“This overview of architectural research methods and the discussion of the complex and challenging relationship between architectural design, architectural research and science is relevant in education, research and practice Empirically tested theories, ex ante and ex post evaluations of designs and buildings, research by design and design studies are all necessary input to evidence based design and to provide the best possible fit with different interests and needs of clients, end users, and modern society.” Theo J.M van der Voordt, Faculty of Architecture and the Built Environment, Delft University of Technology, the Netherlands Elżbieta Danuta Niezabitowska is a retired professor associated with the Architectural Faculty at Silesian University of Technology, Poland She has authored over 170 scientific papers She has supervised multiple research grants, including one international She specializes in research methodology in architecture, especially inter- and transdisciplinary research ARCHITECTURE Cover image: Elżbieta Danuta Niezabitowska ISBN 978-1-138-05598-8 www.routledge.com 781138 055988 Routledge titles are available as eBook editions in a range of digital formats ELŻBIETA DANUTA NIEZABITOWSKA A scientific approach to architectural and architectonic research from the scope of just one discipline is no longer sufficient With contemporary considerations such as behavior, health, and environmental protection, architects and students alike need holistic research methodologies that incorporate qualitative elements as well as more traditional quantitative ones Research Methods and Techniques in Architecture examines research methodologies and tools applied in science and architectonic practice Beginning with a thorough introduction to the main scientific, environmental, and architectural theories of the late twentieth century, the book guides the reader through the different aspects of architectural research design, building research teams, choosing applicable research methods, and representing research results RESEARCH METHODS AND TECHNIQUES IN “Research Methods and Techniques in Architecture brings attention to the complexities of architecture and of the designing process The variables of importance are bundled together The research approaches and methods necessary to enhance the knowledge base of architects and all designers must be tailor-made to deal with those complexities They cannot be simply borrowed from the sciences Elżbieta Niezabitowska succinctly presents the reader with a forthright and rigorous description, explanation, and analysis of the utility of the techniques available for developing theory and enhancing professional practice in the design fields Constructing research approaches and methods is a highly creative act; Niezabitowska’s book is a highly creative presentation of how best to fashion research from the array of techniques available and that may have to be formulated so that they are appropriate to the tasks that designers face.” Jon Lang, Emeritus Professor, Faculty of the Built Environment, University of New South Wales, Australia ARCHITECTURE “This book by Elżbieta Niezabitowska sums up valuable, long-term research devoted to the application of scientific methods in architecture It is the first such work, contributing the discourse of Polish theoreticians As a comprehensive and structured approach, it can be used by both young enthusiasts of space shaping and mature researchers studying architectural problems.” Jan Słyk, PhD, architect and Professor at Warsaw University of Technology, Poland WHO? WHERE? WHEN? HOW? WHY? HOW MUCH? RESEARCH METHODS AND TECHNIQUES IN ARCHITECTURE ELŻBIETA DANUTA NIEZABITOWSKA Research Methods and Techniques in Architecture A scientific approach to architectural and architectonic research from the scope of just one discipline is no longer sufficient With contemporary considerations such as behavior, health, and environmental protection, architects and students alike need holistic research methodologies that incorporate qualitative elements as well as more traditional quantitative ones Research Methods and Techniques in Architecture examines research methodologies and tools applied in science and architectonic practice Beginning with a thorough introduction to the main scientific, environmental, and architectural theories of the late twentieth century, the book guides the reader through the different aspects of architectural research design, building research teams, choosing applicable research methods, and representing research results Elz˙bieta Danuta Niezabitowska is a retired professor associated with the Architectural Faculty at Silesian University of Technology, Poland She has authored over 170 scientific papers She has supervised multiple research grants, including one international She specializes in research methodology in architecture, especially inter- and transdisciplinary research “The book by Elz·bieta Niezabitowska sums up valuable, long-term research devoted to the application of scientific methods in architecture It is the first such work, contributing discourse of Polish theoreticians As a comprehensive and structured approach, it can be used by both young enthusiasts of space shaping and mature researchers studying architectural problems.” —Jan Słyk, PhD Architect, Professor, Warsaw University of Technology “Research Methods and Techniques brings attention to the complexities of architecture and of the designing process The variables of importance are bundled together The research approaches and methods necessary to enhance the knowledge base of architects and all designers must be tailor-made to deal with those complexities They cannot be simply borrowed from the sciences Elz·bieta Niezabitowska succinctly presents the reader with a forthright and rigorous description, explanation, and analysis of the utility of the techniques available for developing theory and enhancing professional practice in the design fields Constructing research approaches and methods is a highly creative act; Niezabitowska’s book is a highly creative presentation of how best to fashion research from the array of techniques available and that may have to be formulated so that they are appropriate to the tasks that designers face.” —Jon Lang, Emeritus Professor, Faculty of the Built Environment, University of New South Wales “This overview of architectural research methods and the discussion of the complex and challenging relationship between architectural design, architectural research and science is both relevant in education, research and practice Empirically tested theories, ex ante and ex post evaluations of designs and buildings, research by design and design studies are all necessary input to evidence based design and to provide the best possible fit with different interests and needs of clients, end users, and modern society.” —Dr Theo J.M van der Voordt, Faculty of Architecture and the Built Environment, Delft University of Technology Research Methods and Techniques in Architecture Elz˙ bieta Danuta Niezabitowska First published 2018 by Routledge 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017 and by Routledge Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2018 Taylor & Francis The right of Elz˙bieta Danuta Niezabitowska to be identified as author of this work has been asserted by her in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 All rights reserved No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A catalog record for this book has been requested ISBN: 978-1-138-05597-1 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-138-05598-8 (pbk) ISBN: 978-1-315-16559-2 (ebk) Typeset in Univers by Florence Production Ltd, Stoodleigh, Devon, UK Contents Foreword Acknowledgments Acronyms xi xv xvii Introduction xix The Relation Between Science, Theory of Architecture, and Practice 1.1 A Brief History of Architectural Development Perceived as a Practical Discipline 1.2 Causes of Development of Science in Architecture and Urban Planning 1.3 Drawbacks of Science in Architecture 1.4 Inter-, Multi-, and Transdisciplinarity of Architecture and Urban Planning 1.5 Architecture as a Science: Literature Overview The Philosophical Reflection Trend: Literature Analysis A Research Trend in Architecture Aimed at Perfecting Design Practice Scientific Research Trend in Architecture 1.6 Scientific Theories in Architecture: Select Examples The Environmental Theories That Influence the Creation of a New Paradigm of Architecture The Environmental Design Theory of Jon Lang Kevin Lynch’s Theory of the Urban Space Structure The Theory of the Sign of Robert Venturi: Architecture as a Means of Communication The Privacy Gradient and Oscar Newman’s “Defensible Space” Theory Christopher Alexander’s Pattern Language: The Theory of Form Synthesis The Theory of the Phenomenological Approach of Christian Norberg-Schulz 11 14 15 20 26 31 32 40 43 45 46 51 52 v ᮀ Contents Stewart Brand’s Theory of Transitions and a Stratified Construction of Architectural Objects Select Theoretical Conceptions Pertaining to the Research on Space Structure Conclusion Notes References 56 60 60 61 The General Image of Science 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Philosophy and Its Role in the Development of Science 2.3 Facts and Phenomena: Their Cognition and Interpretation Philosophical Interpretation of Facts Ideological Interpretation: Ideas and Doctrines Interpretation of Facts in the Sphere of Practice Scientific Interpretation Looking at Facts and Other Phenomena in Architecture 2.4 The Processes of Mental Cognition 2.5 Requirements for Research Results 2.6 The Attitude of Scholars to Scientific Problems Notes References 66 66 73 78 79 80 80 81 82 84 87 88 92 92 Basic Notions Applied in Science 3.1 Defining of Notions in Science 3.2 Paradigm 3.3 Scientific Theories Grounded Theory 3.4 Laws and Generalizations 3.5 Research Problem 3.6 Research Methods Research Assumptions, Theses Hypotheses Research Questions Dependent and Independent Variables in Empirical Research 3.7 The Comparison of Research Methods, Techniques, and Tools References Scientific Research in Architecture 4.1 The Aims of Research in Architecture 4.2 Review of Literature that Pertains to the Methodology of Research in Architecture 53 94 94 96 98 100 102 102 104 106 108 109 110 111 111 113 114 115 vi ᮀ Contents 4.3 The Subject Matter and the Subject of Research in Architecture 4.4 Scientific Research and Its Types 4.5 Expert Research Versus Participation Research 4.6 Methodology of Research Works and Its Component Parts The Strategy for Conducting Research (Organization, Selection of Methods, Tools, and Research Techniques) Research Tools Research Techniques Triangulation of Research Monitoring in Scientific Research Notes References 118 119 121 123 124 124 125 126 127 128 128 Research Process Designing 5.1 Basic Steps in Research Process Designing 5.2 Building the Research Team 5.3 Implementation of Research Results 5.4 Research Financing Notes References 130 131 132 136 136 137 137 Research Methods Applied in Architecture 6.1 The Method of Logical Argumentation: An Analysis and Logical Construction 6.2 The Method Based on Historical–Interpretative or Interpretative Research 6.3 Experimental Research 6.4 The Method of Quantitative and Statistical Research 6.5 Modeling and Simulative Research 6.6 Qualitative Research POE: A Special Variation of Qualitative Research in Architecture 6.7 Case Studies 6.8 Action Research Method: Interventional Research 6.9 Heuristic and Forecasting Methods 6.10 Mixed Methods Notes References 138 Research Techniques 7.1 Research Techniques and Research Methods 7.2 Research Techniques Applied in Architectural Scientific Research 140 143 148 150 154 159 168 173 180 181 183 184 184 188 189 189 vii ᮀ Contents Description, Explanation, and Interpretation Literature Research, Analysis, and Critique Field Trip, Walkthrough Collecting Documents, Artifacts, Photographs, Drawings, etc Measurements Statistical Techniques and Surveys Correlations Comparative Studies Scaling Techniques Semantic Differential Observations Mapping Sorting Interviews Focus Group Interviews 7.3 Research Techniques That Support Decision-Making Processes in Design and Strategic Development Workshops Adjacency Analysis Modeling: Physical, Graphic, Virtual Checklists and Scale Ratings SWOT Analyses Scenarios Heuristic and Prognosis Research Techniques Delphi Techniques Brainstorming Marketing Techniques Summary of Forecasting Techniques 7.4 Pilot and Pretest Notes References 193 196 197 238 239 239 239 246 247 251 254 254 255 257 257 258 259 260 Practical Activities Connected with the Realization of Research 8.1 Design-Related Research 8.2 Tools for Recording Research Results Description Tables Cross Tabulations/Matrices Graphical Charts, Schemes, Diagrams Graphical Models 8.3 Tools for Checking the Quality of a Built Environment 264 264 266 267 267 268 268 272 272 199 200 200 210 212 217 219 221 227 228 230 236 viii ᮀ Contents 8.4 Techniques for Checking Credibility of the Results 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place attachment 39; privacy 38–39, 41, 48, 161, 218, 236, 275; privacy gradient 39, 48; territoriality 35, 38, 39, 40, 41, 47, 59; wayfinding 45, 57, 58, 227, 239, 275 architectural research: ex ante 15, 19, 20, 24, 25, 106, 114, 116, 121, 161, 190, 192–193, 192, 238–239; ex post 15, 19, 20, 22, 24–25, 24, 105, 106, 116, 117, 121, 190, 192, 192 architecture of persuasion (A&P) 45 arteology 18, 97 Baird, G 116, 159, 161–162, 274 Ban ´ka, A 32–35 Barker, R 17, 31, 33–35, 40, 49, 99 Bartoszek, A 259n5, 259n6, 259n10 Bax, T 11 behavior settings 17, 34 Bendikt, M.L 57 Bielak, M 124, 247, 298–301 Błe˛dowski, P 287 Blyth, A 117 Börjeson, L 252 BPE (Building Performance Evaluation) 23, 173 Brand, S 31, 53–56, 59, 92n6, 122 Broadbent, G 119 Brown, Z 173 building life cycle 56, 59, 121, 264, 265; building 23, 265; designing 23, 121, 265; exploiting 23; planning 23, 121, 265; programming 23, 121, 265; recycling 23; using 121 Cain, S 256 Canter, D 35 Charmaz, K 101, 233 Clipson, C 154–155, 241 Cohen, R 173 Cole, R.J 173 Coleman, A 49, 59, 61n11 Contandriopoulos, C 15, 30 Colquhoun, I 49 Corbusier 5, 8, 61n13, 119 CPTED (crime prevention through environmental design) 49, 59, 283 Czarnecki, B 39, 49, 59 Czyński, M 39, 49, 59 Daniels, K 59, 61n13, 184n2 defensible space 17, 31, 46, 47, 48–49, 99 Denzin, M 127 Derrida, J 16 design: generative 5, 9, 57, 72, 133, 140, 159, 244, 260n14, 282, 284; parametric 5, 9, 72, 133, 140, 159, 244, 260n14, 282, 284 design research 264–266; design study 20, 21, 81; study by design 20, 21, 81 disciplinarity: interdisciplinarity 11–12, 88, 97, 98, 184; multidisciplinarity 12, 61n6; transdisciplinarity 12, 14 Duerk, D 23, 30, 51, 58, 104, 116 Duffy, F 59, 61n13, 66, 178 Dunin-Woyseth, H 13, 13–14, 117 Dyson, F 88 EBD (evidence-based design) 276, 285 Eberhard, J.P 30, 116 EBS (environment behavior studies) 17 Eco, U 76 Edén, M 283, 284 EDRA (Environment Design Research Association) 18 Eisenman, P 1, 16 Elizalde, A 36 environmental psychology 1, 18, 31, 32–33, 42–43, 51, 59, 72, 231, 243, 281; environmental pressure 38; environmental stress 35, 38 environmental sociology 9, 13, 32, 59, 281; escape place 39 facility management 56, 59, 72, 159, 276 Foqué, R 3, 4, 21–22, 22, 30, 59, 116, 184n4 Foster, N 56, 118, 281 Fraley, I.L 171 327 ᮀ Index Fross, K 151, 165, 191, 198, 200, 224, 227, 228, 266, 270, 273 functionalism 19, 76 Gadamer, H.G 77–78 Gasidło, K 242, 260n17 Gaudi, A 156 Gehl, J 25, 30 “genius loci” 31, 53, 58 Giedion, S 147 Gips, J 57 Glaser, B 100 Goldsmith, S 282 Gray, J 116, 159, 161–162 Green, M 171 Groat, L 26, 30, 31, 49, 59, 87, 105, 116, 140, 144, 162, 164, 211, 212, 245, 260n12 Gruszczyński, L 258 Habraken, N.J 77 Hall, E.T 39, 40, 61n10 Hanson, J 56, 77 Haviland, D 54, 59 Hays, K.M 16, 30 Hertzberger, H 77 Hillier, B 56, 77 Hopenhayn, M 36 Huberman, M.B 163, 164 IADL (Instrumental Activities of Daily Living Scale) 124 IAPS (International Association for PeopleEnvironment Studies) 18, 285 ideas in architecture: Built for All 60; Design for Safe 59, 60, 283; Design out Crime 59, 60, 283; sustainable development 9, 12, 32, 60, 78, 82–83, 88, 117–118, 182, 251, 275, 281, 282, 283, 284; universal design 23, 32, 38, 58, 60, 117, 211, 282 Isaacs, N 275 ISOVIST 56, 57 Izenour, S 45 Jacobs, J 61n12 Jamrozik-Szatanek, M 271 Jeffrey, C.R 61n12 Jencks, C 16 Johnson, P.A 17–18, 30, 31–32, 61n8, 92n4, 99, 117 Jones, J 116 Jong, T.M de 14, 20, 30, 96, 115, 116 Joroff, M 116 Jung, C.G 89 Kamin´ski, Z 243 Karlen, M 116 Kelly, K 23, 30 Kernohan, D 117 Keul, A 184n1 Kim, J 211–212 knowledge: explicit 2, 70; tacit 2, 60n3, 71, 106 Komar, B 216 Konecki, K 126, 233 Koolhaas, R 16, 97 Krier, L 16 Kroll, L 77 Kruft, H.W 15, 30 Krzemionka, D 89 Kucharczyk-Brus, B 302, 303–309 Kuhn, T 2, 60n1, 96 Kurzydło, J 210, 226, 232, 233, 269, 276 Lang, J 3, 17, 18, 20, 30, 32, 40–43, 59, 69, 92n5, 100, 113, 117 Lawson, B 39 Lawton, M.P 38, 40, 124 Leach, N 75 Lechte, J 75 Lee, T 35 level of science 3, 67, 68–69, 68, 69, 70–71, 72, 113 Levin, K 40 Lincoln, Y 127 Lynch, K 31, 40, 43–45, 46, 58, 99, 227, 229 Mahgoub, Y 26–27, 28–29, 30, 105, 116 Mallgrave, H.F 15, 30 Mallory-Hill, S 173 Marans, R.W 26, 27, 30, 116, 154 Maslow, A 35–36, 38, 40 Masły, D 161, 164, 166, 209, 247, 270, 272, 273, 292–295 Max-Neef, M 36, 37 Miles, A.M 163, 164 Mitchell, W 57 Mo, L 75 Moore, G 100 morphotectonics/architectonics see architectonics/morphotectonics Morse, S 116 Nahemow, L 38, 40, 124 Nasar, J.L 173 Nesbitt, K 16, 30, 53 neurophysiology Newman, O 17, 31, 39, 46–51, 59, 61n12, 99, 212 Newman theory 17, 31, 39, 46–49, 59, 61n12, 99, 212; imageability (image) 43, 47, 59; milieu 47, 59; natural surveillance 47, 59; territoriality 47, 59 Niezabitowski, A 9, 10, 60, 95, 95–96, 259n5 Nilsson, F 13, 14, 117 Nonaka, I 2–3 Norberg-Schulz, C 19, 31, 39, 52–53, 58 normative theory 18, 32, 40–42, 41, 42, 59, 69; doctrines 41; manifestos 41, 41 Nosal, C 89 Oosterhuis, K 244, 246, 260n13 Oxley, D 40 Palladio 97 Pallado, J 213, 214 Parshall, S.A 23, 30 Passini, R 45, 46, 58 328 ᮀ Index PE fit model theory (person-environment fit) 38, 40 Peña, W.M 23, 30, 58, 116 Pevsner, N 148 philosophy trends: behaviorism 75; constructivism 75; modernity 75; naturalism 87–88; phenomenology 16, 53, 58, 75, 77–78; positivism 75–76, 87; postmodernity 75; post-positivism 75–76, 77, 87; poststructuralism 16, 75, 77; psychoanalysis 16; structuralism 75, 76–77 POE (Post-Occupancy Evaluation) 23, 43, 92n1, 105, 116, 127, 160, 161, 167, 168–173, 183, 212, 233, 238, 265, 285 Popper, K 76 Preiser, W 23, 30, 51, 58, 159, 169, 173 processes of mental cognition 84–87; abstraction 28, 79, 85, 86, 89, 140, 142; analogy 84, 86–87, 141–142; analysis 84, 85, 141–142; comparison 84, 85, 86, 140; concluding 85; contrast 84, 86; deduction 84, 85, 141, 142; evaluation 84, 85; generalization 85, 86, 140; induction 84, 85–86, 141; reduction 141; synthesis 84, 85, 141–142 process of research: deductive 28, 74; inductive 28, 74 Próchnicka, M 89, 90 psychology architectural see architectural psychology quality of built environment, tools for checking 272–276 Quatremère de Quincy, A.C 97 Rabinowitz, H 23, 30 research: basic 72, 103, 114, 119; applied, problem-oriented 114, 120; problem-solving 114, 119, 120 research methods: action research 139, 180– 181; case studies 21, 139, 140, 173–179; combined techniques 139, 140; comparative 21, 140, 212–217; correlational 139–140, 148, 210–212; empirical 20, 162, 179; experimental 139–140, 139, 148–150; heuristic 139, 181–183, 254–257; historical 139, 139, 140, 142–148; interpretative 139, 139, 142–148; interventional 180–181; logical analysis 105, 142; logical argumentation 139, 140–142; mixed methods 140, 183–184; modeling 154–159; observatory 105, 126; POE (Post-Occupancy Evaluation) (see POE); qualitative 139, 139, 140, 159–173; quantitative 139, 139, 150–154; simulation 139, 140, 154–159; statistical 139, 150–154; typological 20, 146 research results: checking credibility 276–277; errors in interpretation 277–278; tools for recording 266–272 research techniques: checklists 246–247; data analysis 21; data collection 21, 125, 199–200; experiments 21, 125, 150, 159, 174, 178; interviews 21, 125, 174, 178, 230–238; literature overview 21, 125, 196–197; mapping 227–228; marketing techniques 257; modeling 239–246; observation techniques 21, 174, 178, 221–226; parametric research 26; scaling techniques 217–219; scenarios 251–253; semantic differential 219–221; sorting 228–230; surveys 21, 125, 174, 200–210; SWOT analysis 247–251, 257; triangulation 88, 122, 123, 126–127, 131, 138, 221, 276, 277; walkthrough 197–199 Rohe, M van der 61n9 Rosemann, J 96 Routio, P 10, 18–19, 30, 59, 97, 116 Sanoff, H 23, 30, 59, 226, 2754 Scheidt, R.J 180 Scott Brown, D 45 SECI (socialization, externalization, combination, internalization) 2, 60n2; combination 2, 60n2; externalization 2, 60n2, 60n4; internalization 2, 60n2; socialization 60n2, 60n3 Selye, H 40 Semper, G 61n13 Sitek, M 274 Sirowy, B 53, 58, 75, 76–78 Skidelsky, R 80 Smith, K 30, 58 Sommer, R 38, 40 space: private 48, 49, 125; public 25, 48–49, 49, 56, 125, 225; semi-private 48, 49, 125, 175; semi-public 48, 49, 175 space grammar 56, 57 SSA (space syntax analysis) 56 Steele, F 36, 40 Stern, R 16 Stiny, G 57 Stirling, J 16 Stokols, D 26, 27, 30, 39, 40, 116, 154 Strauss, A 100 Sullivan, L.H 15, 61n9 sustainable development 5, 6, 9, 12, 32, 60, 78, 82–83, 88, 117–118, 182, 251, 275, 281, 282, 283, 284 Takeuchi, H 2–3 theory: defensible space 17, 31, 46, 47, 48–49, 99; environmental stress 35, 38; grounded theory 100–102, 130, 134, 170, 174, 179, 199, 247; normative 18, 32, 40–41, 41, 42, 42, 59, 67, 69, 70, 82, 92n5, 100; positive 3, 18, 19, 20, 32, 40–41, 41, 42, 42, 43, 59, 69, 82, 92n5, 100, 113; procedural 20, 40–41, 41, 42, 59, 100; proxemics 39, 61n10; of signs 17, 31–32, 58; substantial 41, 100; wayfinding 45, 57, 227, 239, 275 Tomanek, M 241 Trum, H 11 Tschumi, B 16 Tymkiewicz, J 271 Urbanowicz, B 101, 102, 156, 157, 229, 230, 242, 243 329 ᮀ Index variables: dependent 100, 110–111, 120, 148, 149, 150, 153, 210–212, 267; independent 100, 110–111, 120, 139–140, 148, 149, 150, 153, 210–212, 267 Venturi, R 17, 31, 45–46, 58, 61n9 Viollet-le-Duc, E 97 Vischer, J 30, 173, 275 Vitruvian triad 5, 11, 88, 119, 283 Vitruvius, M 5, 14, 97 Voordt, D.J.M van der 3, 14, 20–21, 24–25, 24, 30, 59, 82, 96, 115, 116, 275 Walliman, N 26, 27, 30 Wang, D 26, 30, 31, 49, 59, 87, 105, 116, 140, 144, 162, 164, 212, 245, 260n12 Wegen, H van 14, 24–25, 24, 30, 116, 275 Werner, C.M 40 White, E 23, 30 Windley, P.G 180 Witkowski, T 91 Worthington, J 117 Wodarski, P 245 Wright, F.L 146, 156 Yin, R.K 22, 26, 30, 126, 174, 176–177 Zeisel, J 3, 26, 30, 59, 116, 201, 221–223, 231, 232, 237, 259n3 Z˙ mudzin´ska-Nowak, M 240 330 ᮀ ... Action Research Method: Interventional Research 6.9 Heuristic and Forecasting Methods 6.10 Mixed Methods Notes References 138 Research Techniques 7.1 Research Techniques and Research Methods 7.2 Research. .. emphasize training Variables Emerge during research Emerge during research PrePrePreEmerge determined determined determined during and emerge research Emerge during research Science, Theory of Architecture, ... of architecture on both designing and research, focused mainly on methods used in social studies, are of utmost importance in the scope of popularizing methods used in scientific research in architecture