 Austrian Netherlands 29 Francis Bacon 36 baroque style 40 Pierre Bayle 44 Jakob I and Johann I Bernoulli 54 Charles Burney 79 Calvinism 85 Ranieri de’Calzabigi 87 Camisards 88 Pieter Camper 89 Friedrich Rudolf Ludwig Canitz 90 capitalism 93 China 108 colonialism 120 René Descartes 152 Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit 192 France 202 Galileo Galilei 220 grand tour 241 Albrecht von Haller 256 Historical and Critical Dictionary 271 Paul-Henri Thiry d’Holbach 276 Huguenots 282 imperialism 295 Jews and Judaism 310 justice and the law 315 Karl-August 321 Wenzel Anton von Kaunitz 322 Julien Offray de La Mettrie 330 Carolus Linnaeus 345 literature 348 Louis XIV of France 355 Bernard Mandeville 367–368 materialism 375 mercantilism 387 Jean-Antoine Nollet 428 political theory 461 John Pringle 473 publishing 485 radical Enlightenment 494 religion 502 Republic of Letters 505 separation of church and state 550 Emmanuel-Joseph Sieyès 555 slavery 557 South Sea Company 564 Spain 565 Benedict de Spinoza 568 Johann Peter Süssmilch 578 Gerard van Swieten 579 Gottfried Bernhard Swieten 580 William Temple 588 John Toland 593 toleration 594 United States of America 606 universities 607 Francis Adrian Van der Kemp 608 voyages of discovery 620 William III and Mary II 633 women and the Enlightenment 637 United States Bill of Rights xvii c, 308, 363, 414, 416, 451, 476, 510, 510, 595, 605 United States Constitution 605–606 American Revolution 14 Declaration of Independence 143 Benjamin Franklin 206 Alexander Hamilton 258 John Jay 307 James Madison 362–363 Philadelphia 451 separation of church and state 550 separation of powers 551 The Spirit of Laws 570 toleration 595 United States Bill of Rights 605 George Washington 625 United States of America ix, x, 606 See also specific headings, e.g.: Philadelphia John Adams 4–6 The Age of Reason 10 American Philosophical Society 13 American Revolution 13–14 colonialism 121 Michel de Crèvecoeur 134 Declaration of Independence 141, 141–143 Antoine Destutt de Tracy 156 Pierre-Samuel Dupont de Nemours 166 Benjamin Franklin 204–206 Guadeloupe 248 Haitian Revolution 252, 253 Alexander Hamilton 258–259 imperialism 295 John Jay 307 Thomas Jefferson 308 justice and the law 316 Gabriel Bonnot de Mably 361 James Madison 362–363 Montesquieu 399 natural rights 416 Thomas Paine 442, 443 Pietism 457 Joseph Priestley 471 race 493 The Rights of Man 513 Benjamin Rush 528 Scotland 544 Emmanuel-Joseph Sieyès 555 slavery 557 toleration 594 United States Bill of Rights 605 United States Constitution 605–606 University of Göttingen 240 Constantin Volney 617 George Washington 624–626 John Wesley 630 universities 606–607 See also specific universities utility 607–608 Jeremy Bentham 50 capital punishment 94 Declaration of the Rights of Man 143 Epicurean philosophy 183 Essays on Crimes and Punishments 189 French Academy of Sciences 212 Wilhelm von Humboldt 283 David Hume 285 materialism 375 moral philosophy 402 political theory 462 pyrrhonism 488 rights 511 sensibility 548 sympathy 582 V Van der Kemp, Francis Adrian 609 Vattel, Emmerich de 14, 511, 609–610 Vaucanson, Jacques de 610 Venice 610–611 Francesco Algarotti 12 baroque style 39 Bernardo Bellotto 48 Daniel Bernoulli 53 Charles de Brosses 73 Charles Burney 79 Canaletto 89 Candide 89 Antonio Canova 90 Giovanni Giacomo Casanova 96 ceramic arts 100 Charles III of Spain 101 Clement XIII 117 Jean-Honoré Fragonard 200 Henry Fuseli 217 Pietro Giannone 231 Carlo Goldoni 238 grand tour 241 Francesco Guardi 249, 250 Illuministi 293 Italy 300 Jews and Judaism 310 John Law 337 Pietro Longhi 353 music 410 opera 436 Palladian style 444 publishing 484 Joshua Reynolds 508 Giuseppe Domenico Scarlatti 533 scientific academies 541 Giovanni Battista Tiepolo 591 United Provinces of Netherlands 604 Antonio Vivaldi 616 Verri, Alessandro, count 46, 188, 301, 392, 611, 611 669 Verri, Pietro, count 46, 188, 301, 392, 611, 611 Vicar of Wakefield, The (Oliver Goldsmith) 611–612 Vico, Giovan Battista (Giambattista) xv c, 19, 70, 111, 267, 272, 293, 300, 475, 612, 612–613 Vienna 613 Austria 28 Ludwig van Beethoven 46 Bernardo Bellotto 48 Jean-Pierre-Franỗois Blanchard 60 Hermann Boerhaave 63 Charles Burney 79 Ranieri de’Calzabigi 87 Friedrich Rudolf Ludwig Canitz 90 Antonio Canova 90 Giovanni Giacomo Casanova 96 ceramic arts 100 ẫtienne-Franỗois Choiseul 110 Muzio Clementi 118 Clement XII 117 Così fan Tutte 130 Eugène of Savoy 189 Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach 197 Jean-Honoré Fragonard 200 Frankfurt 204 Franz Joseph Gall 221 Germany 230 Pietro Giannone 231 Christoph Willibald Gluck 233 Hapsburg Empire 261 Franz Joseph Haydn 264 Johann Lukas von Hildebrandt 270 Wilhelm von Humboldt 283 Bavarian Illuminati 293 Jan Ingen-Housz 298 Jews and Judaism 310 Wenzel Anton von Kaunitz 322 Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz 338 The Magic Flute 364 medicine 382 Franz Anton Mesmer 389 Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart 406 museums 408 music 410 neoclassicism 421 Balthasar Neumann 422 Le Nozze di Figaro 432 Orfeo ed Eurydice 438 Sebastiano Pombal 464 Jakob Prandtauer 469 public health 482 La Serva Padrona 551 Josef von Sonnenfels 562 Gerard van Swieten 580 Gottfried Bernhard Swieten 580 universities 607 Vigée Lebrun, Élisabeth-Louise 613–614 Vindication of the Rights of Woman, A (Mary Wollstonecraft) 494, 614, 636, 637 viola 46, 409, 454, 614 virtue 111, 188, 460, 511, 599, 607, 614–615 vitalism x, 615–616 animism 19 atheism 26 Paul-Joseph Barthez 41 Marie-Franỗois-Xavier Bichat 55 biology 57 Johann Friedrich Blumenbach 62 670 Index Charles Bonnet 65 Théophile de Bordeu 66 Ralph Cudworth 135 René Descartes 154 Luigi Galvani 223 Johann Wolfgang von Goethe 237 Albrecht von Haller 255 Friedrich Hoffmann 275 John Hunter 288 William Hunter 288 iatrochemistry 291 iatromechanics 291 intuition and imagination 300 Julien Offray de La Mettrie 330 Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz 340 Carolus Linnaeus 345 Jean-Paul Marat 370 materialism 375 mechanical philosophy 380 medicine 380, 382 Alexander Monro 396 Montesquieu 398 nature 416 John Turberville Needham 419 John Pringle 473 psychology 481 romanticism 521 science 539 separation of powers 550 Georg Ernst Stahl 572 sympathy 582 universities 607 Robert Whytt 630 Vivaldi, Antonio 40, 130, 199–200, 293, 410, 583, 611, 616617 Volney, Constantin-Franỗois Chasseboeuf, comte de 617 Volta, Alessandro Giuseppe Antonio Anastasio 223, 293, 617–618 Voltaire x, xv c, xvi c, 618–620, 619 absolutism Jean Le Rond d’Alembert 11 Francesco Algarotti 12 anticlericalism 20 Jean-Baptiste de Boyer Argens 21 Marc-Pierre de Voyer Argenson 21 René-Lous Argenson 22 Aufklärung 27 Francis Bacon 36 Berlin Academy 52 Johann Jakob Bodmer 62 James Boswell 68 Henri de Boulainvilliers 70 Charles de Brosses 73 Jean Calas 83 Candide 89 Catherine II 97 Mme de Chõtelet 102 China 108 ẫtienne-Franỗois Choiseul 110 Alexis-Claude Clairaut 112 Clement XIV 118 Marie Condorcet 124 Confessions 125 cosmopolitanism 130 Mme du Deffand 144 deism 148 demography 150 Dictionnaire philosophique 157–158 Denis Diderot 158 Jean-Baptiste Du Bos 165 Charles-Pinot Duclos 166 Encyclopédie 176 encyclopedists 177 England 178 enlightened despotism 155 enthusiasm 183 Louise d’Épinay 184 Leonhard Euler 191 France 201 Frederick II 207 freedom 209 Freemasons 211 French Revolution 216 Élie-Cathérine Fréron 216 Ferdinando Galiani 219 Geneva 226 Antonio Genovesi 228 Marie-Thérèse Rodet Geoffrin 230 Edward Gibbon 231 Glorious Revolution 232 Friedrich Melchior Grimm 247 Johann Georg Hamann 257 Claude-Adrien Helvétius 267 Johann Gottfried Herder 268 Historical and Critical Dictionary 271 history 272 homosexuality 279 honor 280 Jean-Antoine Houdon 280 inoculation 299 Karl Wilhelm Ferdinand 321 Joseph de Lalande 328 Maurice-Quentin de La Tour 335 Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz 340–341 Charlotte Ramsay Lennox 341 libertine 344 Lisbon earthquake 347 literature 348 Jean-Paul Marat 370 Jean-Franỗois Marmontel 373 René de Maupeou 378 Pierre-Louis Moreau de Maupertuis 379 Louis-Sébastien Mercier 388 Marin Mersenne 388 Elizabeth Montagu 396 Montesquieu 397 Isaac Newton 424 opera 436 optimism 438 orientalism 439 perfectibility 447 Philadelphia 451 philosopher-king 451 philosophes 452 Physiocrats 454 politeness 460 political theory 462 marquise de Pompadour 465 Principia mathematica 472 progress 476 Republic of Letters 505 revolution 506 Roman Catholicism 520 Jean-Jacques Rousseau 525 comte de Saint-Germain 530 Scientific Revolution 543 secret societies 545 separation of church and state 550 separation of powers 550 Siècle de Louis XIV 554 Adam Smith 557 Tobias George Smollett 558 social institutions 560 Benedict de Spinoza 569 superstition 577 theater 588 toleration 594 Abraham Trembley 599 Two Treatises of Government 603 United Provinces of Netherlands 604 Giovan Battista Vico 613 Christoph Martin Wieland 631 Mary Wortley 397 voyages of discovery 69, 91, 120, 131, 427, 491, 511, 565, 620–622, 621 See also Cook, James W Waldensians 88, 282, 355, 502, 520, 623 Walpole, Horace, fourth earl of Orford 623–624 Catherine II 98 Mme du Deffand 145 Félicité de Genlis 228 Marie-Thérèse Rodet Geoffrin 230 Gothic revival 239 Gothic romance 239 Thomas Gray 243 Stephen Hales 255 William Hogarth 275 landscapes 331 Hannah More 403 picturesque 455–456 Republic of Letters 505 Joshua Reynolds 508 theater 589 women and the Enlightenment 637 Walpole, Robert 47, 196, 210, 250, 266, 564, 575, 581, 623, 624 War of the Austrian Succession xv c, 4, 21, 207, 298, 322, 356, 371, 422, 468, 552, 624 Washington, George 148, 211, 258, 280, 307, 308, 443, 514, 528, 545, 557, 624–626 water frame 23, 138, 198, 322, 422, 567, 626 Watt, James 71, 298, 358, 422, 471, 544, 574, 626, xvi c Watteau, Jean-Antoine 99, 109, 201, 329, 330, 353, 384, 518, 626, 626–627 Wealth of Nations (Adam Smith) ix, 212, 328, 438, 454, 546, 557, 558, 627–628 Wedgwood, Josiah 100, 108, 139, 189, 358, 471, 628, 628, 639 Werner, Abraham Gottlob 289, 628–629 Wesley, Charles 390, 457, 629 Wesley, John 18, 172, 244, 364, 390, 629, 629–630 Whytt, Robert 57, 136, 170, 382, 616, 630 Wieland, Christoph Martin 126, 236, 257, 320, 364, 535, 631 Wilberforce, William 316, 403, 477, 493, 631–632 Wilhelm Tell (Friedrich Schiller) 348, 536, 632 Wilkes, John 70, 275, 276, 352, 596, 632–633 William III and Mary II xiv c, 17, 633–634 Aphra Behn 48 capitalism 93 Daniel Defoe 145 John Dryden 165 England 178 Glorious Revolution 232 David Hume 286 John Locke 350 political theory 462 revolution 506 separation of powers 550 Waldensians 623 Winckelmann, Johann Joachim xv c, 634 aesthetics baroque style 38 Jacques-Louis David 141 Henry Fuseli 217 grand tour 241 Angelica Kauffman 321 Laokoon 333 Gotthold Ephraim Lessing 342 Anton Raphael Mengs 387 neoclassicism 421 Pompeii 466 witchcraft See magic Wolf, Friedrich August 546, 634–635 Wolff, Christian 635, 635–636 aesthetics Aufklärung 27 Wilhelm Friedemann Bach 35 Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten 43 Berlin Academy 52 Johann Jakob Bodmer 62 Candide 89 epigenesis 184 Leonhard Euler 191 August Hermann Francke 204 Germany 230 Johann Gottfried Herder 268 Immanuel Kant 317 Karl Wilhelm Ferdinand 321 Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz 340 Lutheranism 359 Pierre-Louis Moreau de Maupertuis 379 Moses Mendelssohn 384 Johann David Michaelis 390 natural law 413, 414 psychology 481 Hermann Samuel Reimarus 501 Emanuel Swedenborg 579 Christian Thomasius 589 University of Halle 255 Emmerich de Vattel 610 Christoph Martin Wieland 631 Wollstonecraft, Mary xvii c, 636, 636 Joel Barlow 38 William Blake 60 Bluestocking 60 George Gordon Byron 81 Hannah Cowley 133 Maria Edgeworth 169 William Godwin 234 grand tour 241 prostitution 477 radical Enlightenment 494 rights 512, 513 John Horne Tooke 596 A Vindication of the Rights of Woman 614 women and the Enlightenment 637 women and the Enlightenment 636–638 See also specific women, e.g.: Aulnoy, MarieCatherine d’ Bluestocking See Bluestocking equality 186 grand tour 241 homosexuality 279 honor 280 Jews and Judaism 312 midwifery 89, 132, 391 John Millar 392–393 novel 429, 430 politeness 460 prostitution 476–477 radical Enlightenment 494 Samuel Richardson 509 rights 512–513 sensibility 548 social institutions 560 A Vindication of the Rights of Woman 614 Woolston, Thomas 158, 277, 638 Wren, Sir Christopher 352, 638 Wright, Joseph 638–639 Y Young, Arthur 60, 597, 640 Z Zimmermann, Johann Georg 641 Zinzendorf, Nicolaus Ludwig, count von xv c, 302, 403, 457, 642 ... Arnold conceived the history of Christianity as one of constant degeneration The sources of degeneration were the development of rational theology, dogma, all aspects of the institutionalization of. .. the many ways that the Enlightenment contributed to creating the world and the crucial issues of the 21st century In all, this second edition of the Encyclopedia of the Enlightenment offers the. .. astronomy as proof of the idea of universal gravitation: calculating the shape of the Earth; describing the motion of the moon; and predicting the date for the return of Halley’s Comet At the