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RESEARCH METHODS IN OUTDOOR STUDIES Over the last two decades Outdoor Studies has emerged as an innovative and vibrant field of study This is the first book to offer a comprehensive appraisal of established and cutting-edge research methods as applied to Outdoor Studies Covering qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods, the book examines key methodologies, themes and technologies such as digital research, mobile methodologies, ethnography, interviews, research design, research ethics and ways of disseminating research Featuring contributions from leading researchers from a variety of disciplinary backgrounds, this is an essential text for any Outdoor Studies course or for researchers looking for innovative and creative research techniques Barbara Humberstone is Professor of Sociology of Sport and Outdoor Education at Buckinghamshire New University, UK, and Visiting Professor at Plymouth Marjon University, UK She is also Editor-in-chief of the Journal of Adventure Education and Outdoor Learning Her research interests include: Embodiment, alternative/nature-based physical activities and life-long learning, wellbeing and outdoor pedagogies, and social and environmental justice Heather Prince is Professor at the University of Cumbria, UK She is interested in pedagogic practice in outdoor and environmental education, including the design of higher education courses and support for research programmes, students and staff Her research interests are in school-based outdoor learning, sustainability and adventure She is Associate Editor of the Journal of Adventure Education and Outdoor Learning and Principal Fellow of the Higher Education Academy, UK ROUTLEDGE ADVANCES IN OUTDOOR STUDIES Series Editors: Barbara Humberstone, Buckinghamshire New University, UK Peter Higgins, University of Edinburgh, UK The Routledge Advances in Outdoor Studies series is a comprehensive and expanding book list that encompasses and integrates theoretical, practical and political aspects of outdoor studies, including education, leisure/recreation, adventure, therapy, nature-based sport, the environment (land & sea), sustainability, social justice and professional practice In bringing together these dimensions in new and creative forms, this series will highlight new and innovative national and international research, enable greater accessibility to key critical developments, and strengthen interconnections between the underpinning disciplines Available in this series: Routledge International Handbook of Outdoor Studies Edited by Barbara Humberstone, Heather Prince, Karla A Henderson Research Methods in Outdoor Studies Edited by Barbara Humberstone and Heather Prince https://www.routledge.com/Routledge-Advances-in-Outdoor-Studies/book-series/ RAOS RESEARCH METHODS IN OUTDOOR STUDIES Edited by Barbara Humberstone and Heather Prince First published 2020 by Routledge Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN and by Routledge 52 Vanderbilt Avenue, New York, NY 10017 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2020 selection and editorial matter, Barbara Humberstone and Heather Prince; individual chapters, the contributors The right of Barbara Humberstone and Heather Prince to be identified as the authors of the editorial material, and of the authors for their individual chapters, has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 All rights reserved No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A catalog record has been requested for this book ISBN: 978-0-367-18870-2 (hbk) ISBN: 978-0-367-18883-2 (pbk) ISBN: 978-0-429-19900-4 (ebk) Typeset in Bembo by Newgen Publishing UK CONTENTS List of figures List of tables List of contributors Foreword Acknowledgements Introduction Heather Prince and Barbara Humberstone ix xi xii xix xxii PART I Conceptualising and initiating the research process Entangled philosophical and methodological dimensions of research in outdoor studies? Living with(in) messy theorisation Kathleen Pleasants and Alistair Stewart Ethical issues and practicalities in outdoor studies research Barbara Humberstone and Carol Cutler Riddick 21 Designing effective research projects in outdoor studies Heather Prince and Liz Mallabon 33 vi Contents PART II Qualitative methodologies –choosing an appropriate approach 45 Phenomenological approaches to research in outdoor studies John Telford 47 A critical examination of the place of interviews in outdoor studies research Allen Hill, Philippa Morse and Janet Dyment 57 Methods and techniques for capturing empirical material from experiences and stories in outdoor spaces and places Heidi Smith 68 Mobilising research methods: Sensory approaches to outdoor and experiential learning research Sue Waite and Phil Waters 78 Capturing complexity and collaborative emergence through case study design: An ecosocial framework for researching outdoor sustainability education practice Alison Lugg 88 Ethnographic research in outdoor studies Ina Stan 101 10 Autoethnography: Creating stories that make a difference Barbara Humberstone and Robbie Nicol 111 11 Thinking the social through myself: Reflexivity in research practice Rebecca Olive 121 12 Finding my professional voice: Autobiography as a research method for outdoor studies Mark Leather 130 Contents vii PART III Contemporary creative qualitative methods 141 13 Creative nonfiction in outdoor studies Ben Clayton and Emily Coates 143 14 Shared-story approaches in outdoor studies: The HEAR (Hermeneutics, Auto/Ethnography and Action Research) ‘listening’ methodological model Tracy Ann Hayes and Heather Prince 153 15 Digital narrative methodology and multisensory outdoor ethnography Kirsti Pedersen Gurholt 164 16 Practising feminist reflexivity: Collaborative letter writing as method Pip Lynch, Martha Bell, Marg Cosgriff and Robyn Zink 175 17 Post-qualitative inquiry in outdoor studies: A radical (non-)methodology Jamie Mcphie and David A.G. Clarke 186 18 Together along the way: Applying mobilities through praxis in outdoor studies field research Philip M. Mullins 196 19 Mobile methods in outdoor studies: Walking interviews with educators Jonathan Lynch 207 20 Sensing the outdoors through research: Multisensory, multimedia, multimodal and multiliteracy possibilities 218 lisahunter 21 Representing experience: Creative methods and emergent analysis Marcus Morse and Philippa Morse 229 viii Contents PART IV Quantitative and mixed methods 243 22 Deriving metrics and measures in outdoor research Roger Scrutton 245 23 Scientific investigations in outdoor environments Lois Mansfield 256 24 Mixed methods research in outdoor studies: Paradigmatic considerations Kass Gibson and Mark Leather 269 25 Mixed methods research in outdoor studies: Practical applications Suzanne Peacock and Eric Brymer 279 26 Quantitative analyses of small samples with complex data-structures Ulrich Dettweiler 294 PART V Disseminating, communicating and sharing research 305 27 Publishing and disseminating outdoor studies research Linda Allin, Heather Prince and Barbara Humberstone 307 28 Research hubs: The theory-practice nexus Carrie Hedges, Chris Loynes and Sue Waite 317 29 Knocking on doors in the policy corridor –can research in outdoor studies contribute to policy change? A professional narrative on shaping educational policy and practice in Scotland Peter Higgins Index 329 342 FIGURES 3.1 Pathway analysis: Undergraduate and taught postgraduate dissertations and theses (open and closed choices of project) 5.1 Fairy grass nest Image taken by Morse (2017) during Diamond Firetail Finch encounter at Kooyoora State Park 8.1 Embedded case study design: Analytical layers and methods (Adapted from Yin, 2003) 8.2 Ecosocial framework (Adapted from Bronfenbrenner, 1994; Davis, Sumara & Luce-Kapler, 2008; Engeström 2001; Lave & Wenger, 1991; Lim, 2002; Sterling, 2004) 8.3 The human activity system as it related to the SOIL practicum (Adapted from Engeström, 2001, p. 135) 8.4 Data coding process (Adapted from Cresswell, 2008, p. 251) 12.1 The critical reflection process (Developed by Laurie Peterman, in Brookfield, 1995, p. 30) 14.1 Diagrammatic illustration of the relationship between the different forms of story (Hayes, 2017) 18.1 Model of the commonplace cycle from Big Sky (Adapted from Mullins (2014b), courtesy of SAGE Publishing) 19.1A & B “Teacher’s noticing of missing biodiversity” 21.1 Collagraph –river textures 21.2 Painting –a textured riverscape 21.3 Collagraphs –banks of the river 21.4 Collagraphs –attending to detail 21.5 Painting –an expression of experience 22.1 The distribution of Cohen mean effect sizes in meta-analyses in outdoor adventure education and cognate fields (Reproduced with permission from Scrutton & Beames, 2015) 34 65 93 94 96 98 132 155 201 214 233 235 236 237 238 247 338 Peter Higgins Education Tourism, Recreation & Rural Economy Environment Farming, Forestry, Fisheries & Food Land Reform, Access & Land-use Strategy Health & Wellbeing Scotland’s landscape and integrated government policy Culture, Heritage & Languages Sustainable Development Goals etc Nature Tourism FIGURE 29.1 Scotland’s Renewables & Green Economy Community Development landscape and integrated government policy have been enshrined in law through the Land Reform (2003) Scotland Act and an associated Access Code.9 This has been significant in developing outdoor recreation, education and tourism as well as the potential to (re)connect people with their history and culture (Higgins, 2017) Recently, the Scottish Government has consulted on and devised a new National Performance Framework,10 with which all their policies intended to align It is built around the UN SDGs (United Nations, 2015) framework and hence the outdoor and sustainability policies outlined above have considerable contemporary relevance Avoiding collateral damage One hazard of policy development and funding commitments in a given educational field is the potential loss from another In the Scottish context there have been fears that local outdoor learning and learning for sustainability developments would have a negative impact on other forms of provision; however, bookings remain high in residential centres and for independent providers Knocking on doors in the policy corridor 339 Concluding comments As the Russian proverb goes –“The past is unpredictable” The reflections above should be set in this context, and so for an excellent historical overview from the early origins of education outdoors to the policy developments above, see Baker (2015) So, what is the view from the far end (for now) of the ‘policy corridor’? First, looking back (and forward) from this perspective I feel a certain empathy with policy makers We ask a lot of them in terms of commitment, costs, risks, disruption, and without the benefit of decent and convincing research, all the more so To paraphrase President John F. Kennedy, I have become increasingly sympathetic to the view that we should “Ask not what policy can for us, but what we can for policy” That is not to say that we should not attempt to bring about worthwhile change, but also that there are usually mainstream policies, systems and structures we might usefully work with rather than against However, I worry that in the process of ‘policy chasing’, outdoor learning may weaken what I have always valued as a major strength, that it can be a radical alternative to conventional education Perhaps it is possible to be both, to work to change the system whilst working with it If this can be done along with meeting the challenge ‘Why outdoors?’ with ‘Why Indoors?’ and stand a chance of bringing about appropriate coherent policy change in mainstream education, there needs to be more research –good-quality qualitative and quantitative studies across a wide range of outdoor studies To develop such research further means working with academics and professionals in a range of disciplines across the social sciences As with the policy makers we seek to influence, the problem is not a lack of enthusiasm, but time, funding and resources Whilst academics may be short of all three, supporting the development of research-informed policy is imperative Doing so may well help local head-teachers (and of course others) to respond positively to challenges from awkward parents like me; to support, facilitate, and celebrate learning and recreation outdoors which, as seems indicated by recent research, leads to a wide range of significant benefits for pupils, staff and the whole school community Notes There are forms of guidance on a range of educational interventions and approaches such as the Education Endowment Foundation Toolkit (https://educationendowmentfoundation org.uk/evidence-summaries/teaching-learning-toolkit) which considers metrics such as cost, effectiveness and duration Outdoor Adventure Learning is considered to have “moderate impact, for moderate cost based on moderate evidence” and comparatively lasting effects However, there are a limited range of interventions and approaches to compare this with Whilst Scotland is part of the United Kingdom, it has ‘devolved powers’ to make decisions regarding education and some other matters http://learningforsustainabilityscotland.org 340 Peter Higgins www.gtcs.org.uk/professional-standards/learning-for-sustainability.aspx 5 See, for example, supporting evidence in the National Position Statement www inspiringscotland.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/Coalition-Position-Statement pdf www.gov.scot/news/learning-outdoors/ http://learningforsustainabilityscotland.org/?s=Research+into+action+briefings https:// blogs.glowscotland.org.uk/ g lowblogs/ l fsblog/ f iles/ 018/ 1/ H olyroodBriefing-Learning-for-Sustainability-29-03-16.pdf www.outdooraccess-scotland.scot/ 10 https://nationalperformance.gov.scot/ References Baker, M (2015) Policy development of outdoor learning in Scotland (Doctoral thesis) University of Edinburgh, UK Christie, E & Higgins, P (2012a) The impact of outdoor learning on attitudes to sustainability Commissioned report for the Field Studies Council Christie, E & Higgins, P (2012b) The impact of outdoor learning experiences on attainment and behaviour in schools Commissioned report for the Forestry Commission Scotland Education Scotland (2015a) Conversations about Learning for Sustainability Retrieved from: https://education.gov.scot/improvement/Pages/lfs3-conversations-about-learning- for-sustainability.aspx Education Scotland (2015b) How Good is our School? (4th edition) Retrieved from: https:// education.gov.scot/improvement/documents/frameworks_selfevaluation/frwk2_ nihedithgios/frwk2_hgios4.pdf Education Scotland (2017) Curriculum for Excellence Retrieved from: https://education gov.scot/scottish-education-system/policy-for-scottish-education/policy-drivers/cfe- (building-from-the-statement-appendix-incl-btc1-5)/What%20is%20Curriculum%20 for%20Excellence? Higgins, P (2017, August) Outdoor education and the Scottish countryside The Geographer: Fifty years of conservation: the legacy of the Countryside (Scotland) Act 1967. 21 Higgins, P & Christie, E (2018) Learning for sustainability In T Bryce, W Humes, D Gillies & A Kennedy (Eds.) Scottish Education (5th ed., pp 554–564) Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press Higgins, P & Nicol, R (2018) Outdoor learning In T Bryce, W Humes, D Gillies & A Kennedy (Eds.) Scottish Education (5th ed., pp 538– 544) Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press Laurie, R., Nonoyama-Tarumi, Y., McKeown, R & Hopkins, C (2016) Contributions of ESD to quality education: A synthesis of research Journal of Education for Sustainable Development, 10(2), pp. 1–17 Learning & Teaching Scotland (2010) Curriculum for excellence through outdoor learning Glasgow: Learning & Teaching Scotland McDonald, P (1997) Climbing lessons: Inside outdoor education New Zealand: Pete McDonald (private publication) Martin S., Dillon, J., Higgins, P., Peters C & Scott, W (2013a) Education for Sustainable Development Policy in the United Kingdom: Current Status, Best Practice, and Opportunities for the Future UK National Commission for UNESCO Policy Brief Knocking on doors in the policy corridor 341 No 9. London: UNESCO Retrieved from: (www.unesco.org.uk/publication/policy- brief-9-education-for-sustainable-development-esd-in-the-uk-current-status-best- practice-and-opportunities-for-the-future/) Martin, S., Dillon, J., Higgins, P., Peters C & Scott, W (2013b) Divergent evolution in education for sustainable development policy in the United Kingdom: Current status, best practice, and opportunities for the future Sustainability, 5(4), pp 1522–1544 Nicol, R & Higgins, P (2002) A framework for the evaluation outdoor education programmes In P Higgins & R Nicol (Eds.) Outdoor education: Authentic learning in the context of landscapes, Vol (pp 29–36) Sweden: Kunskapscentrum Nicol, R., Higgins, P., Ross, H & Mannion, G (2007) Outdoor education in Scotland: A summary of recent research Perth: Scottish Natural Heritage Nicol, R., Rae, A., Murray, R and Higgins, P (In press) Moving beyond the printed word of policy to practice: an exploration into the conditions in which learning for sustainability might flourish in initial teacher education Scottish Educational Review Scottish Government (2012) Learning for Sustainability –Report of the One Planet Schools Ministerial Advisory Group Retrieved from: https://education.gov.scot/ improvement/Documents/One-planet-schools-report-learning-for-sustainability.pdf Scottish Government (2013) Ministerial response to the One Planet Schools Report (Learning for Sustainability) Retrieved from: https://education.gov.scot/improvement/ learning-resources/A%20summary%20of%20learning%20for%20sustainability%20 resources Scottish Government (2016) Vision 2030+: The concluding report of the Learning for Sustainability Implementation Group Retrieved from: https://education.gov.scot/ improvement/documents/res1-vision-2030.pdf United Nations (2015) Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) (2015) www.un.org/ sustainabledevelopment/sustainable-development-goals/ INDEX Note: Page numbers in bold refer to tables and in italics to figures Aboriginal people, Australia 220–221, 232 activity systems 90, 92, 93–96 Adsit-Morris, C. 63 agencement 11 agential realism (Barad) 15 Alaimo, S. 13 Allison, P. 191 ANCOVA (analysis of covariance) 296, 298–299 Anderson, L 112, 113 anonymity 23, 27–28, 106, 146 ANOVA (analysis of variance) 266, 296–302 Anthropocene 14, 127 Aotearoa New Zealand 61–62; feminist letter writing 175–183 Arendt, H 103, 198 art and representation 230–239 Asfeldt, M. 16 Ashworth, L et al (2016) 22–25, 28, 30 assemblage 11, 16, 64–66, 186, 190, 224 Atkinson, P 102, 112 Australia: Aboriginal people 220–221, 232; autobiography 131; journal 310; Kooyoora National Park interviews 64–66; letter writing project 176; National Action Plan, Living Sustainably 89; sea kayaking 221; Shoalhaven River project 230–239; surfing 121–128; Sustainability through Outdoor Integrated Learning (SOIL) 88–99 autobiography 130–137 autoethnography 81, 111–118, 135–136, 221, 224 Bakhtin, M. 61 Barad, K 14, 15, 17, 63 Barford, K. 24 Barone, T. 144 Barrett, J. 246 Basic Need Satisfaction in General Scale see BNSG-S Bass by Kayak (documentary) 221 Bates, S. 25 Battle Back Centre see BBC Bauman, Z 146–147 Bayesian model 301–302 BBC (Battle Back Centre) 283–292 Beckett, D. 10 Bell, M. 183 Belmont Report, 1979 22 Bendigo,Victoria, Sustainability through Outdoor Integrated Learning (SOIL) 88–99; Cultural Historical Activity Theory (CHAT) 95–96; ecological conceptual framework 92–95 beneficence 22, 25 Bennett, J. 14, 65 Bergman, M.M. 273 Berkeley, L. 225 bias: cultural 136, 218; historical 312; personal 69–70, 72, 270, 271; publication bias 248 Biggs, C. 308 Bingham, K. 29–30 Index 343 bioethical issues 15 BNSG-S (Basic Need Satisfaction in General Scale) 285, 288, 289 Bochner, A.P 112, 136 Bowen, D. 248 Boyd, A. 232 Boyes, M 250–251 bracketing 49–51, 53–54, 69, 231, 233 Braidotti, R 9, 13, 18 Braun, V. 287 Breidhal, H. 220 Briggs, Aunty Carolyn 220 Britton, C. 79 Bronfenbrenner, U. 93 Brookes, A. 312 Brookfield, S.D 132–133, 136 Brown, H 1, 113–114, 245–246 Brown, M 115, 116–117 Brown, S. 222 Bruner, J 133, 167 Bryman, A 282–283, 284 Bullough Jr, R.V. 132 Bundanon Art Centre, Shoalhaven River 232, 233 Burbules, N.C. 294 Burnier, D. 113 Büscher, M 209, 212 Butler, J. 175 Buttimer, A. 133 Campaign for National Parks, Mosaic project 83–84 CAP (creative analytical process) 113 Caracelli, V. 272 Carless, D 144–145, 147 Carrington, B. 126 Carson, R. 154 Carson,V 245–246 Carspecken, P.F. 61 Cartesian approach 10, 12, 17, 50, 193 Cason, D. 247 CDS (Center for Digital Storytelling, Berkeley, CA) model 165, 167, 168 CfEtOL (Curriculum for Excellence through Outdoor Learning) 334–335, 336 Chang, H 115, 136 Chase, S.E. 176 CHAT (Cultural Historical Activity Theory) 93, 95–96, 99 Christie, E 333, 335 Clandinin, D.J 177, 222 Clarke, D. 16 Clarke, V. 287 classic design 262 Clayton, B 143, 147, 148, 149–150 Clough, P. 113 Coates, E 2, 143, 148, 149–150 Coffey, A. 102 Cohen, L et al (2018) 249, 251, 252 Colaizzi, P.E. 53–54 Cole, C.L. 121 Colebrook, C. 16, 17 collaborative research 61, 89, 122–123, 175–183, 318, 320–327, 335 collagraphs 233–234, 236, 237 Collins, D 113–114 commissioned research projects 38 commonplace cycles 201–204 commonplaces 199–201 communities of practice see CoPs community of inquiry 79 complementarity in mixed methods designs 272–273, 282 completeness 282 Comte, A. 256 concept as method 16–17 confidentiality 23, 27–28, 98, 106, 107 Connelly, F.M 177, 222 consciousness 48–51, 54, 112, 115–116, 231 ‘consciousness-raising’ 132, 134 consent 24, 25, 70, 74, 105–106; see also informed consent constructivism 12, 14, 58, 59, 191, 256, 295 context 282 convergent parallel design 281, 284 Cooper, D.R. 71 Cope, B. 157 CoPs (communities of practice) 93–95 Corcoran, P.B et al (2004) 91 Cosgriff, M. 183 Cosslett, T et al (2000) 135 Couldry, N. 124 Council for Learning Outside the Classroom 318, 323 Cozby, P. 25 Crawford, J et al (1992) 177 creative analytical process see CAP creative methods 229–239; research project 232–239 creative nonfiction 143–151; benefits of 146–147; theory in 147–148; as transdisciplinary 160–161 credibility 104, 112, 178, 188, 272, 282, 337 Creswell, J.W. 41, 97 Criminal Records Bureau (now Disclosure and Barring Service) 105 344 Index critical rationalism (hypothetico-deductive approach) 41, 257, 260 critical self-reflection 132, 133 cross sectional/correlational design 262 Crotty, M. 53 cultural geography 115, 207, 209 cultural hierarchies 122 Cultural Historical Activity Theory see CHAT Cumbria, University of 324 Curriculum for Excellence through Outdoor Learning see CfEtOL data: analysis 38, 53–54, 60–62, 65–66, 81–82, 85, 90, 92, 94, 95, 96–97, 107–108, 114, 175, 178–179, 181–183, 200, 205, 222–224, 230, 232–233, 245–248, 264–267, 276, 279–281, 283, 286–287, 296–298, 302; coding 13, 65, 97, 98, 187, 297–299; collection 36–39, 54, 58, 60–61, 68–76, 80, 102–103, 123, 199, 203, 204, 259, 263–264, 281, 284–286, 319; hierarchical structures in 299–302; rhizoanalysis 17, 212–213; sampling 263; transcription 12–13, 16 Davidson, D. 136 Davies, B. 15 Davis, B. 80, 90 Day, M. 136 deductive reasoning 260, 279, 280 DEFRA (Department for the Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, UK) 318 Delamont, S 102, 104, 108, 112, 135 Deleuze, G 10–11, 14, 15–17, 186, 191–192, 212 Denscombe, M. 104 Denzin, N.K 57, 102, 269 Department for the Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, UK see DEFRA DeRoche, K.K. 21 Descartes, R. 39 developmental mixed methods designs 273 Dewey, J 239, 275 dialogical interviews 60–62 digital narrative methodology 164–173 digital technology 80, 83, 136, 159, 203, 220–222, 226 Dilthey, W. 40 Disclosure and Barring Service see Criminal Records Bureau dissemination of research see publication Djohari, N et al (2018) 235 document collection 74–75 Douglas, K. 147 duplication of research 36 Duquesne school, Pittsburgh University 54 Ebrahim, H. 84–85 ecofeminism 17, 118, 196 ecological theory 93 Economic and Social Research Council see ESRC ecosocial conceptual framework 92–96 Edinburgh, University of 136, 335 education for sustainability see EfS educational policy 329–339 Edwards, R 95, 209 Edwards-Jones, A. 320 EfS (education for sustainability) 61–62, 88–89; case study research 91–92; ecosocial conceptual framework 92–96; teacher education 88–89 Eidetic Reduction 50 Eley, A. 308 Ellis, C 112, 113, 136 Ellis, G. 25 embedded design 92, 93, 283, 284 emerald, e. 117 Emotion and Gender writing collective 176–177 empiricism 9, 11–12, 14–15, 68–76; case study and 91; creative nonfiction and 144; mixed methods 279–280; physical geography and 256; post-qualitative inquiry 188; project design 40; quantitative analysis 294, 296–297, 302 Engeström,Y. 95–96 The English Outdoor Council 310–311 entanglement 9–10, 14–16, 59–60, 63–66 epistemology 2, 11; creative nonfiction 148; Cultural Historical Activity Theory (CHAT) and 95; and digital technology 164, 166; ethical issues 29; interviews 57–58, 63; mixed methods 272–274, 279; mobile methods 199; new 187; project design 39 ESRC (Economic and Social Research Council) 80, 85 ethico-onto-epistemological approach 14–15 ethics 21–30; anonymity 23, 27–28, 106, 146; confidentiality 23, 27–28, 98, 106, 107; cultural issues 28, 122; document collection and consent 74; empirical research 69–70; ethnographic research 106; gain 25; Hermeneutics, Auto/Ethnography and Action Research (HEAR) 153–162; honesty 24–25; Index 345 indigenous communities 23, 28; informed consent 22–24, 26, 28, 30, 85; justice 25; medical interventions 21–22; privacy 26, 27–28, 106; professional codes of ethics 29; research ethics panels (REPs) 23, 25, 27, 28–30; risk of harm 25–27; sensory approaches 84–85 ethnographic research 23, 101–108, 121–122, 126–127, 144, 167, 170, 222; reflexive 112; see also autoethnography European Institute of Outdoor Adventure Education and Experiential Learning 310 eventyr (fairy tale) 167 Everett, M.C. 225 Evers, C 121, 126–127 Ewert, A. 250 existential phenomenology see hermeneutic phenomenology Exmoor National Park 82–84 expansion studies in mixed methods designs 273, 282 experiential education 9 explanatory sequential design 281, 284 exploratory sequential design 281, 283, 284 Fairfield, P. 160 falsification 260–261 Farrugia, D. 161 feminism 17–18; autobiography 134; ethnographic research 102; multisensoriality 218; and post-qualitative research 192; reflexivity 123, 126, 134, 175–183; and Western approaches 196; see also ecofeminism Fenwick, T 95, 209 Fetterman, D.M 103, 104, 106 Field, A 253n1, 253n2 Fiennes, C et al (2015) 248 Fincham, B. 78 FitzSimons, T. 225 Fluk, L.R. 130 Fontana, A. 59 Forest School 79–81 Foucault, M 10, 148 Fox, K. 118 Frank, A. 147, 154 Frank, K. 146 free-flow-writing 168–169 Freebody, P 88, 90, 91, 92 Freire, P 138n4, 198 Frey, J.H. 59 friluftsliv (time in outdoors) 333 Fullagar, S. 17 Gale, K. 193n1 Galilean science 49, 51 gantt charts 36 GBR (Great Bear Rainforest), British Columbia, Canada 199, 201–203 Gearity, B. 147 Geertz, C. 106 Geist, M.R. 21 gender 17–18, 134, 148; see also feminism General Teaching Council for Scotland 335 generalised linear models see GLMs Gerrad, J. 192 Getting Active Outdoors review 245 Gibson, J. 131 Gibson, K. 269 Gilbert, W et al (2014) 41 Gillis. H. 247 Giorgi, A. 54 Giorgio, G. 114 Glassner, B. 59 GLMs (generalised linear models) 297, 298–299, 301 Golby, J 249, 250 Goldacre, B. 249 Goodley, D et al (2004) 113 GoPro 81, 126–127, 166 Gough, A. 17 Gough, N 14–15, 16, 63, 137 Graglia, P. 21 Graham, W. 272 Gray, T 131, 134 Great Bear Rainforest, British Columbia, Canada see GBR Greenaway, R. 246 Greene, J.C 193, 272, 282 Grosz, E.A. 17 Gruenewald, D. 115 Grumet, M.R 133, 137 Guattari, F 11, 14, 16, 17, 192, 212 Guba, E. 2, 39 Gustafsson, P.A. 249 Gustafsson, P.E. 249 Gutkind, L. 147 Haigh, N. 35 Hammersley, M. 112 Haraway, D. 13, 17 harm, risk of 25–27 Harnad, S et al (2008) 311 Hatch, J.A. 72, 73 Hattie, J. 246 Hay, P.R. 230 Hayes, T.A. 154 Hayhurst, J 250–251 346 Index HEAR (Hermeneutics, Auto/Ethnography and Action Research) 153–162 Heck, P.R 300–301 Heidegger, M 50, 198 Hekman, S. 13 Henderson, K.A. 2 hermeneutic inquiry 137 hermeneutic phenomenology (philosophical hermeneutics or existential phenomenology) 50 Hermeneutics, Auto/Ethnography and Action Research see HEAR Higgins, P 145–146, 333, 335 Hill, A. 61–62 Hinkley, T 245–246 Historic England 318 Hockley, A. 2 Hollands, R. 134 honesty 24–25 Horizons (journal) 308 How Good is Our School? (Education Scotland) 337 Huberman, A.M. 97 humanism 10, 15, 16, 58, 59, 186, 188, 192; see also posthumanism Humberstone, B 1, 2, 104, 113–114, 134, 198 Humberstone, B et al (2016) 1 Humberstone, B et al (2017) 117–118 Hunter, J.A 250–251 Husserl, E 48–50, 51, 198 Hycner, R.H. 54 hypothesis testing 260–267 hypothetico-deductive approach see critical rationalism images 82–84 indigenous communities 23, 28, 218, 220, 232 indigenous knowledge 90 inductive reasoning 41, 96, 280, 300–301 informed consent 22–24, 26, 28, 30, 85 Ingold, T 197, 199, 201, 202, 209, 211 initiation studies in mixed methods designs 273, 282 Institute for Outdoor Learning see IOL institutionalised methodology 186 intentional conversations 72–74 International Outdoor Research Conference 310 interpretivism 12, 14, 16; autobiography 133; effectiveness and 40; empiricism and 68–69; institutionalised methodology 186; mixed methods 271, 274, 280; phenomenological approaches 50, 51; reflexivity 181; Sustainability through Outdoor Integrated Learning (SOIL) 90, 96 interviews 57–66; creative nonfiction 148; dialogical 60–62; empiricism 71, 72–73; ethical issues 25, 28; ethnographic research 105, 107–108, 122; memory-box interviews 211–212; mixed methods 274, 275, 285; mobile methods and 80; Natural Connections 320; phenomenological approaches 52–53, 230; Sustainability through Outdoor Integrated Learning (SOIL) 92; walking interviews 207–215 IOL (Institute for Outdoor Learning) 308–309, 323 Ivinson, G 207, 212 Jackson, A.Y 10, 11, 12–13, 16, 157, 187 JAEOL (Journal of Adventure Education and Outdoor Learning) (journal) 307, 310, 312–313, 336 Johnson, B et al (2007) 281 Jones, S et al (2016) 114, 116 Journal of Adventure Education and Outdoor Learning see JAEOL Journal of Experiential Education 310 Journal of Outdoor and Environmental Education (previously Australian Journal of Outdoor Education) 310 Junker, B. 106 justice 22, 25 Kafka, S 250–251 Kalantzis, M. 157 Kant, I. 40 Kara, H 171–172 Keightley, E. 177 Kellert, S. 159 Kincheloe, J. 61 Knight, P.G. 259 knowledge, hierarchies of 9, 12, 14, 188–189; creative methods 229, 230; interviews 58, 60, 61, 63, 65; mixed methods 269, 274; mobile methods 196; reflexivity and 122, 126 Kohak, E.V. 239 Kooyoora National Park, Australia 64–66 Krasny, M.E. 131 Krueger, J.I 300–301 Kuhn, T.S. 102 Kuntz, A.M. 161 Index 347 Kupfer, J.H. 159 Kvale, S. 61 La Trobe University 89 Lahman, M.K.E. 21 Lahman, M.K.E et al (2011) 22, 29, 30 Laidlaw, J.S 247–248 Land Reform Scotland Act 338 Landsman, G. 161 language and phenomenological inquiry 52–53 Lather, P 11–12, 15, 16, 18, 189, 193 Lave, J. 94–95 Law, J. 199 Learning and Teaching Scotland 332, 334 Learning Away Initiative 317, 320–323, 325–327 learning communities 35 ‘learning for sustainability’ see LfS Leavy, P. 2, 144 Lebenswelt (lifeworld) (Husserl) 49–51 Lenz Taguchi, H. 16–17 Letherby, G 130, 133, 134, 135, 136 letter writing, collaborative 175–183 Letters Project 176 Lewin, C 160–161 LfS (‘learning for sustainability’) 329, 332–333 Liberman, K. 231 Liddicoat, K.R. 131 Lincoln,Y.S 2, 39, 57, 102 Lincoln,Y.S et al (2011) 276 LiNE Strategic Research Group (LiNE SRG) 323 lisahunter 117, 220 Livesey, G. 11 Livingston, K. 38 LLSER (Living and Learning Social and Environmental Relations) 199, 200, 202–203 longitudinal design 262 Lotz-Sisitka, H. 91 Louv, R. 159 Luce-Kapler, R. 90 Lynch, P. 183 Macartney, B. 160 MacDougall, D. 83 MacLure, M 13, 189, 192 Malabou, C. 14 Malone, K. 16 Mannay, D. 172 Manning, E. 234 Maori people, Aotearoa New Zealand 218 Marsh, H.W, 246 Marshall, C. 48 Masny, D 17, 213 Massumi, B. 187 matched-pairs design 251 material discursive analysis 14, 17 Maxwell, J.A. 39 Mazzei, L.A 10, 11, 16, 66, 157, 187, 211 McCrone, W. 22 McDonald, P. 329 McGannon, K. 148 McGuiness, M. 78 McKenna, J 144–145 McLaren, P. 61 McNamee, M et al (2007) 22 McNutt, J. 225 Mcphie, J. 16 meaning and autobiography 134 meaning making 84, 157–158, 161, 181, 183, 215 Medawar, P. 103 mediation (Vygotsky) 95 memory-box interviews 211–212 memory writing 177 Merleau-Ponty, M 50–51, 229, 230, 231 Mertens, D 12, 272 Merton, R. 134 Mescher, M. 25 metaphor and autobiography 133, 134 methods triangulation 272 metrics and measures 245–253 Mikaels, J. 16 Miles, B 221, 224, 226 Miles, M.B. 97 milieu and autobiography 133, 134 Miller, J. 59 Mills, C.W 134, 138n3 Mills, J. 147 Mitten, D.S. 134 MMR (mixed methods research) 269–276, 279–292; case study 283–292; definition 281; design frameworks 41, 284; procedural diagram 286; research designs 281, 283; research paradigms 279–280 mobile methods 78–86, 196–205, 207–215 Moeller, G. 25 Moran, D. 48, 51 More, T. 25 Morgan, D.L. 275 Moss, P 131, 133–134 Mullins, P. 26 multiliteracy 218 multimedia 218–222, 224–226 348 Index multimodality 158, 167, 168–173, 218–222, 224–226 Multiple Literacies Theory 17 multiple realities 271 multiple time series 248 multisensory approaches 84, 218–226; ethnography 164–173; theoretical frameworks 222–224 Munge, B. 165 Murray, L. 78 phenomenological approaches 51; project design 39; shared-story approach 161 Ormrod, J. 224 Oslo Metropolitan University 167 otherness 161 O’Toole, J. 10 Out in the Lineup (documentary) 225 Outdoor and Experiential Learning Research Network 318 Outward Bound Trust 246 Nancy, J.-L. 231 narrative inquiry 176–178, 183, 225 narrative theory 165 natural attitude (Husserl) 49 Natural Connections Demonstration Project 317, 318–320, 325, 326–327 The Natural Choice: Securing the value of nature (HM Government) 318 Natural England 318, 319, 323, 326 naturalism 35, 91, 102, 159 naturalistic inquiry 49, 97 nature kindergartens 336 Neill, J 246, 247, 248, 251, 252 Nelson, N. 249 neoliberalism 11, 180, 225 nested systems 92, 93–94 new materialism 13–15, 17, 85, 208, 212 New Zealand see Aotearoa New Zealand NHST (null-hypothesis-significance testing) 300–301 Nicholas, J. 131 Nicol, R. 135 Nishiyama, K. 79 Noë, A. 231 non-mainstream schools 161 Northern Gateway Pipeline Project, Canada 199 Norway 164–173, 189 null-hypothesis-significance testing see NHST Nundy, S 249, 250 Nuremburg Code 1947 21 Paddling the Big Sky 199–203 Palmer, C. 127 panel design 262 Parnet, C. 10 Parsons, T. 259 participant observation see PO participation rights 28 Passy, R. 320 Paulin, N. 79 PBE (Place-Based Education) 115, 118 PCA (Principal Components Analysis) 266 Peacock, P. 334 Peacock, S 144–145 Pelias, R.J. 161 Peraklya, A. 57 Personal Narratives Group 176–177 Petrov, R. 137 phenomenology 16, 47–55, 112, 166, 196, 198, 221, 230–231 Phillips, D.C. 294 philosophical hermeneutics see hermeneutic phenomenology photographs 35, 82–84 physical geography 256–268; choice of topic 257–259; data collection and analysis 263–267; logistics 259, 260 Pillow, W.S. 122 Pinar, W.F 133, 137 Pink, S 84, 166 Pinnegar, S. 132 Pitts, S. 308 Pittsburgh, University of 54 place, relational view of 209–210 Place-Based Education see PBE Plowman, L. 167 Plymouth, University of 136, 318–320 PMH (Positive Mental Health) 287, 288, 292 PO (participant observation) 69–73, 92, 101–103, 106, 107, 125, 203–204, 285 political issues 12; autobiography 132, 136; interviews 59; mixed methods 274; objectivism 40, 59, 102 offset 282 O’Flynn, G. 23 ‘one-group pre-test post-test design’ 250 one-group time series design 250–251 ‘one-shot’ design 262 onto-epistemology 10, 30, 39, 111, 193 ontology 2, 11, 13; interviews 57, 58, 63; mixed methods 272–274, 276, 279; mobile methods 208, 210, 212, 215; Index 349 mobile methods 198; policy 332, 333, 334; reflexivity 183 Polkinghorne, D. 54 Pomeroy, E. 191 Popper, K. 260 Port Phillip Bay,Victoria 220–221 Positive Mental Health see PMH positivism 11–12, 39–40, 186–188, 191; interviews 57–58; mixed methods 279–280; physical geography 256–268 postgraduate research projects 37–38 posthumanism 62, 63, 65–66, 208, 209, 211 postmodernism 59, 209 postparadigmatic materialisms 15 post-positivism 12, 196, 270–271, 274, 280 post-qualitative inquiry 186–193 Poth, C.N. 41 pragmatism 272, 274–276, 280, 283–284, 287, 302 ‘pre-test post-test non equivalent groups design’ 248, 250, 285 Presnall, M.M. 161 Prince, H. 2 Principal Components Analysis see PCA privacy 26, 27–28, 106 Probyn, E 122, 123–124, 127 process 282 project design 33–42; challenges 36–37; commissioned 38; effectiveness 41–42; onto-epistemological 39; pitfalls 36; postgraduate 37–38; project area 35; proposal and ethical approval 35–36; taught degrees 33–37, 41; theoretical framework 39 prompts 200–204 protection rights 28 psychology 22, 23, 54, 176–177, 249, 283, 291–292, 312; BNSG-S 285, 287, 288, 289 publication of research 2, 307–315; books and book chapters 309; citation databases and journal rankings 312–313; H-index 313; impact of 311–313; online 307; Open Access 311, 312; outdoor conference proceedings 309–310; outdoor magazines 308–309; peer-reviewed academic journals 310–311; successful 314–315 publication bias 248 p-values 300–301 quantitative imperialism 11 quantitative paradigms 270–271 Quantitative Revolution 256 quasi-experimental approach 248, 250–251 Quay, J. 239 Rautio, P 15, 234 Raven, G. 91 RCTs (randomised control trials) 249–250, 251 Reaching Higher Ground (documentary) 221 realism 15, 40, 59, 60, 113, 170–171, 294 researcher, impact of 70, 71 Reed-Danahay, D. 160 REF (Research Excellence Framework) 307–308, 311, 313 reflexive ethnography 112 reflexivity 15, 121–128; authoethnography 112–113; autobiography 134–136; empiricism 69; ethnographic research 101, 104; feminism 175–183; interviews 61; mobile methods 85, 203; phenomenological approach 53; project design 35 Reinertsen, A.B. 189 relational agency 93 relational materialism 16 relativist ontology 40 Relph, E. 115 REPs (research ethics panels) 23, 25, 27, 28–30 Research Excellence Framework see REF research hubs 317–327; Central Research Coordinator 324–325; regional 324 research journals 203–204 research logs 130–137 research paradigms 12, 188, 191, 193; empiricism 68–69; ethnographic research 101–102, 165; Husserl and 49; interviews and 58; mixed methods and 269–274, 276, 279–281; mobile methods 196–198, 209; project design 38–40; quantitative paradigms 270–271 respect 22–24 rhizoanalysis 17, 212–213 Richards, G.E. 246 Richards, K. 1 Richardson, L 125, 146 Rickinson, M et al (2004) 104, 248 Riddick, C. 21, 25 Rika, M. 218 Roberts, J.W. 9 Robinson, A 323–324 Rodgers, J.L. 301 Rodriguez, K.L. 21 Romdenh-Romluc, K. 49 Rose, G 83, 123 350 Index Rossman, G.B. 48 The Royal British Legion see TRBL Rudolph, S. 192 Russell, R. 21, 25 Ruusuvuori, J. 57 safeguarding 23, 27–28 SAGE Handbook of Qualitative Research 59 sampling 282 Sawchuk, P. 95 Schama, S. 115 Scheurich, J.J. 59, 60 Schindler, P.S. 71 Schutz, A. 106 Schwandt, T. 21 scientific investigations 256–268; choice of topic 257–259; data collection and analysis 263–267; experimental design 262; logistics 259; sampling regimes 263; statistical tests 266–267 Scopus database 312–313 Scotland 329–339; Access Code 338; Curriculum for Excellence (CfE) 334; Curriculum for Excellence through Outdoor Learning (CfEtOL) 334–335; Land Reform Scotland Act 338; Learning for Sustainability 192, 335; National Performance Framework 338; United Nations Regional Centre of Expertise in Education for Sustainable Development for Scotland 335; “Vision 2030+” 335 Scottish National Party 335 sea kayaking 221 Seamon, D. 115 second-generation activity system 95 Seidman, I. 52 self-reflexivity 112, 198 sensory approaches 78–86, 166–167, 218–226 Shafer, E. 25 shared-story approaches 153–162 Shawchuck, P. 209 Sheard, M 249, 250 Shoalhaven River, Australia 230–239 Simons, H. 85 Smith, B 40, 102, 135–136, 148 Smith, H.A. 71 Smith, L.M. 179 Smith, S. 136 social media 307, 313, 315 SOIL (Sustainability through Outdoor Integrated Learning) 88–99; data analysis 96–97; ecosocial conceptual framework 92–96 Somekh, B 160–161 Somerville, M.J. 15 “spatial turn” 209 Sparkes, A 2, 39, 40, 69, 102, 135–136, 144, 148, 269, 279 Spinoza, B. 193 Spradley, J.P. 108 Springgay, S. 63 Sriprakash, A. 192 St Pierre, E.A 9, 10, 16–17, 59–60, 125, 186, 188, 193 St Pierre, E.A et al (2016) 12–13, 14, 16 Stan, I. 2 Stanley, L 133, 134, 136 statistical methods 245–252, 261, 264–267, 287–288, 294–302 Stephen, C. 167 Stephenson, C. 134 Stephenson, C et al (2015) 138n3 Sterling, S. 94 Stern, N. 231 Stewart, A. 312 Stewart, C. 136 Stirling, J. 134 Stonehouse, P. 74–75 story circles 167, 168–169 subjectivism 40, 271, 302 Sullivan, P. 61 Sumara, D.J 90, 199, 200 ‘supercomplexity’ paradigm 38 surfing 121–128, 219–220, 222, 224, 225 Suri, H. 253 Sustainability through Outdoor Integrated Learning see SOIL Sylvester, C. 25 Szczepanski, A. 249 Tashakkori, A. 279 taught degree research projects 33–37 Taylor, C.A 63, 207, 212 Teach on the Beach 318 teacher education 88–89 Teddlie, C. 279 Tedlock, B. 102 TEOS (Transcultural European Outdoor Studies) 164, 167 texture 233–235 Teychenne, M 245–246 Teye, J. 281 theorypractice 10–11, 15–16 Thomas, G 90, 165 Thrift, N. 208 time and visual representation 82–84, 235–236 Index 351 time management 36 Toadvine, T. 229 Transcendental Ego 49, 50 Transcendental-Phenomenological Reduction (Husserl) 49, 50–51 Transcultural European Outdoor Studies see TEOS transdisciplinarity 2, 160–162 TRBL (The Royal British Legion) 283–292 triangulation 71, 73, 74, 75, 258, 272–273, 282 Troubling Terrains study 175–183 Tuan, Y. 115 Ulmer, J 13–14, 64 UNESCO 336, 337; Decade for Education for Sustainable Development 88–89; United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child 28 United Nations Regional Centre of Expertise in Education for Sustainable Development for Scotland 335 United Nations, Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) 89, 335, 338 Urry, J 196–197, 199, 209 US (United States), Belmont Report 22 Usher, R. 85 validity 12, 63, 102, 135, 188–189, 250, 252 van Kamm, A. 53, 54 van Manen, M 48, 52, 54, 135, 154, 170, 171 Vanclay, J.K. 312 VCE (Victorian Certificate of Education) Outdoor Environmental Studies 89 vibrant matter (Bennet) 65 “Vision 2030+” (Scottish Government) 335 visual representations see art and representation Voelkl, J. 25 Vygotsky, L. 95 Wagenmakers, E.J et al (2017) 301 Waite, S. 320 Walford, G. 103 walking interviews 207–215 Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Well-Being Scale see WEMWBS Waters, P. 27–28 Watson, J. 136 Wattchow, B 115, 145–146, 171 Weber, M. 40 Weedon, G. 15 Wellington, J. 308 WEMWBS (Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Well-Being Scale) 285, 289 Wenger, E. 94–95 Whitehouse, H. 17 Williams, R 249, 250 Williams, T. 148 Willinsky, J. 311 Winsor, J. 79–80 Witchger, K. 209 Wolcott, H. 102 Wong, E.D. 98–99 Wood, B. 159 Wood, M. 222 Wray, D. 134 Wright, M. 131 Wright, R. 23 Wylie, J. 209 Yin, R.K. 91–92 Yoshino, A. 250 Zink, R 183 ... PART V Disseminating, communicating and sharing research? ?? 305 27 Publishing and disseminating outdoor studies research? ?? Linda Allin, Heather Prince and Barbara Humberstone 307 28 Research hubs: The... Henderson Research Methods in Outdoor Studies Edited by Barbara Humberstone and Heather Prince https://www.routledge.com/Routledge-Advances -in- Outdoor- Studies/ book-series/ RAOS RESEARCH METHODS IN OUTDOOR. .. way: Applying mobilities through praxis in outdoor studies field research? ?? Philip M. Mullins 196 19 Mobile methods in outdoor studies: Walking interviews with educators Jonathan Lynch 207 20 Sensing
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