algorithms and protocols for wireless sensor networks boukerche 2008 10 24 Cấu trúc dữ liệu và giải thuật

ThanCong.com ALGORITHMS AND PROTOCOLS FOR WIRELESS SENSOR NETWORKS CuuDuongThanCong.com WILEY SERIES ON PARALLEL AND DISTRIBUTED COMPUTING Editor: Albert Y Zomaya A complete list of titles in this series appears at the end of this volume CuuDuongThanCong.com ALGORITHMS AND PROTOCOLS FOR WIRELESS SENSOR NETWORKS Edited by Azzedine Boukerche, PhD University of Ottawa Ottawa, Canada CuuDuongThanCong.com Copyright © 2009 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc All rights reserved Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey Published simultaneously in Canada No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or otherwise, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance 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loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages For general information on our other products and services or for technical support, please contact our Customer Care Department within the United States at (800) 762-2974, outside the United States at (317) 572-3993 or fax (317) 572-4002 Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic formats For more information about Wiley products, visit our web site at www.wiley.com Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Algorithms and protocols for wireless sensor networks / edited by Azzedine Boukerche p cm Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 978-0-471-79813-2 (cloth) Sensor networks Computer network protocols Computer algorithms I Boukerche, Azzedine TK7872.D48A422 2008 681’.2–dc22 2008016869 Printed in the United States of America CuuDuongThanCong.com This book is dedicated to my parents and my family who have always been there with me Love you all Azzedine Boukerche CuuDuongThanCong.com CONTENTS Preface About the Editor Contributors Algorithms for Wireless Sensor Networks: Present and Future ix xiii xv Azzedine Boukerche, Eduardo F Nakamura, and Antonio A F Loureiro Heterogeneous Wireless Sensor Networks 21 Violet R Syrotiuk, Bing Li, and Angela M Mielke Epidemic Models, Algorithms, and Protocols in Wireless Sensor and Ad Hoc Networks 51 Pradip De and Sajal K Das Modeling Sensor Networks 77 Stefan Schmid and Roger Wattenhofer Spatiotemporal Correlation Theory for Wireless Sensor Networks 105 Özgür B Akan A Taxonomy of Routing Protocols in Sensor Networks 129 Azzedine Boukerche, Mohammad Z Ahmad, Damla Turgut, and Begumhan Turgut Clustering in Wireless Sensor Networks: A Graph Theory Perspective 161 Nidal Nasser and Liliana M Arboleda Position-Based Routing for Sensor Networks: Approaches and Obstacles 195 Marwan M Fayed and Hussein T Mouftah Node Positioning for Increased Dependability of Wireless Sensor Networks 225 Mohamed Younis and Kemal Akkaya 10 Mobility in Wireless Sensor Networks 267 Stefano Basagni, Alessio Carosi, and Chiara Petrioli vii CuuDuongThanCong.com viii CONTENTS 11 Localization Systems for Wireless Sensor Networks 307 Azzedine Boukerche, Horacio A B F Oliveira, Eduardo F Nakamura, and Antonio A F Loureiro 12 Location Discovery in Sensor Networks 341 Asis Nasipuri 13 QoS-Based Communication Protocols in Wireless Sensor Networks 365 Serdar Vural, Yuan Tian, and Eylem Ekici 14 Quality of Service in Wireless Sensor Networks 401 Gregory J Pottie and Ameesh Pandya 15 Energy-Efficient Algorithms in Wireless Sensor Networks 437 Azzedine Boukerche and Sotiris Nikoletseas 16 Security Issues and Countermeasures in Wireless Sensor Networks 479 Tanveer Zia and Albert Y Zomaya 17 A Taxonomy of Secure Time Synchronization Algorithms for Wireless Sensor Networks 503 Azzedine Boukerche and Damla Turgut 18 Secure Localization Systems: Protocols and Techniques in Wireless Sensor Networks 521 Azzedine Boukerche, Horacio A B F Oliveira, Eduardo F Nakamura, and Antonio A F Loureiro Index CuuDuongThanCong.com 535 PREFACE With the recent technological advances in wireless communication and networking, coupled with the availability of intelligent and low-cost actor and sensor devices with powerful sensing, computation, and communication capabilities, wireless sensor networks (WSNs) are about to enter the mainstream Today, one could easily envision a wide range of real-world WSN-based applications from sensor-based environmental monitoring, home automation, health care, security, and safety class of applications, thereby promising to have a significant impact throughout our society Wireless sensor networks are comprised of a large number of sensor devices that can communicate with each other via wireless channels, with limited energy and computing capabilities However, due to the nature of wireless sensor networks, we are witnessing new research challenges related to the design of algorithms and network protocols that will enable the development of sensor-based applications Most of the available literature in this emerging technology concentrates on physical and networking aspects of the subject However, in most of the literature, a description of fundamental distributed algorithms that support sensor and actor devices in a wireless environment is either not included or briefly discussed The efficient and robust realization of such large, highly dynamic and complex networking environments is a challenging algorithmic and technological task Toward this end, this book identifies the research that needs to be conducted on a number of levels to design and assess the deployment of wireless sensor networks–in particular the design of algorithmic methods and distributed computing with sensing, processing, and communication capabilities It is our belief that this volume provides not only the necessary background and foundation in wireless sensor networks but also an in-depth analysis of fundamental algorithms and protocols for the design and development of the next generations of heterogeneous wireless networks in general and wireless sensor networks in particular This book is divided into 18 chapters and covers a variety of topics in the field of wireless sensor networks that could be used as a textbook for graduate and/or advanced undergraduate studies, as well as a reference for engineers and computer scientists interested in the field of wireless sensor networks The rest of this book is organized as follows In Chapter 1, we address the several important algorithmic issues arising in wireless sensor networks and highlight the main differences to classical distributed algorithms Next, an algorithmic perspective toward the design of wireless sensor networks is discussed followed by an overview of well-known algorithms for basic services (that can be used by other algorithms in WSNs), data communication, management functions, applications, and data fusion Chapter introduces heterogeneous wireless sensor networks where more than one ix CuuDuongThanCong.com x PREFACE type of sensor node is integrated into a WSN While many of the existing civilian and military applications of heterogeneous wireless sensor networks (H-WSNs) not differ substantially from their homogeneous counterparts, there are compelling reasons to incorporate heterogeneity into the network, such as improving the scalability of WSNs and addressing the problem of nonuniform energy drainage, among others Chapter also discusses how these reasons are interrelated and how this new dimension heterogeneity opens new challenges to the design of algorithms that run on such wireless sensor networks In order to develop algorithms for sensor networks and in order to give mathematical correctness and performance proofs, models for various aspects of sensor networks are needed In the next three chapters, we focus upon the modeling, design, and analysis of algorithms and protocols for wireless sensor networks Chapter discusses how biological inspired models, such epidemic models, can be used to design reliable data dissemination algorithms in the context of wireless sensor networks Recall that reliable data dissemination to all sensor nodes is necessary for the propagation of queries, code updates, and other sensitive WSN-related information This is not a trivial task because the number of nodes in a sensor network can be quite large and the environment is quite dynamic (e.g., nodes can die or move to another location) Chapter provides an overview and discussion of well-known sensor network models used today and shows how these models are related to each other While the collaborative nature of the WSN brings significant advantages over traditional sensing, the spatiotemporal correlation among the sensor observations is another significant and unique characteristic of the WSN which can be exploited to drastically enhance the overall sensor network performance Chapter presents the theoretical framework to model the spatiotemporal correlation in sensor networks and describes in detail how to exploit this correlation when designing reliable communication protocols for WSN With the traditional TCP/IP models not suited to routing in wireless sensor networks, the network layer protocol has to be updated to be synchronized with the challenging constraints posed by WSNs Hence, routing in these networks is a challenging task and has thus been a primary focus with the wireless networking community The next chapters investigate the major issues to routing with the goals to devise new protocols to keep associated uncertainty under control Chapter highlights the properties of a wireless sensor network from the networking point of view, and then it presents a description of various well-known routing protocols for wireless sensor networks The common goals of designing a routing algorithm is not only to reduce control packet overhead, maximize throughput, and minimize the end-to-end delay, but also to take into consideration the energy consumption, especially in a sensor network comprised of nodes that are considered lightweight with limited memory and battery power In order to achieve high energy efficiency and ensure long network lifetime for routing traffic control, as well as employ bandwidth re-use for data gathering and target tracking, researchers have designed one-to-many, many-to-one, one-to-any, or oneto-all communications, routing, and clustering-based routing protocols Chapter presents different protocols developed to create clusters and select the best cluster head using Graph Theory concepts Chapter discusses the merits and challenges of CuuDuongThanCong.com 532 SECURE LOCALIZATION SYSTEMS: PROTOCOLS AND TECHNIQUES components: distance/angle estimation, position computation, and localization algorithm We then went over each of these components, showing several techniques that could be used to compromise them and, consequently, the whole localization system when in the presence of compromised nodes and/or a compromised environment After that, we showed some examples of current insecure localization systems and how they could be easily confused by some of the studied attacks Finally, some of the techniques used by current secure localization systems were studied in order to show how to perform localization in the presence of hostile nodes and compromised environments 18.6 EXERCISES Cite the main differences in providing security in (a) wired networks, (b) wireless ad hoc networks, and (c) wireless sensor networks Why are localization systems for WSNs so hard to secure? Cite the main challenges in providing security in each of the three components of the localization systems: (a) distance estimation, (b) position computation, and (c) localization algorithm Cryptography is not so easy to be implemented in a WSN Cite and explain the main challenges in providing a WSN with a cryptographic system Cite the main techniques to provide a security layer in a WSN Show the pros and cons of each technique Choose a different nonsecure localization system (not studied in this chapter), explain how it works, show how it is possible to be attacked, and finally, show possible solutions to secure this chosen localization system BIBLIOGRAPHY A Boukerche Handbook of Algorithms for Wireless Networking and Mobile Computing (Chapman & Hall/Crc Computer & Information Science), Chapman & Hall/CRC, Boca Raton, FL, 2005 I F Akyildiz, W Su, Y Sankarasubramaniam, and E Cyirci Wireless sensor networks: A survey Computer Networks, 38(4):393–422, 2002 D Estrin, L Girod, G Pottie, and M Srivastava Instrumenting the world with wireless sensor networks In International Conference on Acoustics, Speech, and Signal Processing (ICASSP 2001), Salt Lake City, UT, June 2001, pp 2033–2036 M Ilyas and I Mahgoub Handbook of Sensor Networks: Compact Wireless and Wired Sensing Systems, CRC Press LLC, Boca Raton, FL, 2004, Chapter 20 G J Pottie and W J Kaiser Wireless integrated network sensors Communications of the ACM, 43(5):51–58, 2000 H A B F Oliveira, E F Nakamura, A A F Loureiro, and A Boukerche Directed position estimation: A recursive localization approach for wireless sensor networks In 14th IEEE CuuDuongThanCong.com BIBLIOGRAPHY 533 International Conference on Computer Communications and Networks, San Diego, October 2005, pp 557–562 T He, C Huang, B M Blum, J A Stankovic, and T Abdelzaher Range-free localization schemes for large scale sensor networks In MobiCom ’03: Proceedings of the 9th Annual International Conference on Mobile Computing and Networking, ACM Press, New York, 2003, pp 81–95 J Albowicz, A Chen, and L Zhang Recursive position estimation in sensor networks In The 9th International Conference on Network Protocols, November 2001, pp 35–41 L Doherty, K S J Pister, and L E Ghaoui Convex position estimation in wireless sensor networks In IEEE Conference on Computer Communications 2001, Vol 3, Anchorage, AK, April 2001, pp 1655–1663 10 A Savvides, C.-C Han, and M B Strivastava Dynamic fine-grained localization in ad-hoc networks of sensors In 7th ACM/IEEE International Conference on Mobile Computing and Networking, Rome, Italy, 2001, pp 166–179 11 Y Shang, W Ruml, Y Zhang, and M P J Fromherz Localization from mere connectivity In Proceedings of the 4th ACM International Symposium on Mobile Ad Hoc Networking and Computing, Annapolis, MD, 2003, pp 201–212 12 D Niculescu and B Nath Ad hoc positioning system (aps) In IEEE Global Communications Conference (GlobeCom ’01), San Antonio, TX, November 2001, pp 2926– 2931 13 N Bulusu, J Heidemann, D Estrin, and T Tran Self-configuring localization systems: Design and experimental evaluation Transactions on Embedded Computing Systems, 3(1):24– 60, 2004 14 H A B F Oliveira, E F Nakamura, A A F Loureiro, and A Boukerche Error analysis of localization systems in sensor networks In 13th ACM International Symposium on Geographic Information Systems, Bremen, Germany, November 2005, pp 71–78 15 A Boukerche, H A B F Oliveira, E F Nakamura, and A A F Loureiro A Voronoi approach for scalable and robust dv-hop localization system for sensor networks In Computer Communications and Networks, 2007 ICCCN 2007 Proceedings of 16th International Conference on, 2007, pp 497–502 16 A Boukerche, H A B F Oliveira, E F Nakamura, and A A F Loureiro Localization systems for wireless sensor networks IEEE Wireless Communications—Special Issue on Wireless Sensor Networks, 2007, pp 25–30 17 H A B F Oliveira, E F Nakamura, A A F Loureiro, and A Boukerche Localization in time and space for sensor networks In AINA’07: 21st IEEE International Conference on Advanced Information Networking and Applications, Niagara Falls, Canada, May 2007, pp 539–546 18 A Boukerche, H A B F Oliveira, E F Nakamura, and A A F Loureiro Vehicular ad-hoc networks—A new challenge for localization Elsevier Computer Communications, 2008, to appear 19 A Boukerche, H A B F Oliveira, E F Nakamura, and A A F Loureiro A novel locationfree greedy forward algorithm for wireless sensor networks In Proceedings of the 2008 IEEE International Conference on Communications (ICC 2008), Beijing, China, May 2008, IEEE CD-ROM 20 A Boukerche, H A B F Oliveira, E F Nakamura, and A A F Loureiro Towards an integrated solution for node localization and data routing in sensor networks In ISCC ’07: CuuDuongThanCong.com 534 SECURE LOCALIZATION SYSTEMS: PROTOCOLS AND TECHNIQUES 12th IEEE Symposium on Computers and Communications, Aveiro, Portugal, July 2007, pp 449–454 21 B Karp and H T Kung Gpsr: Greedy perimeter stateless routing for wireless networks In Proceedings of the 6th Annual International Conference on Mobile Computing and Networking, Boston, MA, 2000, pp 243–254 22 Y Yu, R Govindan, and D Estrin Geographical and energy aware routing: A recursive data dissemination protocol for wireless sensor networks Technical Report CSD-TR-01-0023, Computer Science Department, UCLA, 2001 23 M L Sichitiu and V Ramadurai Localization of wireless sensor networks with a mobile beacon In Proceedings of the 1st IEEE International Conference on Mobile Ad hoc and Sensor Systems (MASS 2004), Fort Lauderdale, FL, October 2004, pp 174–183 24 L Lazos and R Poovendran Hirloc: High-resolution robust localization for wireless sensor networks IEEE Journal on Selected Areas in Communications, 24:233–246, 2006 25 L Lazos and R Poovendran Serloc: Secure range-independent localization for wireless sensor networks In Proceedings of WiSe’04, ACM Press, New York, 2004, pp 21–30 26 L Lazos, R Poovendran, and S Capkun Rope: Robust position estimation in wireless sensor networks In Proceedings of IPSN, April 2005, pp 324–331 27 S Capkun and J.-P Hubaux Secure positioning of wireless devices with application to sensor networks In Infocom’05, Miami, March 2005, pp 1917–1928 28 D Liu, P Ning, and W Du Detecting malicious beacon nodes for secure location discovery in wireless sensor networks In 25th ICDCS, Washington, DC, 2005, IEEE Computer Society, pp 609–619 29 A Srinivasan, J Teitelbaum, and J Wu Drbts: Distributed reputation-based beacon trust system In 2nd IEEE DASC, 2006, pp 277–283 30 Z Li, W Trappe, Y Zhang, and B Nath Robust statistical methods for securing wireless localization in sensor networks In IPSN ’05: Proceedings of the 4th International Symposium on Information Processing in Sensor Networks, Los Angeles, CA, IEEE Press, New York, 2005, p 12 31 D Liu, P Ning, and W Du Attack-resistant location estimation in sensor networks In IPSN ’05: Proceedings of the 4th International Symposium on Information Processing in Sensor Networks, Los Angeles, CA, IEEE Press, New York, 2005, p 13 32 W Du, L Fang, and P Ning Lad: Localization anomaly detection forwireless sensor networks In 19th IPDPS, Washington, DC, 2005, IEEE Computer Society, p 41.1 33 N Sastry, U Shankar, and D Wagner Secure verification of location claims In WiSe’03, New York, 2003, ACM Press, New York, pp 1–10 CuuDuongThanCong.com INDEX Abstraction-based sensor programming, 46 ACE algorithm, 173 pseudocode for, 173 Active sensor network (ASN) project, 228 Ad hoc networks, 51, 63, 267 epidemic models, 63 paradigm of, 267 techniques, 438 Ad hoc nodes, 130 Ad hoc positioning system (APS), 325, 326–328, 523, 526 Ad hoc routing protocols, 66 Adaptive threshold-sensitive energy-efficient sensor network protocol (APTEEN), 144 Advertisement messages (ADV), 55 Aggregation-and-forwarding (AFN), 236 Algorithm design, 90 Algorithm for cluster establishment (ACE), 171 Algorithm for robust routing in volatile environments (ARRIVE), 155–156 Algorithmic models, 96 Alternating-current power adaptor, 22 Ambient conditions, 225 humidity, 225 light intensity, 225 pressure, 225 temperature, 225 Analog to digital converter (ADC), 356 Angle estimation method, 344 Angle of arrival (AOA) estimation, 348–349 Angle of arrival (AOA) measurements, 359 Angle/direction of arrival (AoA/DoA), 314 APIT algorithm, 323, 526 Arbitrary nodes, 82 Area coverage, 232 ARRIVE algorithm, 155 ARRIVE protocol, 155 flow chart, 155 Art-gallery model, 230 Attribute-based routing protocols, 133–135 Autonomous underwater vehicles (AUV), 268 Base station, 492 placement, 238–241 position, 242 protection, 256 relocation, 254 Beacon identification, 355 Beacon nodes, 334 Beacon vector routing (BVR), 214 BFS, see Breadth first search Binary interference models, 89 Blom’s key pre-distribution method, 491 Bounded independence graph (BIG), 80 model, 80 Braided multipaths, 149 design, 150 Breadth first search (BFS) 164, 166, 204 BFS algorithm, 171 Broadcast-based dissemination, 54 Broadcast transmission protocol, 55 Broadcasting technique, 187 BVR algorithm, 215 overview of, 215 BVR protocol, 214 Carrier sensing multiple access (CSMA), 506 Algorithms and Protocols for Wireless Sensor Networks, Edited by Azzedine Boukerche Copyright © 2009 by John Wiley & Sons Inc 535 CuuDuongThanCong.com 536 INDEX Cartesian coordinate system, 213 Cascaded sensors movement, 252 Center for embedded networked sensing (CENS), 44 Centralized analytical model, 272 Chessboard clustering protocol, 33 Cipher block chaining (CBC), 499 Cipher in counter mode (CTR), 496 Civilized graphs, 97 Cluster-based distributed localization scheme, 359 Cluster-based graph network, 187–188 Clustered network, 250 SMART, 250 Clustering techniques, 163 Communication range method, 315 advantage of, 315 Compromised node, 514 Computational geometry, 78 based algorithm, 240 Connection-tree (C-tree), 152 Constant transmission power, 85 Constrained shortest-path algorithm, 135 Controlled sink mobility, 281–283 Correlation model, 107 Cricket compass project, 348 Cricket location support system, 334 Cross-link detection protocol (CLDP), 208 Data aggregation, 65 Gossip algorithms, 65 Data collectors, 268 AUVs, 268 Robots, 268 Data dissemination process, 54–56 SPIN, 54 Data dissemination protocol, see Scalable energy-efficient asynchronous dissemination Data fidelity, 237 Data forwarding phase, 498 Data MULEs, 293 Data packets, 278 Data propagation protocols, 476 Data redundancy, 28 Delay-constrained traffic, 255 Deluge protocol, 61–63 Deluge protocol, 62 CuuDuongThanCong.com MAINTAIN states, 62 RX states, 62 TX states, 62 Deluge state machine, 61 Deployment objectives, 231 Deployment schemes, 228 Depth first search (DFS), 164, 166 Design optimization strategies, 227 Differential-equation-based approach, 70 Differential-rate-equation-based modeling methods, 71 Dijkstra’s algorithm, 233 Dijkstra’s least-cost path algorithm, 252 Directed diffusion algorithm, 134 pseudocode, 134 Directed position estimation (DPE), 329–331 Direct transmission phase, 427 Directed position estimation (DPE), 523 Distance/Angle estimation, 523 Distributed reputation based beacon trust system (DRBTS), 528 Disjoint multipaths, 149 Disk graph, 78 Disk graph model (QUDG), 79 Distance-based coordinates, 210 Distance estimates, 349 Distance/angle estimation, 310, 311 Distances estimation methods, 343–344 mechanisms for, 343 Distributed algorithms, 91–92, 98, 271 Distributed dominating set-based algorithms, 175–176 Distributed sensor networks with collective computation (DSN-CC), 27 Divide-and-conquer method, 178 DM model, 89 Dominating set problem (DS), 90 DPE algorithm, 331 phases, 331 Drift error, 504 DSN-CC project, 28, 167, 176 DSN-CC system, 28 Dust-sized smart sensors, 342 DV-distance, 326 DV-Hop, 326 DV-Hop algorithm, 326 DV-Hop solution, 359 Dynamic packet state (DPS), 151 INDEX EAD algorithm, 476 Echno protocol, 529 E-health systems, 268 telemedicine equipment, 268 wearable sensors, 268 Efficient aggregation, 65 geographic Gossip, 65 smart Gossip, 65–66 Embedded networked sensing, 44–45 End-to-end transmission rate drops, 30 performance of, 30 Energy-aware data-centric routing (EAD), 135 Energy balanced data propagation problem, 453 Energy-constrained nodes, 32 nodes E1, 32 nodes E2, 32 Energy dissipation, 452, 463 Energy-efficient algorithms, 423 Energy-efficient communication protocols, 106 Energy-efficient protocols, 425 energy-balanced protocol (EBP), 425 local target protocol (LTP), 425 probabilistic forwarding protocol (PFR), 425 variable transmission range protocol (VTRP), 425 Energy-efficient multipath routing, 149 mechanisms, 149 Energy-efficient routing protocol, 269 use, 269 Epidemic algorithms, 68 Epidemic algorithms classification, 58 Epidemic broadcast-based dissemination, 54 Epidemic models, 68 Epidemic parameter, 53 Epidemic routing protocol, 62, 66–67 Epidemic theory, 52–54 definition, 52 overview of, 52–54 Epidemic theory, 52, 53 epidemic parameter, 53 overview of, 52 Epidemiological studies, 53 definition, 53 ERUP protocol, 273 CuuDuongThanCong.com 537 Estimating angles method, 344 mechanisms for, 344 Euclidean graph, 78 Euclidean method, 327 Euclidean plane, 82 Eulerian broadcasting procedure, see Broadcasting technique Event-driven heterogeneous WSNs, 43 Event-to-sink reliability notion, 122 Exponential autocorrelation function, 113 Exposure-based coverage assessment, 232 Fault-tolerant data propagation protocols, 461 447 Fault tolerance, 131 Field sources, 118 spatiotemporal characteristics of, 118 Firecracker dissemination componets, 58 broadcast protocol, 58 mechanism, 57–59 routing protocol, 58 seed selection, 58 Firecracker protocol, 57–59 Flat homogeneous WSN, 36 Flat network topology, 241 Flooding time synchronization protocol (FTSP) Gabriel graph construction, 205 Galileo device, 98 Galileo device, see GPS Gallager, Humblet, and Spira (GHS) algorithm, 177 Gaussian distribution, 350 Gaussian random variables (JGRVs), 109 GDSTR, 208 General graph (GG), 79 General metric spaces, 81 General weighted graph (GWG), 89 Generalized network of miniature environmental sensors (GNOMES), 44 Geographic routing, 138, 140 energy-efficient forwarding strategies, 140 Geographic routing algorithm (GRA), 139, 201 Geographical positioning system (GPS), 141, 325, 335, 341 device, 345 GPS receiver, 334, 341, 346 538 INDEX Geosensor network, 68 definition, 68 epidemic approach, 68 flooding approach, 68 location-constrained approach, 68 Global algorithms, 91, 92, 93 Global positioning system (GPS), 22, 98, 196, 334 advantages, 334 disadvantages, 334 Gossip-based approach (63–66) 63 GOSSIP protocol, 64 parameters, 64 Gossip algorithms, 65 Gradient broadcast (GRAB), 137 Graph-theoretic modeling technique, 70 Graph theory, 77 Greedy algorithms, 91, 92 Greedy distributed spanning tree protocol (GDSTR) algorithm, 208 Greedy maximum residual energy (GMRE), 288, 293, 294 protocol, 288 Grid-based sensor network, 37 Grid points, 38 graphical presentations, 38 Ground-based VOR stations, 344 Hard-wired MAC addres, 130 HELLO packet, 140 Hello flood attacks, 484 Heterogeneous camera sensor network, 25 Heterogeneous transmission, 86 Heterogeneous wireless sensor networks, 23, 33, 36, 37, 38–42, 47 applications, 41 architectures for, 23 coverage in, 37 differentiated coverage, 38 goal of, 40 onadequate theory of, 42 stochastic coverage, 39 systems infrastructure, 42 Heterogeneous wireless sensor networks projects, 42 resource-oriented protocol, 33 Hierarchical architecture, 23 Hierarchical protocols, 142 CuuDuongThanCong.com High-end nodes, 35, 45 intel XScale-based nodes, 45 High-end sensor nodes, 34, 35, 38 High-resolution data, 132 Higher-fidelity image, 27 Higher-priority neighbors, 95 HiRLoc techniques, 530 Homogeneous ad hoc networks, 30 Homogeneous WSNs, 30 Homogeneous mixing model, 53 Homogeneous WSNs, 37 Hop-based coordinates, 214 Hop-b-hop data propagation protoco, 440–445 Hop-by-hop transmissions, 451 Hop interference (UHI), 87 ID distributions, 98 ILP model, 274 In-home sensor nodes, 32 In-network processing, 28 Integer linear programming (ILP), 145, 242 Inter-base-station network, 260 Interference issues, 84 Interference models, 84, 90 overview of, 90 Interfering transmissions, 86 Internet routing techniques, 195 Intersection graph, 78 Initialization vector, 496 Intrusion-tolerant routing in wireless sensor networks, 497 IP-like routing techniques, 196 background, 196 overview, 196 Iterative multilateration algorithms, 351 Joint source-channel coding, 116 K-hop neighborhood, 88 K-local algorithm, 95, 96 Kephart-White (KW) model, 69, 70 Key management schemes, 487–492 basic random key pre-distribution scheme, 488–489 extended random key pre-distribution scheme, 489–490 master-key-based key predistribution scheme, 487–488 INDEX multiple space key pre-distribution scheme, 491–492 Kruskal’s algorithm, 91 Large phased-array antennas, 344 Lamport’s method, 493 Layering-based security approach, 484–485 LEACH, 144 LEACH protocol, 143 pseudo-code, 143 LID values, 152 Limited destination information, 141 Linear chain of causality, 93 Lithium-ion battery, 22 Local algorithms, 94 Local dominating set algorithm, 95 Local randomized greedy algorithm (LRG), 176 Local target protocol (LTP), 462 Low-cost sensor devices, 437 Localization algorithm, 324, 325, 334, 523 categories, 324 Localization schemes, 349 Localization system, 307–310 components of, 310, 523 importance of, 309 requirements of, 310 Localization system division, 523 Localization with a mobile beacon (LMB), 331–334, 526 advantage of, 333 algorithm of, 333 Localized MDS algorithm, 93, 94, 171 Location-aware anchor nodes, 359 Location discovery schemes, 342–343 Location errors (imprecise GPS), 141 Location estimation, 341 aircraft navigation, 341 maritime, 341 robotics, 341 tactical missions, 341 transportation, 341 Location fingerprinting method, 323 Logical Coordinate Routing (LCR), 216 Los Alamos National Laboratory, 27, 29 Lossy wireless sensor networks, 140 geographic routing in, 140 Low-complexity techniques, 342 Low-cost techniques, 342 CuuDuongThanCong.com 539 Low-cost sensor devices, 437 Low-end sensor node, 34, 35, 38 Low-energy directional broadcast, 427 Low-fidelity cameras, 25, 27 Low-power sensor devices, 437 Malicious code propagation, 69–70 epidemic models, 69 Malory, 514 Manhattan norm, 81 Markov chain, 65 Matroid theory, 92 Mediator-wrapper, 41 Medium access control (MAC), 96, 119 MAC algorithms, 496, 499 MAC protocol, 86–87, 120 Medium access mechanism, 97 Meshed multipath routing (M-MPR), 145 steps, 145 Meshed multipath routing algorithm, 148 pseudocode description, 148 Message complexity, 93 Message’s destination, 98 Message-passing model, 96 Metric space, 81 Microelectromechanical (MEMS) systems, 423 MFR, see Most forward within radius scheme MILP formulation, 283–288 Minimum cost forwarding algorithm (MCFA), 138 Minimum dominating set (MDS), 91, 167 Minimum mean square estimate (MMSE), 350 Minimum sanning tee (MST), 176 Min-two uniform targets protocol (M2TP), 444 Mixed integer linear programming (MILP) model, 275 Mobile ad hoc networks (MANET), 67–69, 480 Mobile beacons, 331 Mobile element scheduling (MES), 272 Mobile nodes, see MULEs Mobile relays, 271 Mobile sensors, 249 Mobile sensor network, 67 Mobile sensor nodes, 32 540 INDEX Mobile sinks, 273, 274 use of, 274 Mobile ubiquitous LAN extension (MULEs), 271, 276 approach, 276, 277, 279 architecture, 293 beacons, 278 mobility, 273 nodes, 280 nonshareable (NS) nodes, 280 shareable (SH) nodes, 280 system, 277 Mobile wireless sensor networks, 183 Moore’s law, 479 Most forward within radius scheme, 198, 199 Motion control algorithm, 279 Multi-base-station clustered sensor network architecture, 259 Multi-base-station positioning, 260 Multidimensional scale (MDS), 323 Multihop (ad hoc) communications, 267 Multihop network topology, 510 Multihop routing, 281, 290 protocol, 269 Multilateration algorithm, 352 illustration of, 352 Multinode relocation, 258 Multipath routing, 145–148 Multiple base-stations, 241 Multiple hops, 351 Multiple sensor indoor surveillance (MSIS) project, 228 Multitier multimodal camera sensor network, 45 Network algorithm, 278 Network connectivity, 234 Network-controlled sink mobility, 274 Network lifetime, 35, 99, 235 Network operation model, 253 Nearest forward progress, (NFP), 198, 199 challenges, 206 drawbacks, 206 Nearest forward progress, NFP Node-move-out algorithm, 188 Node identifiers, 98 Node supervision, 482 CuuDuongThanCong.com Nodes repositioning, 245 NoGeo algorithm, 211 NoGeo method, 210 Non-power-constrained nodes, 34 Object recognition, 27 Omnidirectional radio antennas, 78 Online algorithms, 96 Optical (laser) transmission, 423 Optimal node placement, 227 Optimal offline algorithm, 96 Optimal transmission ranges (OTR) approach, 201 Optimized sensor placement, 232 Packet delay components, 506 Pan-tilt-zoom (PTZ) cameras, 25 Passive information gathering, 481 Path-loss exponent, 85, 98 Peer-to-peer computing, 427 energy efficiency of, 436 Peer-to-peer generalized clustering model, 185–186 PEGASIS, see LEACH Perimeter mobility (PM), 291 Perimeter node, 140 Periodic data collection model, 238 PFR, 448–450 correctness of, 435 energy efficiency of, 436 properties, 448–449 protocol, 445 robustness of, 451 Placement algorithm, 235 illustration of, 235 optimized positioning, 238 Planar methods, 207 Planar subgraph methods, 204–206 Point-in-triangulation (PIT) test, 359 Point-to-point routing solutions, 196 Poisson models, 97 Poisson process, 71 Polynomial-time approximation algorithm, 177 Polynomial time approximation scheme (PTAS), 91 Position-based routing, 196 algorithms, 197 protocols, 195 INDEX Position component, 523 Position computation methods, 315, 528 Post-deployment relocation, 250 Post-deployment sensor relocation, 248–254 Post facto synchronization approach, 509 Power-aware chessboard-based adaptive routing (PCAR), 31 Power-constrained nodes, 34 Power-efficient gathering in sensor information systems (PEGASIS), 143–144 Power exponential model, 120 Pre-deployed sensor network, 431 Probabilistic approaches, 319 Probabilistic forwarding protocol (PFR), 445–448 Protocol model (PM) 88 Public key cryptography, 472 Quality-of-service (QoS), 27, 201 parameters, 151 Quality-of-service support, 47 Quasi unit disk graph (QUDG), 79, 80, 82, 83 model, 79, 81 Query-driven heterogeneous WSNs, 43 RADAR indoor location system, 348 Radiation detection nodes, 29 Radiation detectors, 28, 29 acoustic sensors, 28 atmospheric sensors, 28 magnetometers, 28 seismic sensors, 28 video cameras, 28 Radioactive source detection, 28 staged architecture, 28 Radio frequency (RF), 423 channel, 334 Radiological dispersal devices (RDDs), 27 Radio propagation models, 312 Random bit string, see Initialization vector Random deployment schemes, 231 Random distribution model, 37 Random graph model, 71 Random key distribution technique, 71 Random mobility (RM), 290 model, 67 Random node distribution, 97 CuuDuongThanCong.com 541 Random transmission errors, 99 Randomized sensor placement, 230 Range-free techniques, 359 Rayleigh distributed random variable, 80 RBS protocol, 509 Real-time data, 27 Received signal strength indicator (RSSI), 311–313, 343 RECRUIT message, 173 Recursive position estimation, (RPE), 325, 526 algorithm, 328–329 Reference broadcast synchronization, 509 Relative neighborhood graphs (RNGs), 204 Relative removal rate, 53 Reliable event communication, 122 spatiotemporal correlation, 122 Reliable information forwarding using multiple paths (ReIn-ForM) protocol, 149 Reprogramming algorithm, 60 properties, 60 Reprogramming protocol, 59 Request message, 55 Resource-oriented protocol (ROP), 32, 33 analysis of, 36 performance of, 33 RFID tags, 98 Robust distributed algorithms, 424 Robust distributed protocols, 424 Robust position computation, 528 Round trip time (RTT), 279 Route discovery phase, 498 Route request (RREQ) packet, 33 Routing algorithms, 130 Routing protocols, 130 applications, 131 design issues, 131, 132 Routing protocols taxonomy, 129 Replay attack, 525 SAR algorithm, 138 Scalable energy-efficient asynchronous dissemination (SEAD), 273 Scale-free topology, 53 Search Phase, 441 427 Secure node-to-node communication, 472 Secure localization technique, 527 542 INDEX Secure sensor networks, 70 compromise propagation, 70 Secure time synchronization approaches, 515–518 Security protocols for sensor networks, 495–496, 481 Semidefinite program (SDP), 323 SensEye, 25, 26 staged architecture, 26 SensEye heterogeneous camera sensor network, 27 SensEye system, 27, 28 Sensing model, 232 Sensor field broadcasting messages, 331 Sensor network, 37, 51, 77, 90, 97, 98, 132, 171, 195, 342, 346–347, 353, 424, 438, 452, 479 approaches and obstacles, 195 angle estimation, 353 distributed algorithms for, 98 objective of, 97 Sensor networks algorithm, 77 Sensor network artitechture, 226 Sensor networks localization, 345–347 Sensor network models, 77 Sensor networks routing protocols, 132–135 cryptography, 486–487 distributed protocols, 424 role, 479 security attacks, 482–484 security classes, 481–484 symetric cryptography, 486 Sensor networks limitation, 480 network, 480 node, 480 physical, 480 Sensor networks time synchronization, 506 challenges, 506 design issues, 507 Sensor network topology, 123 Sensor node, 22, 138 components, 22 connectivity, 78 modeling the, 78 placement, 228 Sensor nodes mobility, 270–271 Sensor repositioning schemes, 247–248 Sensor routing protocols, 133 categories of, 133 CuuDuongThanCong.com Sensor-to-MULE communication, 277 Sensor-to-sink transmissions, 271 Sequential assignment routing (SAR), 138–139 SeRLoc techniques, 530 SER protocol, 151 SER protocol parameters, 153 Shorted path first (SPF) algorithm, 164 Shortest-path energy-aware routing, 135 Short-range communications, 274 Signal signature database, 323 Signal-to-interference-plus-noise ratio, 85, 89 Signal to interference ratio, 85 Signal to noise ratio (SINR), 85, 463 Signal to noise ratio model, 84, 85, 86 Single base station, 238 Single node, 54 base station, 54 multiple sensor nodes, 54 Sink mobility rates, 286 S-I-S model, 53, 67, 69, 70 Sleep-awake probabilistic forwarding protocol (SW-PFR), 462 Sleeping time, 99 Small-scale robot squads, 268 Smart dust cloud, 426 Smart dust propagation protocol, 442 Smart dust protocols, 443 Smart gossip argument, 66 Space complexity, 93 Spatiotemporal correlation theory, 105, 106 spatial correlation, 106 temporal correlation, 106 SPEED architecture, 139 SPEED protocol, 139 SPIN-BC protocol architecture, 55, 56 SPIN family, 54 SPIN protocol, 54 SPIN-BC, 54 SPIN-EC, 54 SPIN-PP, 54 SPIN-RL, 54 Stargate family processors, 22 Stateless geographic nondeterministic forwarding (SNFG), 139 Static base-station positioning, 244 approaches for, 244 Static sinks, 269 INDEX Stochastic coverage, 39 analytical expressions, 39 Stream-enabled routing (SER), 151 Susceptible infected recovered (S-I-R) model, 52 Susceptible infected susceptible (S-I-S) model, 52 Sybil attacks, 484, 525 Synchronization protocols, 509 Synchronization schemes components access time, 506 propagation time, 506 receive time, 507 send time, 506 Synchronous dynamic random access memory, 22 System lifetime, 30 Table-driven multipath approach, 138 Tag-based data dissemination technique, 58 TASC algorithm, 181 pseudocode for, 181 TASC cluster’s nodes distribution, 180 Task-tree (T-tree), 152 TESLA protocol, 496 Three-stage handshaking (ADV-REQ-DATA), 54 Three-way handshaking mechanism, 62 Threshold-sensitive energy-efficient sensor network protocol (TEEN), 144 Throughput-capacity networks, 141 Time difference of arrival (TDoA) method, 313, 334 Time division multiple access (TDMA), 505 data dissemination protocol, 56–57 data dissemination, 57 Time division multiple access-based medium access layer, 56 Time division multiple access slot, 57 Time synchronization protocol sensor networks (TPSN), 510–512 attacks, 512 TinySec security architecture, 498 Topologically aware worm propagation model (TWPM), 70 Topology adaptive spatial clustering (TASC) algorithm, 179, 179 Transmission energy, 98 Transmission power, 254 CuuDuongThanCong.com 543 Tree-based clustering protocol, 171 Triangulation algorithm, 140 Triangulation method, 319 Trickle’s principles, 62 Trickle algorithm, 59–61 Trickle metadata, 61 Trilateration and multilateration method, 316 Triple-key management, 494 graphical presentation, 494 Two-dimensional euclidean plane, 82, 97 Two-dimensional sensor field, 35 Two-ray ground model, 85 Two-tier sensor network architecture, 236 UDI model, 86, 87 Uniform node distribution, 97 Unit ball graph (UBG), 81 definition, 81 Unit disk graph (UDG), 78, 79 model, 78, 80, 81, 85 Ultra low wireless sensor, 423 Variable transmission range protocol (VTRP) 437, 451–461, 465 VOR, 249, 250 Voronoi-based (VOR) method, 248 Voronoi-based (VOR) stations, 354 Voronoi-based (VOR) systems, 344 Voronoi cells, 35 Virtual polar coordinate routing (VPCR), 210 Virtual polar coordinate space (VPCS), 210 Wake-up process, 26 Weight partitioning algorithm, 179 Well-known recognition algorithms, 27 Wide-sense stationary (WSS), 112 Wireless device, see Malory Wireless sensor network (WSN), 1, 21, 30, 31, 36, 41, 42, 51, 52, 54, 84, 105, 107, 109, 112, 115, 119, 130, 161, 163, 164, 169, 170, 225, 237, 267, 307, 341 advantages, 105 applications, 31, 267 architecture, 107 code update protocols, 59 data dissemination, 54 definition, 521 544 INDEX Wireless sensor network (WSN) (Continued) epidemic models, 52 field of, 342 graph theory approaches, 169 heterogeneous, 21 homogeneous, 21 joint spatiotemporal correlation, 115 management of, 41 mobility, 267 properties of, 130 protocols/techniques, 521 self-configuring, 341 CuuDuongThanCong.com sound sensors, 42 spatial correlation, 109 spatiotemporal correlation, 119 temporal correlation, 112 Wireless sensor nodes, 130, 276 Wormhole attack, 525 Worst-case node distribution, 97–98 Zonal algorithm, 176 Zonal weakly connected clustering algorithm, 183 Zone-based clustering, 183–185 WILEY SERIES ON PARALLEL AND DISTRIBUTED COMPUTING Series Editor: Albert Y Zomaya Parallel and Distributed Simulation Systems / Richard Fujimoto Mobile Processing in Distributed and Open Environments / Peter Sapaty Introduction to Parallel Algorithms / C Xavier and S S Iyengar Solutions to Parallel and Distributed Computing Problems: Lessons from Biological Sciences / Albert Y Zomaya, Fikret Ercal, and Stephan Olariu (Editors) Parallel and Distributed Computing: A Survey of Models, Paradigms, and Approaches / Claudia Leopold Fundamentals of Distributed Object Systems: A CORBA Perspective / Zahir Tari and Omran Bukhres Pipelined Processor Farms: Structured Design for Embedded Parallel Systems / Martin Fleury and Andrew Downton Handbook of Wireless Networks and Mobile Computing / Ivan Stojmenovi´c (Editor) Internet-Based Workflow Management: Toward a Semantic Web / Dan C Marinescu Parallel Computing on Heterogeneous Networks / Alexey L Lastovetsky Performance Evaluation and Characteization of Parallel and Distributed Computing Tools / Salim Hariri and Manish Parashar Distributed Computing: Fundamentals, Simulations and Advanced Topics, Second Edition / Hagit Attiya and Jennifer Welch Smart Environments: Technology, Protocols, and Applications / Diane Cook and Sajal Das Fundamentals of Computer Organization and Architecture / Mostafa Abd-El-Barr and Hesham El-Rewini Advanced Computer Architecture and Parallel Processing / Hesham El-Rewini and Mostafa Abd-El-Barr UPC: Distributed Shared Memory Programming / Tarek El-Ghazawi, William Carlson, Thomas Sterling, and Katherine Yelick Handbook of Sensor Networks: Algorithms and Architectures / Ivan Stojmenovi´c (Editor) Parallel Metaheuristics: A New Class of Algorithms / Enrique Alba (Editor) Design and Analysis of Distributed Algorithms / Nicola Santoro CuuDuongThanCong.com Task Scheduling for Parallel Systems / Oliver Sinnen Computing for Numerical Methods Using Visual C++ / Shaharuddin Salleh, Albert Y Zomaya, and Sakhinah A Bakar Architecture-Independent Programming for Wireless Sensor Networks / Amol B Bakshi and Viktor K Prasanna High-Performance Parallel Database Processing and Grid Databases / David Taniar, Clement Leung, Wenny Rahayu, and Sushant Goel Algorithms and Protocols for Wireless and Mobile Ad Hoc Networks / Azzedine Boukerche (Editor) Algorithms and Protocols for Wireless Sensor Networks / Azzedine Boukerche (Editor) CuuDuongThanCong.com ... employ bandwidth re-use for data gathering and target tracking, researchers have designed one-to-many, many-to-one, one-to-any, or oneto-all communications, routing, and clustering-based routing... York, pp 432–441, ISBN 3-5 4 0-0 211 1-6 17 Y Xu, J Heidemann, and D Estrin Geography-informed energy conservation for ad-hoc routing In Mobicom [80], pp 16–21, ISBN 1-5 811 3-4 2 2-3 18 C Schurgers, V... Garcia-Luna-Aceves Energy-efficient, collision-free medium access control for wireless sensor networks In Akyildiz et al [81], pp 181–192, ISBN 1-5 811 3-7 0 7-9 26 S Ci, H Sharif, and K Nuli A UKF-based