Researchmethods for English languageteachers jO McDONOUGH SeniorLecturerin English as tl Foreign Language.University ofEssex.UK STEVEN McDONOUGH Lecturerin AppliedLinguistics Univers4yof Essex.UK ROUTLEDGE Routledge Taylor & Francis Group LONDON AND NEW YORK First publishedin 1997 Impressionpublishedin 2008 by Hodder Education This edition published2014 by Routledge Park Square,Milton Park,Abingdon, Oxon OXI4 4RN 711 Third Avenue,New York, NY 10017,USA Routledgeis an imprint ofthe Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 1997 Jo McDonough & StevenMcDonough All rights reserved.No part of this publication may be reproducedor transmittedin any form or by any means,electronically or mechanically, including photocopying,recordingor any information storageor retrieval system,without either prior permissionin writing from the publisheror a licence permitting restrictedcopying In the United Kingdom such licences are issuedby the Copyright Licensing Agency: Saffron House,6-10 Kirby Street, London EC1N 8TS British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A cataloguerecord for this book is available from the British Library Library of CongressCataloging-in-PublicationData McDonough,Jo Researchmethodsfor English languageteacher/ Jo McDonough StevenMcDonough p cm Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 0-340-61472-2(pbk.) English language-Studyand teaching-Foreignspeakers-Research-Methodology.I McDonough.StevenH II Title PE1l28.A2M384 1997 428'.0072- dc20 96-35143 ISBN: 978 340 61472 CIP Typesetin 10'12/12'12Ehrhardt by SaxonGraphicsLtd, Derby Table of contents Prefoce Acknowledgements Vll IX Introduction:settingthe scene Part 1: principlesand perspectives Teachersin action Introduction Contextand roles Instances Patternsof research:implications Conclusion Discussionnotes 7 10 The teacherresearcherin focus 21 21 22 25 28 34 35 What is research? 37 37 37 41 42 Introduction Action and reflection A shorteducationalexcursion Teacherresearchand English languageteaching Conclusion Discussionnotes Introduction Generalviews Commonviews of what researchin languageteachingdoes Basicand appliedresearch Descriptionand intervention Normativeand interpretiveresearch Conclusion Discussionnotes 14 17 19 44 47 54 55 IV TABLE OF CONTENTS Principlesand problems:what makesgood research? Introduction Featuresof good research Comparisonof researchtraditionson thesefeatures Aspectsof designof research Conclusion Discussionnotes 57 57 57 69 70 72 73 Introduction Beginnings Approaches Content:teachers'choices Researchand research:existing work Conclusion Discussionnotes 75 75 75 78 81 84 88 89 Part2: topics and methods 91 Generatingresearch Definitions and overview Principles,methods,techniques Introductionto methods andtechniques Out there: discoveringother people'swork and telling them aboutone'sown Observinglanguageclassrooms Introduction Observation:usesand perspectives Systematizingobservation Alternativesto codingschemes Naturalisticobservation Conclusion Discussionnotes Diaries and diary studies Introduction Somedefinitions Diary data Diaries in languagelearningand languageteaching Keepinga diary Conclusion Discussionnotes 93 93 95 96 101 101 101 105 III 114 118 119 121 121 121 122 127 134 136 136 UBUmCONTINTI Using numbers Introduction Why count,and what to count Describingthe numberswith other numbers Inferencefrom chance- 'significance' Computationalaids Conclusion Discussionnotes v 137 137 138 139 150 152 153 153 10 Doing experiments Introduction Why experiments? Causalityand the methodof detail Experimentsand quasi-experiments Someexamples Reflectionson the experimentalapproach Conclusion Discussionnotes 155 155 155 157 158 161 165 168 169 11 Asking questions Introduction Questionnaires Interviews Issuesin interviewing Conclusion Discussionnotes 171 171 172 181 185 187 188 12 Looking inside: methodsfor introspection Introduction Introspection Verbal report and think-aloud Researchon oneself Researchon learners Someexamples Conclusion Discussionnotes 189 189 190 191 194 196 200 201 202 13 Studyingcases Introduction What is a case? Methodsin casestudy research Casestudiesin languagelearningand teaching The controversyof casestudy Conclusion Discussionnotes 203 203 203 207 209 216 218 218 VI TABLE OF CONTENTS 14 Mixing researchmethods In troduction Principlesin mixing methods Teachers'research:somecontinuingcasestudies Conclusion Discussionnotes 219 219 219 225 231 232 Conclusion The role of researchby teachers Appropriatemethodologies Developmentof criteria 'Popularity'of varioustechniques Teacherresearchand higher-degreeresearch Evaluationsof teacherresearch And finally 233 233 234 235 236 236 237 239 Appendix 241 Reftrences 247 Index 257 Preface 'Research'and 'teaching'are in many ways quite differentspheresof activity, eachadheringto its own principles, procedures,objectivesand methodologies Indeed, the two terms have often been polarized, contributing to the unhelpful and rather tired distinction between'theory' on the one hand and 'practice'on the other In recentyears,however,the interfacehas beenboth challengedand productively explored by practitionersin the field of ELT: there is a growing literature on the researchcarried out by teachersand on the kinds of modelsfrom which suchresearchis drawn The presentbook is intendedas a contributionto this literature Its primary addressees are English languageteachersin their everydayprofessional context It is based onthe view that teachershave a huge numberof issues and questionssurroundingthem in that context; that there are available many appropriateresearchtechniquesfor exploring those issues;that professionalresearchers and teachershavemuch to sayof interestto eachother; and that it is nowadaysnot unusualfor English languageteachersto pursue periodsof training and professionaldevelopmentaway from the classroom and thus sometimesto entertemporarilya different valuesystem Teacherresearchhas becomesomethingof a 'buzz' word Although this book is divided into two sections,one that is largely concernedwith 'principles' and anotherwith 'method',we have attemptedto show how thesetwo aspectsare linked The principles informing the kinds of researchwith which teachersare becomingincreasinglyfamiliar have powerful derivations and long histories in other disciplines, in the social sciencesas well as in generaleducation;and researchmethodsand techniquesare themselvesnot free-floating, but are embeddedin debatesabout philosophiesand paradigms, and abouthow the social world might be construed.We hope,simply, that readerswill find here some stimulus, or support, for exploring their own ideasand questionsabout teachingand learning, and will wish to peel away someof the layersof both contentand methodthat havefascinatedus )0 and StevenMcDonough University ofEssex /996 For Dorothy Martha Gladys Jepson 1905-1994 Acknowledgements We are grateful to Longman Group UK Ltd and L van Lier for permission to reproducethe box 'Types of research'from The classroomand the languagelearner, 1988,p 57 We particularly wish to acknowledgethe ideas and hints and feedback from many colleaguesand studentsover the last few years We are also grateful to Dilly Meyer for helping us to preparethe final manuscript Only we are to be held responsiblefor the outcome 248 RESEARCH METHODS FOR ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHERS BASSEY, M 1986: Does action researchrequire sophisticatedresearchmethods? 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EAP teachers'predictionsof student success.In Blue (1993: 37-48) TRANTER, D.l986: Changingschools.In Hustler et al (1986: 105-22) TRIPP, D 1993: Critical incidentsin teaching London: Routledge VAN LIER, L 1988: The classroom and the language learner London and New York: Longman 1989: Ethnography: bandaid, bandwagon,or contraband?In Brumfit and Mitchell (1989: 33-53) WALKER, R 1985: Doing research: a handbookjilr teachers.London: Methuen 1986: The conduct of educational case studies: ethics, theory and procedures In Hammersley(1986: 187-219) and ADELMAN, C 1976: Strawberries.In Stubbs,M and Delamont, S (eds) 1976: Explorationsin classroomobservation.Chichester:John Wiley, 133-50 WALLACE, M ] 1991: Training jimign language teachers: a rejlative approach Cambridge:CambridgeUniversity Press 256 RESEARCH METHODS FOR ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHERS WALLAT, c., GREEN,] L., CONLIN, S M and HARAMIS, M 1981: Issuesrelated to action researchin the classroom- the teacherand researcheras a team In Green and Wallat (1981: 87-113) WATSON-GEGEO, K.A 1988: Ethnographyin ESL: defining the essentials.TESOL Quarter(j, 22(4), 575-92 WEIR, C 1988: The specification,realizationand validation of an English languageproficiency test In Hughes, A (ed.), TestinK English Jorqualitative study London: Macmillan Modern English Publicationsin associationwith the British Council, 45-110 and ROBERTS,].R 1994: Evaluationin ELT Oxford: Blackwell WEITZMAN, E A and MILES, M B 1995: Computerprogramsfor qualitative data ana(j,sis.ThousandOaks,CA: Sage WENDEN, A 1987: How to be a successfullanguagelearner.In Wenden,A and Rubin, ] (eds), Learner strategiesin language learning Hemel Hempstead:Prentice Hall, 103-18 WHITE, R V and ARNDT, V 1991: Processwriting Harlow: Longman WIDDOWSON, H G 1978: Teat"hinK language as CIImmunication Oxford: Oxford University Press WODE, H 1976: Developmentalsequencesin naturalisticL2 acquisition Working Papers in Bilingualism Vol ll, 1-31 WOODS, A., FLETCHER, P and HUGHES, A 1986: Statistics in language study Cambridge:CambridgeUniversity Press WRIGHT, T 1987: Rolesofteachersand learners Oxford: Oxford University Press Index Accountability Action 7,8,21,22-5,35 Adelman,C 26, 27 etal 217 Adult Migrant English ProgramAMEP 32, 132, 180,221 Alderson,C 139 Allwright, D 14,61, 112 and Bailey, K 78,80,95,125, 130 Anderson,NJ et al 221,224 Anxiety and competitiveness 130, 149 Appel,] 132 Applied linguistics 6, 28, 66, 85, 220, 235 British Associationfor Applied Linguistics (BAAL) 97,241 Applied ScienceseeTechnicalrationality Applicability, Application 3,65-7,seeals() Replication,Utility, Generalizability, Transferability AppraisalseeEvaluation Appropriatemethodology 234 Aptitude 149, 150 Arndt, V 200 Association 145, seeals() Chi-square Atkinson, P and Delamont,S 216 Bachman,L and Palmer,A 221 Bailey, K 122, 126, 129, 130, 13l, 134 seeals() Allwright and Bailey and Ochsner 126 BarkerAnn (AB) lO-ll, 76, 227, 230,231 Bassey,M 69 Beebe,L 67,209 Berthoff, A.E 79,212 Bilingualism 65,220 Bialystok, E 198 Block, E 200,201 Blumer, H 46 Bolster, A 22,23,29,212 Boomer,D.S 2, 16 Boundedsystem 205,212,218 Brannen,] 222 Breadand Dreams 215,216 Brindley, G 32,65,82,180,221 Brown, C 51,93,95 Brown,J.D 155,156 Brumfit, C and Mitchell, R 2, 22 Bryant, I 8 Budd, T 234 Buresova,V 235 Burns,A 132 and Hood, S 32,221 Burton,] and Mickan, P 61,62 Calderhead,] 46 Campbelland Stanley 156 Cane,B and Schroeder,C 25 Carr, Wand Kemmis, S 2fr-7 Carrell, P 181 et al 161,166,167,168 Carroll, B and West, R 139 Casestudy 47,66,86,95,136, 182, 203-18,222 Definitions 204 Classification 20fr-7 Methods 207-9 Themeand issue 209 Casanave,c.p and Hubbard,P 180 Categorysystemsseecodingsystems Cause 48,50,147,155,157-8 Centraltendency 140-1,seeals() mean Centrefor Information on Language Teaching(CIL T) 98,241 Chamot,A-U 32, 82 Changeseeinnovation Chaudron,C 209 258 RESEARCH METHODS FOR ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHERS Chi-square 109, 145,151 Classroom interaction 9,114,162-4 events 25 Action ResearchNetwork 27,97,243 research 101,155,181,190 Classsize Clegg,] 234 Codingsystems 94,101,105-11,115, 192, 198,207 examples 105-6 advantagesand disadvantages of 1O~7 Cohen,A.D 193,194,200 and Aphek, E 199 Cohen,L and Manion, L 42,48,65, 69, 95, 177, 182, 183, 186, 187,203,204, 208 COLT (Communicationorientationof languageteaching) 106 Communicative competence 85 languageteaching 10, 14,29,93-4,234 Computationalaids 125,152,178 Confidentiality 68,123,185,191 Contentanalysis 94,125,187,192,223 Context 8-9,27,45-7,51,52,65,114, 172, 184 Control 42,47,121 group 41,45,162,163,168 and counterbalance 45, ISS, 160 Correlation 144-6 Corti, I 122, 125, 134 Counselling 186 Credibility seevalidity Criteria 69,235 Critical incidents 80 Criper, C and Davies,A 148 Cronbach,L 216 Crookes,G 33 Cross-tabulation 179 Curriculum development 25 in action 27, 105 Dadds,M 62,196 Data 41,53,54,116 collection 221 diary 123, 124 display 118 - first 79, 125, 130,210 protection 68, 191 reduction 118 thick vs thin 124, 136 Day,R 117 Decontextualization 165-6 Denzin, N.K 46,71,208 DependabilityseeReliability Description,Descriptive 4,166,192,230 elaborative 112, 198 vs intervention 44-7,54 thick vs thin 116,118 Development,institutional and personal 15,17,101,203 Deviation, standard 48, 141-3 Diaries 30,47,49,64,93, 94, 138, 208 and diary studies 121-36, 12~7 expert 129-30,136,211 keepinga diary 134-6 languagelearners' 127-8, 136 teachers' 131-2, 136, 190, 194 Discrepantcases 53,54,65 Dispersion 141-4 Doughty,C and Pica, T 163 Edge,] and Richards,K 31 Education 25-8,81,121,203,204,220 ERIC (EducationResearchInformation Center) 98,99 Egocentricerror 194 Elliott,] 24,26,28-9,40,121,203,215, 220 Ellis, R 65,67, 190,209,210 Electronicinformation 98 Elton, L 64 Emergent 80-1,83,117,205,231 emic principle 51,52, 114,205 English for specific purposes 11, 87, 111, 148,180,208,215 for academicpurposes 77, 164, 180, 224 English languageteaching 28-34,35,121 lind learning 220 seea/s(J secondlanguageacquisition Erickson,F 52,53,66,94,168 and Schultz,] 46 Ericsson,K.A 194 and Simon, H 192 Error treatment 127, 130 Ethics 39,53-4,67-8,123, 167-8, 191, 208 Ethnography,Ethnographic 50,51, 116, 181,208,220,235 'smashand grab' 156 Ethnomethodology 46, 50 Evaluation 15,17,25,87,181,182,190, 204,206,215,220,221,230 of teacherresearch 34,237-8 INDEX Experiment,Experimental 4,41,47,49, 95,137,155-69,230,237 quasi-experiment 47,49,156,158-61 Explanationvs prediction 50 Exploratory teaching 61 Factoranalysis 149 Falsification 54, ~5, 159 Fanselow,j 105 Faigley,L and Witte, S 224 Fathman,A and Whalley, P 164, 166,224 Feedforward 231 seealso Changeand innovation Field notes 112,192,197 Fitzpatrick, F 118 Flanders,N 106, III FlandersInteractionAnalysis Categories FIAC 106, 107, III FOCUS 105 Focusgroup 71, 185 Ford TeachingProject 27,96,220 French,David (DF) 12,16 Frequency 138, 140 Gaies,R and Bowers,R 118 Garcia,Anna (AG) 76, 86 Gardner,R and MacIntyre, P 149, 179 Gatekeeper 68, 166 Geertz,C 116 Generalizability,Generalization 21,42, 27,29,52,65,136,158, 165,203, 216-7,236 petite and grand 217 naturalistic 217 Generation 3,9,58-61,75-89,125 Giroux, H 23 Good, T.L and Brophy,].E 104 Goswami,D and Stillman, P.R 27,32 Green,].Land Wallat, C 32 Green,P 45 Guilford, j and Fruchter,B 155 Hakuta,K 211 Hammersley,M 46, 222 and Atkinson, P 23,115,116 Handal,G and Lauvas,P 30, 34 Handy, C B 9,213 Hatch, E M and Farhady,M 137, 155 Heededprocesses 192 Hitchcock, G and Hughes,D 131,156, 205,206 Holistic principle 51, 114,205 Holliday, A 234, 235 Holly, M.L 122,126,131 259 Homogeneityseedispersion Hopkins, D 3,26,69,80,84,95,101, 118, 122, 181 Hosenfeld,C 190, 193 HumanitiesCurriculum Project 27,220 Hutchinson,T and Waters,A 215 Hycner 186 Hypothesis 3,42, 78, 80 hypothetico-deductive 78, 101,210 null 159 Idiographic 22,24, 104,212 Inductive 79,80,101,210 Initiation seegeneration Innovation 15, 17, 18,27,33,67,104 Instances 7, 10-4,76-8,86 8,205, 225-31 Instructedlanguagelearning 65 Interest 58, 82 Interlanguage 85 seealsl! secondlanguageacquisition IATEFL 31,97,99,230 Interview 47,71,93,94,95,172,181-7, 190,224 group 185 qualitativeanalysisof 186 recordingof 186 semi-structured 182, 183-4, 187 structured 182, 207 unstructured 182, 184,208 Introspection 124, 189-201 seealsl! Protocol,Think-aloud james,K 214,216,217 johnson,D 82,149,205,208,211,220, 221 jones,F.R 128,129,130,135 jones,Frank (FR) 77,228-9,230,231 jordan, R 180,216 journals 97, 122, 133, 134 Kemmis, S 168 Knowledge 15,18,25,104 craft 24,29,35,133 insider 61, 114 knowing-in-action 23 L2 methods 220 seealsl! applied linguistics, second languageacquisition Learnertraining 199,200 Lewin, K 26 Lightbown, P 211 260 RESEARCH METHODS FOR ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHERS Lincoln, Y.S and Guba,E.G 63,64, 102, 114, 135, 182,207,217,222 Listeningcomprehension 199 Literaturesearch 70,236,237,239 Llewellyn, S 132 Local meanings 52, 93 Logs 122,133,207 seealso diaries Long, M 65 Lopez, Antonio (AL) 12,17 Low, G 172,173 Malamah-T homas,A 8 Management 27 Marcos 214,215,216,217,218 Markee,N 215 Marshall, C and Rossman,G 85, 94 McDonald, B and Kushner,S 215,216 McDonough,] 132 and Shaw,C 9,31, 128 and McDonough,S 41,81,128,132, 213 McDonough,S 190,198,199 McLaughlin, B 49,65,78, 149 McNiff,] 26 Matsuda,Kenji (KM) 10, 15,33,76,225, 229,230 Mean 48,141 Measurement 47,138-9,230 interval 138 nominal 138 ordinal 134,141 ratio 139 Memberchecking 186,208 Merriam 206 Meta-analysis 65, 70 Miles, M.B and Huberman,A.M 118, 205 Monitor model 85 Morrow, K and Schocker,M 237 Motivation 149, 161 Murphy O'Dwyer, L 133 Naidu, B el al 238 Needsanalysis 41, 138, 180, 182,215 Nin, A 121 Nisbett, R.E and Wilson, T.D 192 Nixon,] 95 Norris, N 215 Numericalanalysis 47-8,95,137-53,167, 207,225 of qualitativedata 125 Nunan,D 2, 16,32,82,83,95,III, 112, 114,125,145, 181,20~216,221216,221 Objective,Objectivity 3, 42, 48, 62 vs subjective 124, 135 Observation 93,95, 101-19,138, 190 naturalistic 101, 102, 114-8, 208 participant 50,51-2,66,101, 116 reductionist 112, 114 systematic 47, 101,105-11 observer'sparadox 115' O'Malley,J.Mand Chamot,A-U 198 Originality 38,59,68 Ownership 18,54,68,215 Oxford, R 211 Paivio and Begg 155 Paradigm 3,14,24,30,79,206,222 seealso research- qualitative, quantitative,interpretive, normative Parkinson,B and Howell-Richardson,C 128 Patternanalysis 117, 186 Peal,E and Lambert,W 65 Peck,A 112-4 Pennington,M 24,28 Petrov,Irina (IP) 11-2,208,226-7,229, 230,231 Perl, S 200 Personalconstruct 30, 79 Peyton,J.Kand Stanton,] 126 Phenomenology 46 Pickett, G 129 Plausibility 53,61, 187 Plummer,K 204 Porter,P.A el al 133 Positivism 50, 168,237 Poulisse,N el al 112 Powell, R C 176,180 Power 33,34, 132, 156 Practice 1, 25 Probability 47,48, 142 Programmedesign 215 Progoff, I 135 Proof Protocol 48, 190, 193 analysis 193,195,200 see"lWl introspection,think-aloud Publication 60-1,68,191 and dissemination 96-9,230 Q 213,218 Questionnaire 41,93,94,138,171, 172-81,192,207,225 analysis 178 as conversation 172-3 INDEX as tests 173-4 construction 177 factual questions 174 multiple-choice 175 open-ended 176, 180 rankedquestions 17~, 189 Ramani,E 85 6, 133 Randomill'.ation 49, 160, 161, 166-7 Rank order 138, 141 Rea-Dickins,P and Germaine,K 215 Readingskills 12,29,43,76,87,199 comprehension 200-1 skim reading 195 Recording audio 110-1, 191, 197 video 110 1,112,197 Regression 149 Reflection 8,21,22-5,27,29,30,131 -in-action 23, 30, 34 Reflectivepractitioner 23, 30 Reflectivequestions 126 Reflexivity 23,70, 115 Relevance 3, 18, 19,21,24 Reliability 63,68,173,198,203 ofcodings 106,108 Replicability, Replication 3, 65 6, 68, 158,222 Research 70, action 2,3,24,26-8,34,35,62,67, 128, 166, 181,203,215,220,222, 231,238 cycle, spiral 26, 190, 231 attitudes 15, 16,41 basicvs applied 32, 42-3, 54 collaboration 16,27,33,34,84,212, 221, 222,229 condition-seeking 65, 149-50 critil:al 168 design 61-5,70,157 first, 2nd, 3rd person 62, 168, 196 higherdegree 12, 17, 40, 60, 236 individual 15,16 institutional 15, 16 interpretive 14,47,5H, 80,168 market 38-9, 182 method,technique 94 multi-method 71,208,219-25 multi-site 220 normative 47,47-50,54,80 outsider 14,15,16,51,137,156,196 qualitative/quantitative 53, 54, 60, 190,198,205,208,220,224 261 researcher/university 2, 14,84,237, 190 scale 14,32,164,167, 187, 190,203, 219,229 stance 1,2, 7, 75 teacher 1,3,15,21-36,60,110,190, 203,233,235 training 17, 85 two senses 37-41 Retrospective,Retrospection 129, 191 Richards,J 8, 133 and Lockhart,C 7,9,30,46,82,126, 131,134 and Rodgers,T 94 Roberts,J 34,238 Rogers,C 186 Role theory 9,212,213 Sample judgmental 206 random 160, 206 size 160 Saville-Troike,M 124,184 Scaling Likert 176,180 Guttman 177 Scattergram 146 Schecter,S.R and Ramirez,R 70,71,88, 235 Schematheory 43, 85 Schmidt,Rand Frota, S 129 Schon,D 23,24,29,34,79,131 Schumann,J 65 and Schumann,F 129 Schwartzand Ogilvy 115 SecondLanguageAcquisition 42,49, 181,190,204,209-11 Self observation 193 report 173, 193 revelation 173,193 Seliger,Hand Shohamy,E 78,81,95, 101, 118 Sensitivity 61,68,173 Sevigny,M.J 46 Sharwood-Smith,M 42,78,210 Significance 48,49, 150 interpretationof 151-2 Simons,H 216 Skehan,P 61,66,149,150 Skill learning 189 Slimani, A 199 Smith, K 30 Sociology 204 262 RESEARCH METHODS FOR ENGLISH LANGU\GE TEACHERS Somekh,B 33 Sommers,A 224 Specialneeds 13 Specificity and the methodof detail 59-60, 157-8 contextual 60, 68 Spolsky,B 66 Standardscoreseedeviation Stake,R 3, 184, 186, 205, 206, 208, 209, 211,215,217 Statistics descriptive 137 inferential 150 multivariate 148-9 Stenhouse,L 3,25,69,104, 206, 220 Stimulatedrecall 112 Strategies 190, 198,206 metacognitive 181 Strawberries 115Strickland,D 32 Subjects 18,156,160 subjectivity 115,135 Supervision 30 clinical 30, 118 Survey 171, 181, 199,220 Swan,H 31 Symbolic interactionism 46, 50 Taylor, S.] and Bogdan,R 80,94 Teachersin action 7-19, seealsl! instances Teacher development 31, 196, seealso personal development training 28-30,35,121, 132 questions 157 Technicalrationality 23,29, 35 TESOL 97 Testing 138,180,181,193 ESU framework 139 TOEIC 13 TOEFL 13, 147, 180 IELTS 13,139, 147 proficiency 63 questionnairesas tests 173 research 221 Text analysis 112, 224 Theory 24, 94 first 78-9,130,210 groundedtheory 46, 51 Think-aloud 95, 181, 190, 191-4 level and reporting 192, 197 method 196-9 seealsl! introspection,protocol Thornbury,S 133 Time 166 Tonkyn, A et al 225 Transferability 45-7,217' seealsl!generalizability Triangulation 51,71,93,198-9,208, 223 Tripp,D 80 Turner, Carol (CT) 13,77,228,229,231 Universalgrammar 79,85 Utility 40,66,67 Validity 21,38,43,62-3,68,lll, 147, 158, 160-1, 173, 187,203 Van Lier, L 47,48,51,96,114,121,148, 157, 185,235 Variables confounding 44,49, 52, 159 dependent 44,49,159 independent 44,49,159 moderator 159, 192 Verbal reportseeintrospection,thinkaloud, protocol Vocabularylearning 76, 85 Wallace,M 29, 101 Wallat, C et al 212 Walker, R 16,94,95,102,117,186,205 and Adelman,C 114 Watson-Gegeo,K 51 Weitzmann,E.A and Miles, M.B 125 Weir, C 180 and Roberts,J 181 Wenden,A 187 Wode, H 211 Wolcott 116 Woods,A et al 137 Wright, T Writing skills 87, 164, 180 feedback 164,166,224 process 200 revision 224 Yin 206 ... processand in the applications 40 RESEARCH METHODS FOR ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHERS Languageteaching Languageteachersalso researchin the first sense,but not tend to call it research, though what they is...Researchmethods for English languageteachers jO McDONOUGH SeniorLecturerin English as tl Foreign Language. University ofEssex.UK STEVEN McDONOUGH Lecturerin AppliedLinguistics... SummerSchoolfor teachers Ass()ciati()n ()f RecognisedEnglish I.anguageSenices, the largestnational ()rganizati()n()f lan- guagesch()()ls in Britain 12 RESEARCH METHODS FOR ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHERS