RESEARCH METHODS FOR STUDYING GROUPS AND TEAMS EDITED BY ANDREA B HOLLINGSHEAD & MARSHALL SCOTT POOLE A GUIDE TO APPROACHES, TOOLS, AND TECHNOLOGIES RESEARCH METHODS FOR STUDYING GROUPS AND TEAMS “Going beyond the description of abstract principles, Research Methods for Studying Groups and Teams uses the experience and insight of practicing researchers to help readers think about the concrete steps involved in the actual “doing” of research.As such, it is a resource for students wanting to learn about the rudiments of a wide array of different methods and for practicing researchers wishing to expand their horizons beyond their preexisting expertise Although explicitly geared toward the study of groups, it has value for scholars interested in studying any aspect of human interaction.” —Dr Charles Pavitt, Professor, Department of Communication, University of Delaware This volume provides an overview of the methodological issues and challenges inherent in the study of small groups from the perspective of seasoned researchers in communication, psychology, and other fields in the behavioral and social sciences It summarizes the current state of group methods in a format that is readable, insightful, and useful for both new and experienced group researchers This collection of essays will inspire new and established researchers alike to look beyond their current methodological approaches, covering both traditional and new methods for studying groups and exploring the full range of groups in face-to-face and online settings The volume will be an important addition to graduate study on group research and will be a valuable reference for established group researchers, consultants, and other practitioners The essays in this volume when considered as a whole will be a contemporary interdisciplinary integration on group research methods Andrea B Hollingshead is Professor of Communication in the Annenberg School for Communication and Journalism at the University of Southern California She has joint appointments in the Marshall School of Business and the Department of Psychology and is co-director of the Annenberg Program for Online Communities Research Initiative Professor Hollingshead’s research concerns the factors and processes that lead to effective and ineffective knowledge sharing in work groups Her research also addresses how groups collaborate and create community using communication technologies Marshall Scott Poole is a professor in the Department of Communication and Director of the Institute for Computing in the Humanities, Arts, and Social Science at the University of Illinois Urbana–Champaign His current research foci include team behavior in massive multiplayer online games, the use of information technology in emergency response, and integrating theories of small groups and social networks in the explanation of large, dynamically changing groups and intergroup networks Routledge Communication Series Jennings Bryant/Dolf Zillmann, Series Editors Selected titles include: • Frey: Group Communication in Context: Studies of Bona Fide Groups, Second Edition • Bucy/Holbert: The Sourcebook for Political Communication Research • Heath/Bryant: Human Communication Theory and Research, Second Edition • Stacks/Salwen: An Integrated Approach to Communication Theory and Research, Second Edition • Rubin et al.: Communication Research Measures II • Frey/Cissna: Routledge Handbook of Applied Communication Research RESEARCH METHODS FOR STUDYING GROUPS AND TEAMS A Guide to Approaches, Tools, and Technologies Edited by Andrea B Hollingshead and Marshall Scott Poole First edition published 2012 by Routledge 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017 Simultaneously published in the UK by Routledge Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2012 Taylor & Francis The right of the editors to be identified as the authors of the editorial material, and of the authors for their individual chapters, has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 All rights reserved No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Research methods for studying groups and teams : a guide to approaches, tools, and technologies / editors, Andrea B Hollingshead & Marshall Scott Poole — 1st ed p cm — (Routledge communication series) Includes bibliographical references and index Small groups—Research—Methodology Small groups—Study and teaching I Hollingshead, Andrea B II Poole, Marshall Scott, 1951– HM736.R47 2011 302.3′4072—dc23 2011022519 ISBN: 978-0-415-80632-9 (hbk) ISBN: 978-0-415-80633-6 (pbk) ISBN: 978-0-203-80577-0 (ebk) Typeset in Bembo by Cenveo publisher services Printed and bound in the United States of America on acid-free paper by Edwards Brothers, Inc This book is dedicated to the memory of Joseph E McGrath and his profound and lasting contributions to the study of groups and research methods CONTENTS Group Research Methods: An Introduction Andrea B Hollingshead and Marshall Scott Poole Designing for Drift: Planning Ethnographic Qualitative Research on Groups Michael G Pratt and Najung Kim Experimental Designs for Research on Small Groups: The Five Ps Patrick R Laughlin Running Laboratory Experiments with Groups Gwen M.Wittenbaum Group Research Using High-fidelity Experimental Simulations Franziska Tschan, Norbert K Semmer, Sabina Hunziker, and Stephan U Marsch Computer Simulation Methods for Groups: From Formula Translation to Agent-based Modeling James R Larson, Jr Studying Global Work Groups in the Field Pamela J Hinds and Catherine Durnell Cramton 30 41 58 79 105 viii Contents Crossing Party Lines: Incorporating Measures of Individual Differences in Groups Randall S Peterson 121 Studying Team Cognition: The Good, the Bad, and the Practical Susan Mohammed and Katherine Hamilton 132 Investigating Emotion and Affect in Groups Janice R Kelly and Eric E Jones 10 Using Virtual Game Environments to Study Group Behavior James H.Wirth, Frans Feldberg, Alexander Schouten, Bart van den Hooff and Kipling D.Williams 11 Interviewing Members of Online Communities: A Practical Guide to Recruiting Participants Amy Bruckman 154 173 199 12 Bona Fide Groups: A Discourse Perspective Linda L Putnam, Cynthia Stohl and Jane Stuart Baker 211 13 Understanding Group Dynamics Using Narrative Methods SunWolf 235 14 Groups and Teams in Organizations: Studying the Multilevel Dynamics of Emergence Steve W J Kozlowski 260 15 Understanding Groups from a Network Perspective Noshir S Contractor and Chunke Su 284 16 Analyzing Group Data Deborah A Kashy and Nao Hagiwara 311 17 Coding Group Interaction Renee A Meyers and David R Seibold 329 18 The Analysis of Group Interaction Processes Dean E Hewes and Marshall Scott Poole 358 Contents 19 Measuring Team Dynamics in the Wild Michael A Rosen, Jessica L.Wildman, Eduardo Salas and Sara Rayne 20 Interventions in Groups: Methods for Facilitating Team Development David R Seibold and Renee A Meyers Author Index Subject Index ix 386 418 442 455 448 Author Index Kirkman, B 390 Kitts, J A 290 Kiyomiya, T 214, 222 Klampfer, B 69 Klehe, U 406 Klein, C 63 Klein, G 67 Klein, K 390 Klein, K J 129, 136, 139, 142, 144, 146, 264, 265, 268, 269, 270, 272, 273, 277, 394 Kleinberg, J 301 Klimoski, R J 134, 137, 142, 144, 145, 373 Knight, D 135, 390 Koehly, L M 287 Kolbe, M 68 Kosarzycki, M P 406 Kosslyn, S M 330 Kotulic, A G 389 Kowalski, R M 43 Kozinets, R.V 24, 25 Kozlowski, S W J 60, 129, 134, 261, 263, 264, 265, 267, 268, 269, 270, 271, 272, 273, 274, 275, 276, 277, 278, 390, 394, 395, 436 Krackhardt, D 287, 294, 303 Kraiger, K 142 Kramer, T J 155, 156, 212, 215, 222 Krause, U 81 Kraut, R E 193, 194, 398 Krebel, A 59 Kreps, G L 241 Krikorian, D H 212, 214, 215, 222, 421 Krippendorff, K 340, 363 Kroger, R O 222 Kruskal, J B 377 Kudsi, S 437 Kukla, R A Künzle, B 68 Kurdek, L A 318 Kvale, S 18 La Voie, L 323 Labiouse, C 86 LaFasto, F 418 Laituri, M 99 Lakey, S G 318 Lakin, J L 159 Lam, A 43 Lammers, J C 212, 215 Lane, J L 62 Langan-Fox, J 143, 145, 146 Langer, R 25 Larcker, D F 410 Larey, T S 87 Larson, J R Jr 83, 84, 85, 90, 93, 96, 97, 101, 268, 373, 418 Lashley, F R 60 Latané, B 80, 93 Lau, A 432 Lauche, K 134 Laugani, P 404 Laughlin, P R 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 41 Lawler, E E 420 Lawrence, T B 219 Lazarus, R S 155 Lazer, D 284, 290 Lazzara, E H 394, 395 Leary, M R 3, 43, 177, 407 LeBaron, C D 24 LeBreton, J M 163 Lechner, C 135 Lee, W N 24 Leets, L 212, 214, 237, 241, 244 Lehmann, M 346, 421, 436 Lehmann-Willenbrock, N 346, 421 Leik, R K 365 Lemus, D R 221, 339, 341, 342, 437 LePine, J A 394 Lerch, F J 398 Lerner, J S 160 Lesch, C L 212, 220 Letts, C W 403 Levenson, R W 162 Levesque, L L 145 Levine, J M 31, 407 Lewandowsky, S 80 Lewin, K 124, 267, 420 Lewis, K 134, 135, 136 Lewis, K M 155 Lewis, L K 436 Li, N P 93 Likert, R 143, 145, 161, 240, 396, 421 Lim, A 148 Lim, B C 136, 139, 142, 144, 146 Lin, Z 100 Lincoln,Y S 255 Linville, P W 86 Lipshitz, R 389 List, J A 185, 201 Livi, S 311, 326 Lo, S 166 Lobo, M S 285 Locke, E A 279, 389, 405 Locke, K 26 Lombard, M 340 Author Index 449 Long, L M 227, 380 Lorenzet, S J 404 LoVette, S 343 Lozito, S 68 Luce, R D 175 Lüscher, F 65 Lusher, D 304 Lyons, R 394, 395 MacCallum, G A 405 MacCoun, R J 59 Mackie, P 360 MacMartin, C 24 MacMillan, J 398 Macy, M W 100 Major, D 404 Mangold, P 346 Mannetti, L 311 Mannix, E A 122 Mannor, M J 399 Manser, T 68 Maoz, I 343 Maran, N 69 Marcus, D K 323 Marinopoulos, S S 63 Markham, A N 26 Marks, M A 136, 142, 144, 146, 263, 268, 394, 408 Marsch, S U 58, 61, 65 Marsden, P.V 287, 291 Marsh, S M 145 Marshall, C 1, 2, 4, 11, 358, 360, 362, 364, 366, 368, 370, 372, 374, 376, 378, 390, 392 Martin, J Martin, L 397 Martin, L L 159 Martin, M J 396 Martin, M M 437 Martorana, P.V.125 Mast, M S 24 Mathieu, J E 133, 134, 135, 136, 142, 143, 144, 147, 148, 263, 268, 277, 278, 390, 408 Mathis, A 155 Mathur, S 290 Matthews, M D 136 Mattson, M 389, 390 Maulana, A E 24 May, R 212 Mayer, J D 162 Maynard, D W 24 Maynard, M T 134 Mazmanian, P E 61 McAdams, D P 124 McClean, R J 118 McConkie, M L 421, 424, 429 McDonald, H E 168 McFetrich, J 60 McGaghie, W C 61, 63 McGarty, C 41 McGathie, W C 64 McGrath, J E 4, 8, 65, 68, 71, 175, 263, 340, 358, 379, 389, 418 McHugh, P P 263 McLaughlin, M L 174, 333 McManus, S E 4, 65 McMonagle, D 402 McPhee, R D 329, 335, 344 Mead, M Meeker, B F 365 Meier, C 222 Meisenhelder, H M 134 Melner, S B 418 Melton, R J 168 Merry, C J 44 Mesmer-Magnus, J R 134, 139, 145 Messé, L A 65 Meyer, M 222 Meyers, R A 38, 128, 217, 233, 329, 333, 335, 338, 339, 341, 342, 343, 363, 420, 421, 431, 432, 436 Miles, M B 11 Miller, G 177, 181 Miller, J 100 Miller, J G 273 Miller, N 175 Mills, C 212, 214, 222 Millward, S M 145 Milner, K R 274, 275, 276 Mischel, W 124 Mohammed, S 133, 134, 135, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141, 142, 143, 145, 146, 147, 148, 373, 407 Mohr, L 361 Mojzisch, A 83 Monge, P R 284, 285, 291, 380 Moon, H 390 Moorthy, K 62 Moreland, R L 31, 42, 59 Morgan, B B Jr 405 Morgeson, F P 270, 390, 399 Morris, M 71, 299 Mortensen, M 407 Motion, J 434 Moula, M 59 450 Author Index Moynihan, L M 126 Mroczek, D K 165 Mulder, M 321 Mullen, B 155, 168 Mumby, D K 221 Mumford, T.V 389 Munz, D C 155, 156, 161, 162 Murphy, C 24, 405, 406 Myaskovsky, L 59 Myers, J 61 Myers, K K 437 Myung, I J 80 Nadler, J 59 Nägele, C 60 Nason, E R 263 Neal, A 279 Nehring, W M 60 Neuhof, J 156 Neumann, A 134 Neumann, R 159 Nezlek, J B 43, 48 Ng, S H 320 Nielsen, T M 163 Nolan, J P 64, 70 Nonnecke, B 195 North, C 26, 192 Notarius, C J 24 Nutt, P C 377, 378 O’Donnell, K 220 O’Leary, M 3, 407 Oetzel, J G 215 Okhuysen, G Olbrechts-Tyteca, L 335 Oldenburg, R 206 Olekalns, M 24, 68, 330 Olson, J 175 Orasanu, J 387, 404 Orlikowski, W 114 Orlitsky, M 361 Oser, R L 397, 405 Ostrom, T M 80 Oswick, C 216 Outhavong, S 24 Owen, W F 242 Owens, P D 125 Page, S E 98, 100 Palazzolo, E T 285, 304, 306 Park, E S 158, 162, 164, 168 Parker, A 285 Parker, R A 127 Parks, C D 32, 42 Parrish-Sprowl, J 222, 223 Paterson-Brown, S 69 Pattison, P 303, 304 Patton M 11 Paulus, P B 87 Pavitt, C 373 Payne, S C 145 Pearce, C L 136 Pedlar, M 434 Pena-Mora, F 290 Pentland, A 290 Perakyla, A 24 Perelman, C H 335 Perez, K 15 Pescolido, A T 155 Peshkin, A 14 Peterson, J L 212, 215 Peterson, R S 121, 122, 125, 126, 128 Pettigrew, A 11 Petty, R E 101 Philips, J L 173, 418 Philo, J R 402 Pierce, L 408 Pilnick, A 24 Pitt, M A 80 Ployhart, R E 262 Polkinghorne, D E 236 Poole, M S 5, 185, 193, 211, 214, 228, 280, 290, 291, 306, 329, 332, 335, 336, 337, 344, 347, 358, 359, 360, 361, 363, 364, 367, 370, 372, 374, 375, 376, 377, 378, 379, 380, 381, 382, 436, 437 Porter, C O 395, 396 Postmes, T 136 Powell, K 238 Pratt, M G 7, 8, 9, 14, 17, 18, 20, 26, 108, 109, 111, 113, 114, 115 Preece, J 194 Prichard, C 222 Priem, R L 389 Priest, H A 63, 134, 394, 404, 410 Prince, C 70, 400, 405 Pritchard, R D 401, 405 Prosser, M 330 Pruitt, J S 386, 402 Pryor, J B 183 Puri, A 26 Putka, D J 278 Putnam, L L 211, 216, 217, 218, 220, 227, 228, 255, 292, 434 Pycock, J 176 Author Index 451 Queller, S 86 Query, J L 418 Rafaeli, A 7, 16 Raiffa, H 175 Rainey, D W 405 Rapp, T 134 Rapson, R L 155 Rasheed, A M A 389 Ratledge, N T 335 Ratner, J F 160 Raviv, A 390 Raymond, E 206 Rea, L M 127 Read, S J 86 Reason, P 437 Reeder, G D 183 Reid, S A 320 Reimer, T 93 Reitz, E 326 Ren,Y 93 Rentsch, J R 137, 142, 144, 145, 148 Rescher, N 360 Resnick, L B 139 Revans, R 434 Rheingold, H 177 Rholes, W S 318 Rich, M 24 Richardson, R 43, 53, 183 Riddle, B L 437 Ridgeway, C L 160 Riessman, C K 236, 255 Ringseis, E 138, 139, 140, 141 Rispens, S 122 Robbins, J 215 Roberts, K H 263, 265 Robins, G 303, 304, 318 Rockmann, K W Rodden, T 176 Roper, J 434 Rosa, J A Rosen, M 7, 10, 16 Rosen, M A 62, 133, 134, 394, 395, 397, 396, 404 Rosenberg, E 159 Rosenthal, R 159 Rossman, G 11 Rosson, M B 134 Roth, J 364, 373, 374, 375, 376, 378 Rousseau, D 93 Rousseau, D M 263, 264, 267, 272 Rousseau,V 420 Rowe, L J 134 Rowley, C 136 Rowley, D 69 Rubin, H J 18 Rubin, I 19 Rude, M 437 Rulke, D L 306 Runkel, P J 4, 65 Russell, J A 162 Ryan, W P 100, 397 Saavedra, R 155, 156, 159, 160, 389, 390 Sabella, M J 144 Sabri, J A 192 Sackett, P R 406 Salas, E 63, 70, 133, 134, 137, 139, 143, 168, 263, 270, 285, 386, 387, 389, 394, 395, 396, 397, 398, 402, 403, 404, 405, 406, 407, 408, 410 Salisbury, M 405 Salmon, P 136 Salovey, P 86 Salvaggio, A N 273 Sambamurthy,V 378 Sandelands, L E 273 Sankoff, D 377 Sanna, L J 42 Savoie, A 420 Sawyer, K 380 Schaffer, A 389 Schein, E H 18, 420, 428 Schelling, T C 93 Scherer, K R 154, 159 Schmidt, A M 274, 275, 276, 279 Schmukle, S C 326 Schneider, B 99 Schneider, D I 264, 273 Schneider, I E 318 Schouten, A 42, 173 Schulz-Hardt, S 83 Schvaneveldt, R W 144 Schwarz, N 154 Scott, J 284 Scott, W 334, 340 Sego, D 404 Seibold, D R 38, 128, 212, 215, 217, 221, 237, 238, 244, 246, 329, 330, 332, 333, 334, 335, 336, 338, 339, 340, 341, 342, 344, 346, 348, 363, 418, 420, 421, 422, 424, 426, 428, 429, 430, 432, 434, 436, 436, 437 Seidman, I 19, 200, 203, 207 Semmer, N K 58, 60, 65, 268 452 Author Index Senter, J L 163 Seo, M G 228, 419, 434 Serfaty, D 398 Serviss, B 192 Sevdalis, N 134 Sexton, J B 63 Shadbolt, N 306 Shadish, W R 65 Shao,Y E 390 Shaw, J D 156 Shepard, C A 215 Shepard, R N 144 Sherblom, J C 215 Sherwood, J J 87 Shevalsky, M 405 Shi,Y 389 Shneiderman, B 300 Shope, S M 59 Shulman, H C 48 Shumate, M 304 Siddal,V J 61 Sillars, A L 343 Silver, J C 34 Simmons,V M 115 Simon, H A 80, 86 Simons, T L 122 Simpson, J A 318 Sims, D E 63, 395, 404, 407 Sintay, G S 389 Sjomeling, M 158, 164, 168 Slavin, S 62 Small, E E 145 Smith, B G 63 Smith, D B 131 Smith, E M 263, 272 Smith, E R 41, 87, 92 Smith, G 64 Smith, K G 389 Smith, K K 107, 115 Smith, P L 24, 68, 330 Smith-Jentsch, K A 137, 142, 147, 394, 404 Snijders, T B A 318 Snow, D 113 Snyder-Duch, J 340 Soar, J 64 Sommer, K L 49 Sonnenfeld, J A 163 Sorra, J S 272 Sowb,Y A 63 Spears, R 136 Spiro, J 285 Spoor, J R 155, 157, 159, 164 Spradley, J P 7, 13, 19, 20, 26, 109 Spychiger, M 65 Squeoch, M D 238 Srivastava, J 193, 291 Stablein, R 222 Stachowski, A A 68 Stafford, L 343 Stagl, K C 408 Stallworth,V 214 Standerfer, C 219, 222, 223 Stanton, N 136 Stasser, G 31, 44, 59, 80, 81, 83, 93, 98, 142 Stasson, M F 32, 33, 43 Staw, B M 273 Stepper, S 158 Stevens, M J 406 Stohl, C 211, 212, 215, 216, 217, 221, 222, 223, 224, 255, 292 Stoto, M 323 Stout, R J 143, 398 Strack, F 159 Strauss, A 113, 114, 228 Strauss, D 303 Strauss, O 389 Streeck, J 24 Strickland, C J 238 Strodtbeck, F L 358, 359, 360, 374, 375 Stromer-Galley, J 184 Strubler, D C 389 Stutman, R K 370 Su, C 284, 285, 286, 288, 290, 292, 294, 296, 298, 300, 302, 304, 306 Subirats, M 273 Suchner, R 436 Suedfeld, P 128 Sun, R 80 Sun, S 148 Sundstrom, E 162, 389, 390 SunWolf, 212, 214, 215, 236, 237, 238, 241, 244, 246, 247, 248, 249, 252, 254, 256, 464, 381, 420 Suppes, P 358 Sutcliffe, K M 404 Sutton, R I 155 Swaab, R 136 Sy, T 155, 157, 159, 164 Takezawa, M 93 Tan, B C.Y 389 Tang, H K 389 Tanita, N E 335 Tanita-Ratledge, N 335 Author Index 453 Tannenbaum, S I 402, 404, 406 Taqueti,V R 60 Taylor, A R 407 Taylor, J R 219 Taylor, L A 93 Teichmann, R 360 Teitelbaum, J 215 Tellegen, A 161 ten Have, P 24 Testfatsion, L 100 Tetlock, P E 121, 128 Teuchmann, K 155 Thames, T B 115 Thatcher, S M B 122 Theuer, T 156 Thomas, B A 274 Thomas, E J 63 Thomas, R L III 168 Thompson, C M 278 Tiedens, L Z 155, 157, 163 Timmerman, C E 421 Tindale, R S 31, 46, 59, 134 Tischner, E C 278 Titscher, S 222 Titus, W 59, 83, 98, 142 Tiyaamornwong,V 426 Tolli, A P 279 Tompkins, P K 420 Tordera, N 273 Totterdell, P 155, 164 Toulmin, S E 335 Tracy, S J 215, 219, 222, 223, 227, 228 Trigwell, K 330 Trochim, W M K 122 Trope,Y 335 Trost, M 318 Tsai, W 284 Tschan, F 58, 60, 62, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 268, 379 Tuckman, B W 374, 378 Tumeo, M 87 Turner, J D F 163 Tynan, D 43 Undre, S 62, 134 Urada, D I 86 Uzzi, B 285 van Beest, I 136, 183 Van de Ven, A H 360, 379 van den Hooff, B 42, 173 Van Der Veen, A M 92 Van Duijn, M A J 300 van Knippenberg, D 155 Van Maanen, J 6, 7, 16, 26 Van Overwalle, F 86 Van Rooy, D 86 Vancouver, J B 278, 279 Vanhoomissen, T 86 Velten, E 156 Venkatesh, S A Venkatesh,V 190 Vetter, E 222 Vetterli, M 65 Vincent, C A 62, 134 Vincenzi, D A 59 Vinokur, A 335 von Bertalanffy, L 264 von Cranach, M 71 von Planta, M 65 Waber, B 290 Wacker, J 68 Waldeck, J H 215 Waldmann, S 433 Walker, D H T 404 Walker, G 136 Walker, K 212, 214, 222 Wallace, J C 274 Wallbott, H G 154 Waller, M J 68, 70, 142, 148 Walter, J 135 Wang, A 145 Wang, S S 61 Wang, T 145 Ward, A J 163 Warner, R M 323 Wasserman, S 284, 285, 287, 301, 303 Watson, D 161 Weaver, S J 404 Webber, S S 145, 401 Weger, H Jr 343 Wegner, D M 270 Wei, K 389 Weick, K 381 Weingart, L R 24, 59, 68, 71, 138, 330 Wellens, A R 134 Wellman, B 284 Wesselmann, E D 165, 183 West, B J 235 Wheelan, S A 374 White, A M 332, 333 White, M A 388 White, R K 267 White, S P 70 454 Author Index Wholey, D R 145 Whyte, W H 15, 18 Widman, J 173 Wiechmann, D 275, 276 Wildman, J L 133, 139, 386, 394 Willer, R 100 Williams, A A 278 Williams, D 177, 183, 185, 291 Williams, K 168 Williams, K D 42, 43, 48, 49, 51, 165, 168, 175, 181, 182, 183 Wilson, J M 135, 145, Wilson, K A 134, 404, 405 Wilson-Donnelly, K 63 Winquist, J R 83 Wirth, J H 42, 165, 173, 183 Wise, J A 59 Wittenbaum, G M 43, 44, 45, 46, 48, 49, 50, 52, 53, 55 Wodak, R 219, 222 Wolcott, H 17 Wolf, G 129, 264 Wood, L A 222, 229 Woodilla, J 220 Woolcock, J 86 Woolley, A W 330, 407 Worley, G 419 Wotal, B 291 Wu, L 290 Wuchty, S 285 Wyatt, D 290 Xiao,Y 390 Xiong, L 185 Xu, C 106 Yallup, M 238 Yammarino, F J 273 Yang, H D 136 Yang, O 390 Yen, J 148 Yeo, G 279 York, K M 389 Youngcourt, S S 402 Yule, S 69 Zaccaro, S J 136, 144, 145, 263, 268, 394, 408 Zadro, L 43, 48, 53, 183 Zakay, D 405 Zala-Mezö, E 68 Zane, N 115 Zedeck, S 406 Ziegert, J C 390 Zimmerman, S K 32 Ziv, A 62 Zorn, T E 434 Zuckerman, C 43 SUBJECT INDEX aggression 174 artifacts: material artifacts 219 avatars 176, 185, 188–91 behavioral markers see event-based methods bona fide group perspective 211–6, 219, 220, 222–5, 229, 231: challenges 215–6; definition 211; methodologies 212, tenets of 213–4 children 235, 240–1, 244 circumplex models of mood 162 collective induction 35–8; commitment acts 14 coding: coding schemes/systems 159, 237, 241, 244, 255, 335–6, 341; 342–43, 363–364; discourse units 332–4; innovations 345–7; limitations 344–5; online discussions 344; process 68; procedures 330; reliability 333, 340, 363–4; software 346; training coders 337–8; transcribing 331–332; unitizing 332–3, 363–364; validity 336–7, 364; cognitive consensus 134–5: measurement 141 computational modeling see computer simulation computer-mediated groups 218, 239 computer simulation 79–104: advantages of 80–2; agent-based modeling approach 92–7; challenges 97–101; formula translation approach 82–6; generative process modeling approach 86–92; purpose of 80; vs mathematical theories 80; vs natural language theories 80; See also group discussion, group problem solving concertive control 229 concept mapping 144 confederates 42, 46, 51, 180 confidentiality 229–30 content analysis see theme analysis conversational analysis 220 counterfactual thinking 248–9 data aggregation 271 data analysis 311–327: actor-partner interdependence model (APIM) 312, 318–320; between groups 313, 315; determining appropriate approach 312–3; homogeneity 370; lagsequential analysis 372–3; models of interdependence 318–27; moderated dependency analysis 373; multilevel modeling 315–8; nonindependence 311, 314–5; one-with-many design (OWM) 312, 321–3; sequential contingency analysis 365ff, social relations model (SRM) 312, 323–6; stationarity 369–370, transition matrix 366–8; unitariness 378–379; within groups 313, 315 data collection: multiple sources 222; network 286–297 456 Subject Index data, types of: archival data 290–291; binary data 294, 298; cognitive social structure (CSS), 287; continuous or valued data 294, 298; incomplete data 299–300; “mashing” 297; network data 287–304; observational data 290; survey data 287–289, 291–296 deception 208–9: identity deception 204; dialectical tensions 229 discourse analysis 217–231: data selection 222–3; discourse units 218–20; 223–4; 332–34, ethical issues 229–30; research questions 222–3; texts 218–20, 224, 230; types of 220–2 dynamics 11, 41–2, 48–9, 54, 56, 105–7, 109, 114–18, 161, 165, 180, 212, 235, 237–9, 241, 245, 247, 249, 253, 255–6, 260, 262–3, 278–9, 291, 386–7, 389, 391, 393, 395, 397, 399–403, 405, 407–411, 425, 431, 436 see also emergent behavior; multi-level approach; process models emergent behavior 267: explaining 97–8; forms of 268; simulating 87 emotional contagion 155, 158–60 see also group mood; group affective tone ethical issues 166–7: deception 208–9; discourse analysis 229–30; informed consent 208–9; institutional review board (IRB) 11, 53; privacy 194–5; sensitive information 204; virtual worlds 193–4 ethnography 6–27, 212, 237, 256: informants 7, 13; video ethnography 23 event-based methods 397 experimental design 30–9; 41, 51, 56, 63, 177–8, 212 experimental simulation 58–78: design 63; high-fidelity simulation 59; simulator session 60; scenario development 66 Facial Affect Coding System (FACS) 158 field experiments 192 field notes field settings 388 field sites 108–9, 117 gangs 237 gatekeepers 12, 202–3 generalizability 4, 8, 59, 231 generative mechanism 211, 360, 378 groups: definition group affective tone 155–6, 159, 163 see also emotional contagion; group mood group boundaries 210–13, 223, 225, 230, 241 group cohesion 154 group data analysis see data analysis group decision making 31–8, 43, 44, 45–9, 81, 148, 254 group discussion 49–50, 52, 81, 83–4, 86–90, 140, 253, 320, 330–3, 336, 338–9, 346–7, 372, 375, 379, 381: collective information sampling (CIS) model 83–4; computer simulations of 83–92; dynamic information sampling model (DISM-GD); discussion entry trajectories 84–6; see also shared vs unshared information group envy 156 group identity 220 group inputs 156–8 group learning 125, 137 group mood: affective disposition 155; affective diversity 157, 163; brief mood introspection scale 162; coding 159–60; consistency 163; convergence 159; ethical issues 166–7; induction techniques 156–8; measurement 160–4; work group mood 159 see also emotional contagion; group affective tone group outputs 160 group performance: versus individual performance 34–5 see also team performance group problem solving 31–8:ValSeek computer simulation model 93–7 group process 1, 38–9, 58, 68, 72, 154–6, 159, 211, 215–6, 218, 220, 347, 360, 378–9 group regret 249 group roles 13, 17, 72, 110, 140–1, 144, 146, 148, 160, 175–6, 179, 209, 219, 221–4, 246, 251–4, 264, 286, 290, 301, 321, 389–393, 392, 423, 425, 427, 431, 433, 435–6: role division 390; role expectations 423, 433; gatekeeper 12; structure 392 see also leader GroupScope 290, 347 group talk 236, 238–9, 248–9, 255: fantasies 248–9, 256; social talk 247; story talk 237, 239, 254; task talk 239, 247 group-to-individual transfer 33–4 Subject Index 457 high-performance teams 386: multidisciplinary trauma teams 391; US Navy security teams 393 individual differences 121–130: aggregating to the group level 128–9; data analysis 129; measurement of 127–8; multilevel theory 126–7 see also personality informants 7, 13 informed consent 208–9 ingroups/outgroups 238 institutional review board (IRB) 6, 9, 11–2, 15, 18, 24–6, 53, 68, 166, 194, 199, 202, 204–5, 209, 304 see also ethical issues interdependence 390, 392 Interaction Process Analysis (IPA) 160, 359 interdisciplinary collaboration 71 interpreting data interviews 7, 18, 21–3, 26, 85, 106, 108–11, 114, 116, 118, 146, 200, 203, 207–210, 215, 219, 222, 226, 230, 255, 292, 388, 395, 408, 421, 427, 432–3, 435 intertextuality 219, 224 intra-class correlation (ICC) 129, 314, 317 juries 238, 239, 244–249, 252, 254, 257 laboratory experiments 4, 41–2, 44, 50, 56, 141, 162, 194, 260: data collection 55, 133; design of 30–9; running of 41–56; personnel 50, 52; materials 51–3; set-up 54–5; subject pool 54; types of laboratory groups 42–7 language 218: linguistic structure 218; patterns 220; translation 111–2; leader 30, 112–3, 158, 201, 245, 272, 294, 313, 321–3, 390, 392, 394, 397, 400, 402, 404–5, 424, 429, 435 leadership 18, 63, 65, 67, 69, 71, 73, 122, 155, 181, 228, 239, 267, 279, 285–6, 301, 311, 313, 321, 326, 389–91, 393–4, 397, 400, 403–4, 408–9, 418: structure 390, 400 measurement: cognitive consensus 141; group data 313; group mood 160–4; group performance 70, 381–5; individual differences 127–8; team cognition 135–7, 138–9, 140–1; team mental models 142–147; team performance 393, 394–7, 401–11 mood induction techniques 156–8 multidimensional scaling 146 multilevel approach; dynamics 278; homology 273; linkages 262, 265; modeling 315–8; performance measure 403–4; theory 126–7 mutual enhancement 43, 45, 50 narrative(s): accounts 237; analyses/analysis 236–7, 240, 244, 254; data 237–241, 255, 256; intervention, 252; logic 236; methodologies 237, 238, 252; talk 248; thematic analysis 241; tools 255; vignettes 245 networks: multi-dimensional 306–307; nodes 284–5; ties 284–5; visualization 300–1 network analysis software; C-IKNOW 288–289, 293; EgoNet 289; NetDraw 300; NodeXL 300; StatNet 299, 303; UCINET 144, 146, 299–300, 303 network metrics 301–302; betweenness centrality 301; centralization 302; clique 301–302; closeness centrality 301; cyclicality 301; degree centrality 300–301; density 286, 302; reciprocity 301; redundancy 301; structural equivalence 300–301; transitivity 301 netnography 14 nonindependence 311 observational studies 15, 65, 112–3: nonparticipant observation 15; participant observation 15 online games 173–98: Cyberball 48–9, 175, 181–4, 186; massively multiplayer online role-playing games (MMORPGs) 175–6, 179; World of Warcraft 173, 176–7, 180, 184, 186, 192 ostracism see social exclusion/rejection parsimony 137 participant observation 7, 15–17, 184, 199, 203, 256 participant protection 229–30 participant recruiting see recruiting participants peer groups 236–9, 241 personality 122, 124, 126, 128–9 see also individual differences precision 4, 99, 137, 277, 279 prisoners’ dilemma 175, 185 problem-centered research process 358, 360–1 458 Subject Index process models: evolutionary 380; life cycle 381; Markov 366; multiple sequence 362, 379; Semi-Markov 372; teleological 379; unitary sequence 360 promotion-prevention focus 161–2 quasi experiments 64 qualitative research 6–27, 65–6, 106, 140, 199–210, 211–235, 235–259, 418–41: data analysis 113–4, 116, 237, 239, 247, 255; Owen’s criteria, 241 see also ethnography quantitative research 30–9; 42–57; 58–78; 260–283; 284–310; computer simulation 79–104; data analysis 311–328, 358–85 see also experimental design; laboratory experiments random number generators: in computer simulation 90, 101; rating scales 127, 147: behaviorally anchored rating scales 396; behavior observation scales 396; reliability 127; validity 127; see also survey questions realism 4, 59–60, 62, 65, 72: mundane realism 177–8 recruiting participants 53–4, 201: gaining access 237, 245, 246, 247, 252, 255; in online games 191, 193–4 reflexivity 223 reliability 127, 159, 163, 237, 244, 255, 271–2, 295, 331, 334, 337–340, 344–5, 363–4, 395–8, 400, 437 research design 4, 56, 133, 142, 236–40, 239, 244, 255, 260–2, 264, 312, 323 research questions 3–4, 6, 8–10, 23, 25–6, 56, 110, 146, 157, 160, 222–3, 241–5, 247, 292, 314, 330, 332, 345, 347, 433; grand tour questions 20; sampling 11, 83, 87–90, 113, 145, 177, 208, 210, 261, 297, 423: nonrepresentative 178; respondent driven sampling (RDS) 297; theoretical 11 sensemaking 230 shared (vs unshared information) 45, 47: defined 83; discussion entry trajectories 84–92 social combination approach 31–2; 36 social desirability, 294–295 social exclusion/rejection 43, 48–9, 173–4, 181–4, 237, 240, 241, 244 social impact theory 46 social ostracism see social exclusion/ rejection social relations model see data analysis statistics: Exponential Random Graph Modeling (ERGM/p∗) 303–4; inferential network statistics 302–304; multiple regression quadratic assignment procedure (MRQAP) 303; nonparametric analysis 241; quadratic assignment procedure (QAP) 303 story: storytelling 236, 238, 239, 247, 249, 254; story-thinking, 238, 248; survey questions 240–1, 246; frequency questions 240; instrument 237, 244; narrative questions 240; scaled questions 240; story stem/stem questions 238, 245, 255 structure: communication 390; temporal 390 task analysis 69 taskwork 391 teams: definition 263; classification 410–1; features of 387 team building 425 team cognition 132–148: conceptual framework 134; definition 134, measurement 135–7, 138–9, 140–1 team interventions 392, 419, 421–2, 421–429 team mental models 132, 134, 137: conceptual framework 142; definition 142; measurement 142–7 team performance 386–411: best practices for team management 404–5, see also group performance team task 388–9: complexity 390; identity 390; environment 390 team situational awareness 134 team training 132 teamwork 391: attributes 423–4; dimensions 424–6 technology 15, 23, 26, 134, 148, 165–6, 175, 190, 199, 210, 266, 292, 386, 390, 398, 425: dependence 390 terms of service (TOS) 201–2 texts see discourse analysis theme analysis 241: ATLAS 222; narrative 241; NVivo 241 Subject Index 459 theory, role of 3–5, 8–9, 11, 30–1, 36–7, 39, 46, 56, 79–82, 87, 89, 92, 97, 100, 105, 113–4, 116–7, 125–6, 128–9, 162, 166, 185, 215–6, 221, 228–9, 231, 241, 248–9, 255–6, 260–5, 272–3, 277–9, 329, 337, 347, 361–3, 382, 386, 394, 402, 420–1, 437 theories: bona fide groups 211–216, 255; decisional regret theory 249, 256; general systems theory 264; narrative paradigm 256; process theory 361, 362–3; symbolic convergence theory 248, 256; symbolic-interpretive perspective 238; variance theory 361 time see emergent behavior, multi-level approach, process models transactive memory 134, 137 type I errors 315 typology/typologies 248–249, 255 validity 4, 48–9, 64, 127, 147, 271, 277, 292, 295, 300, 331, 336–8, 363–4, 395, 400, 437: ecological validity 49 virtual games see online games virtual reality 174 virtual game environments: designerdeveloped 182–4; privacy 194–5; typology 178–80; user-developed 184–6; 186–192 virtual worlds 173–198; Exploratorium 185; Second Life 173, 176, 179–80, 185–92; The Sims 176–7, 184 .. .RESEARCH METHODS FOR STUDYING GROUPS AND TEAMS “Going beyond the description of abstract principles, Research Methods for Studying Groups and Teams uses the experience and insight... Theory and Research, Second Edition • Rubin et al.: Communication Research Measures II • Frey/Cissna: Routledge Handbook of Applied Communication Research RESEARCH METHODS FOR STUDYING GROUPS AND TEAMS. .. study of groups and research methods CONTENTS Group Research Methods: An Introduction Andrea B Hollingshead and Marshall Scott Poole Designing for Drift: Planning Ethnographic Qualitative Research