Research Methodology in Second-Language Acquisition SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION RESEARCH: THEORETICAL AND METHODOLOGICAL ISSUES Susan M Gass/Jacquelyn Schacter Series Editors Tarone/Gass/Cohen: Research Methodology in Second-Language Acquisition Research Methodology in Second-Language Acquisition Edited by Elaine E Tarone University of Minnesota Susan M Gass Michigan State University Andrew D Cohen University of Minnesota \}' ~~~~~~~~;?c9XP Press New York London First Published by Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., Publishers 10 Industrial Avenue Mahwah, New Jersey 07430 Transferred to Digital Printing 2009 by Psychology Press 270 Madison Ave, New York NY 10016 27 Church Road, Hove, East Sussex, BN3 2FA Copyright © 1994 by Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc All rights reserved No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, by photostat, microfilm, retrieval system, or any other means, without the prior written permission of the publisher Cover design by Kate Dusza Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Research methodology in second-language acquisition I edited by Elaine E Tarone, Susan M Gass, Andrew D Cohen p em Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 0-8058-1423-X - ISBN 0-8058-1424-8 (pbk.) – ISBN 978-1-1354-4534-8 (ebk) Second language acquisition-Research-Methodology I Tarone, Elaine, 1945 II Gass, Susan M II Cohen, Andrew D P118.2.R47 1994 93-34858 418' 0072-dc20 CIP Publisher's Note The publisher has gone to great lengths to ensure the quality of this reprint but points out that some imperfections in the original may be apparent To Grant, Rachel, David, Prairie, Motchka, Leah, and Tone Elaine E Tarone To Josh, Aaron, Seth, Ethan, Champagne, and Burgundy Susan M Gass To my mom, Rena Cohen, who taught me and still teaches me how to be articulate Andrew D Cohen This page intentionally left blank CONTENTS Preface Introduction Susan M Gass, Andrew D Cohen, and Elaine E Tarone xi xiii I EVALUATING COMPETING FRAMEWORKS The Competence-Performance Issue in Second-Language Acquisition Theory: A Debate Fred R Eckman The Subset Principle in Second-Language Acquisition Gerald P Berent Anecdote or Evidence? Evaluating Support for Hypotheses Concerning the Development of Tense and Aspect Kathleen Bardovi-Harlig 17 41 Constructs and Measurement in Parameter Models of Second-Language Acquisition L Kirk Hagen 61 Toward an Ethnomethodological Respecification of Second-Language Acquisition Studies Numa P Markee 89 vii viii CONTENTS II METHODOLOGIES FOR ELICITING AND ANALYZING LANGUAGE IN CONTEXT Research Methodology in Context-Based SecondLanguage Research Dan Douglas and Larry Selinker l19 The Role of Language Tests in the Construction and Validation of Second-Language Acquisition Theories Elana Shohamy 133 Researching the Production of Second-Language Speech Acts Andrew D Cohen and Elite Olshtain 143 lnterlanguage Variation and the Quantitative Paradigm: Past Tense Marking in Chinese-English Robert Bayley 157 III METHODOLOGIES FOR ELICffiNG AND ANALYZING SENTENCE-LEVEL DATA 10 II 12 13 14 Preferences Versus Grammaticality Judgments: Some Methodological Issues Concerning the Governing Category Parameter in Second-Language Acquisition Usha Lakshmanan and Keiko Teranishi 185 Local and Long-Distance Anaphora in Second-Language Acquisition Fred R Eckman 207 Elicited Imitation and Grammaticality Judgment Tasks: What They Measure and How They Relate to Each Other Edward Munnich, Suzanne Flynn, and Gita Martohardjono 227 Elicited Imitation as a Measure of Second-Language Competence Robert Bley-Vroman and Craig Chaudron 245 Two Heads May Be Better Than One: Mental Activity in Second-Language Grammaticality Judgments Nancy Goss, Zhang Ying-Hua, and James P Lantolf 263 CONTENTS 15 16 17 Investigating the Validity and Reliability of Native Speaker and Second-Language Learner Judgments About Sentences Ron Cowan and Yukiko Abe Hatasa ix 287 The Reliability of Second-Language Grammaticality Judgments Susan M Gass 303 A Summary: Research Approaches in Studying SecondLanguage Acquisition or "If the Shoe Fits " Elaine E Tarone 323 Author Index 337 Subject Index 343 342 AUTHOR INDEX Shi, Z Q., 163, 180 Shirai, Y., 47, 59 Shohamy, E., 61, 91, 124-125, 137, 138, 140, 142, 333 Shuetz, E., 63, 87 Simon, H A., 265, 285 Sinclair, H., 43, 59, 158-159, 164, 179 Slobin, D 1., 164, 180, 246, 260, 288, 302 Solan, L., 63, 87 Sorace, A., 263, 286, 305, 322 Spitze, K., 254-255, 261 St John, M J., 129, 131 Stansfield, C W., 153, 156 Starbuck, R., 158, 179 Stowell, T., 22-23, 38 Sung, L., 186n, 206 Swain, M., 134-135, 141, 142 Swales, J., 122n, 131 Swisher, M V., 21, 38 T Tabachnick, B., 84, 87 Takahara, P 0., 291, 302 Takahashi, T., 148, 155 Tannenhaus, M K., 249n, 260, 261 Tarallo, F., 232n, 243 Tarone, E., 4, 5n, 6, IOn, 12, 13, 15, 122n, 131, 138, 142, 157, 157n, 158, 180, 327, 328, 336 Teranishi, K., 29, 30,31-32,34, 190, 195, 196n, 206, 214, 222, 306, 310, 329, 331 Tharp, R G., 252, 260 Thomas, M., 29, 30, 31, 34, 38, 39, 190, 191, 192-193,206, 207, 211, 212, 213, 220, 221, 222, 225 Thompson, S A., 163-164, 180 Tomlin, R S., 54, 60 Trevise, A., 45, 60 Trudgill, P., 158, 159, 180 Tyler, L K., 288, 302 Tyma, D., 124, 131 Tyson, A., 305, 322 u Ulsh, 1., 153, 156 v van Lier, L., 90, 91, 98, 100, 108n, llln, 113-114, 116 van Riemsdijk, H., 63, 87 Varonis, E M., 108n, 116 Vendler, Z., 54, 60 Verheijen, R., 62n, 87 Yeronique, D., 45, 47, 51, 60 Vygotsky, L S., 265, 266, 286 w Waletzky, J., 54, 59 Watson, R., 106, 116 Watson-Gegeo, K., 91, 97, 98, 116 Weigl, W., 269, 282, 285 Weinbach, L., 147, 156 Weinberg, A S., 95, 114, 248, 250-251, 259,261 Weinreich, U., 12, 15, 201, 206 Weist, R M., 43, 60, 164, 180 Weizman, E., 145, 156 Welsh, C A., 246, 260 Wertsch, J V., 266, 267, 286 Wexler, K., 17, 18-20, 22, 29, 32, 34n, 36, 38, 39, 63, 64, 87, 186, 187, 188-189,206,210,223,225 White, L., 17, 22, 23-24, 24n, 25n, 26, 26n, 27, 29, 39, 306-307, 322 Wilson, T P., 99n, ll6 Witkowska-Stadnick, K., 43, 60, 164, 180 Wode, H., 158, 180 Wolfram, W., 46, 51, 53, 56-57, 60, 158, 159, 162, 170, 173, 177, 180, 181 Wolfson, N., 145, 148, 156 Wysocka, H., 43, 60, 164, 180 y Yip, V., 311, 322 Young, R., 158, 165, 166, 181 Yule, G., 327, 336 z Zhang Ying-Hua, 157n, 230, 288, 301, 304, 320, 325, 332 Zimmerman, D., 98n, 99n, ll6 Zobl, H., 26-27, 28, 29, 39, 127n, 131 Zuengler, J., 158, 178 Zuskin, R., 147, 156 SUBJECT INDEX A AAAL, 125n AAVE (African American Vernacular English), 165 ability, language /competence distinction, 227 language tests and, 134-136 abstraction competence, 9-10, 306, 328 theory of SLA, 3, 4, 9-10 acceptability checks, 148, 149, 154 acceptability judgments, 303 accessibility hierarchies and grammaticality judgments, 157n, 311-313, 319-320, 326 noun phrase, 34-36 relative clause, 157n, 289-291, 311-320 accessible subject, 32-33 accommodation to interlocutor, 158 acquisition, see first language acquisition act-out tasks, 227, 228 Adjacency Parameter, 34n adverbs, 22-26, 63, 66 and Case, 22-23, 25n pronouns, 63 and Subset Principle, 22-26, 26-27 adverbial clauses, 255, 257n adverbial temporality markers, 42, 57 adverbs, adjacency, 22-26, 63, 66 affect and L2 variation, !58 African American Vernacular English, 165 age and L2 variation, !58, 330 and speech act strategies, 145, 146, !50 agreement (AGR), 24-25, 33-34 Opaque/Transparent AGR Parameter, 25 agreement, reasonable, 92, 93 ambiguity and grammaticality judgments, 298 of primary lL data, 121, 129 American Council of the Teaching of Foreign Language, 140 American English, 298 dialects, 167 analysis, 66-67 auxiliary, 269 comparative, 57 contrastive, 120 discourse, 42, 119, 140 ethnomethodological, I 08-112 individual vs group, 191, 207, 212-213, 223, 327 330-331 of language tests, 136 multivariate, 95, 158, 165, 176, 334 repeated-measures, 79, 80, 81-82, 84, 300, 332 variable rule, 158, 164-169, 178, see also VARBRUL of Variance, see ANOVA 343 344 anaphors, see reflexives ANOVA (Analysis of Variance), 234, 294, 295, 300 repeated-measures, 79, 80, 81-82, 84, 300 antonymy, 106 apologies, 143-144, 146, 147, 150, 151, 152 apposition, I 06 appropriateness judgments, 287 approximation, 106 Arabic aspect and tense, 45 reflexives, 191, 215, 216, 218 article, definite, 63 aspect marking by tense morphology, 41-60, 157-181, 334 aspect hypothesis, 42-43, 53, 177, 334 Chinese-English, 57, 162-164, 175-177 defective tense hypothesis, 42-43, 44 discourse hypothesis, 43, 46, 47, 48-49, 51, 53, 334 generalization from aspect to tense, 48-49 methodology, 47-57 and perfectivity, 162-164, 176-177 primacy of aspect hypothesis, 42-43, 44, 46, 158 telicity of verbs, 54-56 transfer, 46, 52-53, 159, 164, 174, 176-177 see also under proficiency attention bifurcated, 265-266 to speech, !58 auxiliary (AUX) analysis, 269 B background, see foreground and background barriers framework, 24-25, 34, 270n basilang speakers, 57 be (English); raising, 25 Berber speakers, 45 bias pragmatic, 32, 233 semantic, of verbs, 193, 196, 197-198, 222 Bilingual Syntax Measure, 138 binding, see Government and Binding Theory and under reflexives Bounding Node Parameter, 34n Brazil, 149-150 British English dialects, 298 BSM (Bilingual Syntax Measure), 138 SUBJECT INDEX c calendric references, 42, 57 Cambodians, 166 Cambridge language test, 139 camouflage, 94 Case, 22-23, 24, 25n, 28 case studies, 69n causal-process approach, 90, 91, 92, 323-324, 327 c-command principle, 67 CCSARP, 145, 146 center-embedded clauses, 8-9 change, language, 12, 158 change-of-state tokens, 107, 109 chemistry, 127-128 child language aspect and tense, 43, 45 see also first language acquisition Chinese aspect and tense, 44, 57, 157-181 -le (clitic particle), 163n phonology, 57, 174 pronouns, 121 reflexives, 30, 191-192, 212, 215, 216, 218, 221, 237 chunking, 124, 237, 248, 250, 258 clarification requests, 93, 94, 327 class, natural phonological, lin class, social, 145, 146 classification strategy, 106 cleft constructions, 64, 65 clitics, 62, 63, 69-70, 74-80, 83, 84 doze tests, 134, 135 coding procedures, 96, 145 cognitive processes, 327-328 and grammaticality judgments, 263-286 and speech acts, 14 see also problem-solving commentaries expert (SSI), 119, 120-121, 121-122, 127, 129 retrospective coparticipant, 120-121, 129 see also reports, verbal; self-report procedures communication strategies, 136, 137, 327-328 comparative analysis, 57 comparison (vocabulary elaboration), 106 competence, 135 I ability distinction, 22 abstraction, 9-10, 306, 328 elicited imitation as measure, 245-261 345 SUBJECT INDEX grammaticality judgments as measure, 229, 306-307 level and operation of UG, 129n models of, 135 /performance issue, 3-15, 73, 157n, 328 competence model, 5-6, 6-11, 13 variationist model, 5-6, 11-12, 157n, 328 complaints, 143, 146, 147, 151, 152 complementizer phrases, 34-35 compliments, 143 comprehension checks, inconversational repair, 93, 94 in elicited imitation, 247 and grammaticality judgments, 297, 301, 304n in on-line tasks, 301 reading, 139-140 in spoken definitions, 110-112 concurrent validity, 137, 288 Configurationality Parameter, 26-29 confirmation checks, 93, 327 conservatism, 35n consistency, internal, 137 consonant cluster reduction, 162 contact, language, 158, 221, 222, 223 context -based research, 119-131, 323, 324, 334-335 data types, 120-121, 129 ethnomethodological view, 98, 125, 327 and fossilization, 119, 129 methodology, 121-124, 128-129 of task, 125, 138, 310 transfer between, 119, 123-124, 128, 129 see also Language for Specific Purposes; rhetorical/ grammatical strategies continuity, 35n contrastive analysis, 120 control groups, native speaker, 300 control levels in elicited imitation, 249-251, 251-252, 258 control theory, 33-34 convergent evidence, 99 conversation dynamic nature of, 122 see also Conversation Analysis; definitions, spoken; repair, conversational Conversation Analysis, 89, 93n, 98 99, 112, 327 copula omission, 165 coreference, 30 correction in elicited imitation, 239 in grammaticality judgments, 274-275, 310 correlation coefficients, 72 creoles; aspect and tense, 43, 45, 46 criterion measures of validity, 288, 292 Cross-Cultural Speech Act Research Project, 145, 146 culture, learner's and language tests, 139 and speech acts, 145-146, 146-147, 151-152, 154, 197-198 D data, primary and secondary, 120-121, 129 dative alternation, 308 movement, 298 deafness, prelingual anaphor and pronominal acquisition, 20-22 Subset Principle, 32, 35-36 and markedness hierarchies, 21 declaratives in requests, 145 defective tense hypothesis, 42-43, 44 definition requests, 93 definitions, spoken, 106, 107-108, 110-112 descriptive studies, 69n, 90, 91, 89-116, 323-324, 325, 327, 334-335 development, language, 253 cumulative, 35n and IL variation, 158, 159, 177, 178 natural, in SLA, 139 see also proficiency dialects acquisition, 158 phonology, 167 separability, 298 dictation tests, 134 Differential Item Functioning (DIF), 139 digits, serial lists of, 237, 253 discourse analysis, 42, 119, 140 discourse chunking, 124, 237, 248, 250, 258 discourse competence, 135 discourse completion, 148, 149, 154 discourse conditions, Ll, 298 discourse domains, 51, 119-131 discourse domains hypothesis, 125, 128 intra-IL transfer between, 119, 121, 123-124, 128, 129 see also contexts; Language for Specific Purposes 346 SUBJECT INDEX discourse hypothesis of tense marking, 43, 46, 47, 48-49, 51, 53, 58, 334 discourse structure; given-new contract, 291 distractor items, 300 domains hypothetical nature, 7-8 natural, 11 of SLA theory, see competence (/performance issue) see also discourse domains dominance, immediate, 65 Do-support (English), 31 E ECP, see Empty Category Principle ECP, see Exhaustive Constant Partial Ordering property Educational Testing Service, 125n either or, 31 electricity, 7-8 elicitation procedures, 53, 140 vs spontaneous production, 51, 54, 160, 138, 230, 306 elicited imitation, 227-243, 245-261 adverbial clauses, 257n anaphora, 258 applicability to SLA, 287 chunking, 237, 248, 250, 258 competence measure, 245-261 complexity factors, 256, 258 control levels, 249-251, 251-252, 258 correction, 239 description and use to date, 230 floor and ceiling effects, 246, 252, 255, 258, 325-326 and grammatical knowledge, 236-237, 333 grammaticality judgment tasks compared, 227-243, 258, 333 and language development, 253 language-processing system, 247-248 length of stimulus, 250, 251, 256, 258, 333 memory capacity and, 95-96, 237, 247, 248, 251, 252, 253, 256, 258 methodology, 228, 231-232, 233, 235, 258-259 oral/taped stimulus, 233n, 235, 259 sensitivity band, 237-238, 246, 252, 253, 255, 325-326 native speaker processes, 248 nature of, 230, 246-247 nonlinguistic factors, 228, 237 parroting, alleged, 237, 250 and preferences, 235, 236, 238, 239, 257 and proficiency, 237, 247, 248, 251, 252 pronouns, 258 reconstruction, 246 results of studies, 233-236, 252-258 serial order effects, 237, 253-255, 256-257' 258, 333 size of sample, 257n, 258-259 subject's perception of nature of task, 251-252 and UG, 236-237, 325-326 embedded clauses center-embedded, 8-9 direction of embedding, 228-229 reflexive binding in, 30, 190, 211, 277-278, 279-280 empiricism, 74, 144n and competence-performance issue in SLA theory, 3, 4, 9, 12, 13, 14 Empty Category Principle, 269-270, 273, 275-276, 282, 310-311 English language adjacency condition, 22-26 American/British divergence, 298 aspect and tense, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 164 Case marked by word order, 28 configurationality, 26 Governing Category Parameter, 187, 188, 209-210 Proper Antecedent Parameter, 210 past tense marking, 157-181 r-binding, 68-74 reflexives, 69, 74-80, 187, 188, 212, 215, 216, 220, 221 Relative Clause Parameter, 35 verb-raising, 25 errors correction in grammaticality judgments, 271' 27 4-275 /mistakes distinction, 305, 307-308 ethnographic data, liOn, 119, 136, 137, 324, 334 ethnomethodology, 89-116, 334 analysis, 108-112 contextualization cues, 12 347 SUBJECT INDEX definition, 92 discounts ethnographic data, 110n, 324 spoken definitions, 106, 107-108, 110-112 study, 99-112 evidence, convergent, 99 exemplification, 106 Exhaustive Constant Partial Ordering property, 65-66 experimental approach, see nomothetic approach explanation in speech acts, 144 interpretive vs predictive, 97, 98 expletives, 269, 272-273, 274 external-/internal-focus continuum, 327-328 F factor-analytic studies, 72 factor value and weight, 166n Faraday, Michael, 7-8 "feel" in grammaticality judgments, 271-272, 277, 278, 279, 280, 282, 301, 332 films, retelling of silent, 54 first language acquisition Binding Theory studies, 30-31, 64 morpheme acquisition, 4ln, 48, 138 relative clauses, 34-36 and saliency and aspect, 158 Subset Principle, 18-22, 189 UG and, 208 first language influence, see transfer fixed effect fallacy, 258 focus, external-/internal-, 327-328 folk psychology, 265 Foot Feature Principle, 65n, 67 foreground and background aspect and tense marking, 43, 46, 47, 48-49, 53, 54-56 task choice to elicit background information, 51, 54 formal/informal language learning, 139 formality of utterance, 146 form-function model of SLA, 167 formulaic patterns, 119 formulas, semantic, 144 fossilization, 119, 129 free production, see spontaneous production French adjacency condition, 23-24 adverbs, 22-26, 66 aspect and tense, 43, 44, 45, 164 definite article, 63 pro/enclitic parameter, 69-70 r-binding, 68-74 telic verbs, 55n vous/tu distinction, 146 frozen expressions, 299n functional semantics, 42 G ga (Japanese), 291, 292-296 garden path sentences, 296 GCP, see Governing Category Parameter generalization aspect/tense marking, 48-49 methodologies allowing, 62, 136 word order, 65 Generalized Phrase-Structure Grammar, 61, 64-65, 67, 83, 329 genres, intra-lL transfer between, 119, 124 German, 42, 45 given-new contract, 291 Governing Category Parameter, 18-22, 29-34, 208, 209 and Binding Principle A, 186-187 defined, 209-210 methodology to investigate, 185-206 /Proper Antecedent Parameter correlation, 210-211 previous studies, 190-194, 211-213 and pronouns, 18-22, 33-34 and reflexives, 29-34, 185-206, 207, 221-222 and Subset Principle, 29-34, 188-190, 194, 201-203 and transfer, 196-197, 199 violations, 218-223 government, structural, by verbs, 26, 27 Government and Binding Theory, 19, 29-30, 63-64, 65-66, 208-213 accessible subject and, 33 adjunct VPs, 68, 70, 75-80, 80-83, 84 and adverb placement, 23, 22-26, 63 alternatives to, 61, 64-66, 83, 329 Binding Principle A and anaphors, 19, 64, 33-34, 64, 67, 186, 208-209 and Governing Category Parameter, 18-22, 186-187 and pronominals, 19, 64, 67, 208 348 Government and Binding Theory (cont.) c-command principle, 67 methodology to investigate, 30-31, 251 operator-variable binding, 34-35 and parameter models, 61, 63-64, 65-66 violations by !Ls, 329 see also r-binding and under reflexives GPSG, see Generalized Phrase-Structure Grammar grammar, prescriptive, 229, 231, 239, 271-272, 282, 283, 333 grammaticality judgments, 227-243, 267-286, 332-333 /acceptability judgment distinction, 303 ceiling effect, 293 as competence measure, 229, 306-307 complexity, perceived and actual, 288, 289, 296, 297 comprehension measure, need for, 297, 304n consistency in responses, 316-317 correction in, 274-275, 310 data gathering and use, 310 description and use to date, 229-230 and elicited imitation, 227-243, 258, 333 Empty Category Principle, 275-276, 310-311 expletives, 272-273 explicit and implicit knowledge and, 62, 73-74, 264, 309n, 326, 332, 333 memory and, 283, 309n mental activity, 267-281 Not Sure responses, 310-311 Null Subject Parameter, 272-273 on-line validity measure, 288, 292, 296, 297, 326, 332 performance affects, 307 pilot testing, 298 previous studies, 308-309 and proficiency, 274, 276-281, 282-283 read/taped tasks, 228, 231, 234-235, 236, 238, 239-240 reading time, 293, 296, 297 relative clause study, 311-320 reliability, 264, 287-302, 303-322 response time, 271 on Subjacency Principle, 273, 310-311 syntactic constraints, 311-320 validity, 157n, 263-286, 287-302, 304 variability, 157n, 298, 316-317, 333 verbal reports combined with, 263-286, 325 SUBJECT INDEX wh-movement, long, 270, 273, 274 word order, 269, 272-273, 274, 276-277, 288 see also accessibility hierarchy; "feel"; indeterminacy; metalinguistic knowledge; problem-solving; translation group effect in studies, 79 group-treatment interaction, 79-80 see also problem-solving and under analysis H Harris-Kaiser rotation, 77 have; raising, 25 Head-Driven Phrase-Structure Grammar, 61, 65, 67, 329 head-initial/head-final parameter, 63, 66 Heavy NP Shift, 298-299 Hebrew, 164 hermeneutic tradition, 90, 112, 148, 323-324, 327, 334-335 hesitation markers, 109 bighly valued texts, 123, 129 HPSG, see Head-Driven Phrase-Structure Grammar Icelandic, 209, 223 identifications, interlingual, 20 I illocutionary competence, 135 imperatives, 145 imitation, see elicited imitation implicit reference, 57 indeterminacy of !Ls and accessibility hierarchy, 319-320 and grammaticality judgments, 305-306, 317-319, 332 individuals, study of, 69n, 327 see also under analysis input apperceived, 203n negotiated comprehensible, 93, 97,326-327 instruction, language formal/informal, 139 and grammaticality judgments, 280-281, 282, 283 negative evidence available in, 201 and variation, 330 intention, interlanguage, 121 349 SUBJECT INDEX interlanguages as natural languages, 223, 329, 330 variation as characteristic 4, 12, 13 in terlingua! identifications, 201 interruption, avoidance of, 288-289, 291 introductions, self-, 197-198 introspective techniques, liOn, 137, 264-266, 267, 297n intuition, see "feel" Israeli culture, 145-146 Italian adjacency condition, 23 aspect and tense, 45 Governing Category Parameter, 209, 223 pro-drop parameter, 308-309 speech acts, 150 Item Response Theories, 136 J Japanese adverbial clauses, 255 aspect and tense, 44, 46 Case-marking, 28 configurationality, 26-29 Governing Category Parameter, 187, 188, 204-206, 209-210 grammaticality judgment/elicited imitation comparison, 231-236, 255 NP-movement, 27-28 Proper Antecedent Parameter, 210 post-positions, subject, 291, 292-296 pronoun anaphors, 255 reflexives, 30, 187, 188, 189, 191, 192-193, 194-203, 204-206, 212, 21~ 216, 218, 219, 221, 255 relatives, 289-291 sociocultural factors, 150, 197-198 word order, 27-28 judgment tests, 140, 303 see also grammaticality judgments explicit/implicit and grammaticality judgments, 62, 73-74, 264, 271-272, 309n, 326, 332, 333 methodology aims to distinguish, 229, 231, 239, 264, 271-272, 282, 283, 326, 330-331, 333 response times indicate explicit, 73-74, 75, 78, 84, 332 and systematic IL variation, 334-335 and UG violations, 330-331 grammatical, 309n vs preference, 186, 191, 192, 194, 197 see also metalinguistic knowledge Korean, 30, 31 reflexives, 190, 209, 211 L language acquisition, see first language acquisition language change, 12, 158 language development, see development language facility, 208 language-processing, see processing language for specific purposes (LSP), 119-131 fossilization, 119, 129 intra-IL transfer across domains, 119, 123-124, 128, 129 language tests for, 119, 126-128 see also Subject-Specialist informant procedures language tests, see under tests latency times, 288 latent trait procedures, 136, 139 Latin Square Designs, 84 -le (Chinese clitic particle), 163n learnability parametric theory of, 36 Subset Principle and, 188-189 learning background, see instruction lengthenings in conversational repair, 109 Lexical Parameterization Hypothesis, 187 lists, see recall, serial log likelihood statistic, 166, 167 LSP, see Language for Specific Purposes K knowledge acquired/learned distinction, 62 determinate, 305-306 M Macvarb computer program, 158, 164 magnetism, 7-8 350 Maori, 256 markedness and IL violations of UG, 220-221, 222, 223 prelingually deaf and, 21 and Subset Principle, 20, 21 mathematics, 126-127, 270n maximum likelihood estimation, 95, 165 memory, see under elicited imitation; grammaticality judgments mental activity in grammaticality judgments, 267-281 see also problem-solving metalinguistic knowledge, 245 and grammaticality judgments, 276, 278, 280, 282, 283, 309n metaphorical language, 93, 95-96 method facets in elicitation procedures, 130 in language tests, 125, 126, 138 methodology, 325-326, 328 mind, sociocultural theory of, 266-267, 268-269 mistakes/ errors distinction, 305, 307-308 modality of data collection, 51-52, 58, 139-140 of task oral, 54, 233n, 235, 259, 294 read/taped, 228, 231, 234-235, 236, 238, 239-240 visual, see picture tasks Monitor Hypothesis, 74, 78 monitoring, phonetic plan, 247 mood, 280-281 morpheme acquisition, 41n, 48, 138 morphology Case marking, 28 pronouns, 62, 69 reflexives, 62, 69, 71, 74, 80, 83 tense, see under aspect; past tense; tense thematic-morphological alignment, 29 variable rule model for SLA, 176 variation, 158 motivation, 330 multilingualism, 76n multimethod approach, 240, 323-329, 334 comparative analysis, 57 speech act studies, 55, 14 multiple-choice tasks, 185, 192, 194 multitrait multimethod validation, 138 multivariate analysis, 95, 158, 165, 17 6, 334 SUBJECT INDEX N narratives, elicited vs personal, 51, 54, 160 native language, see first language; transfer natural languages, ILs as, 223, 329, 330 naturalistic approach, see ethnomethodology; hermaneutic tradition; qualitative approach naturally occurring data, see spontaneous production negation, 24, 221 negative evidence, 18, 188, 201 neurolinguistics, 66 New York dialect, 167 nomothetic approach, 89, 90, 91, 90-98, 323-324, 327, 334 Norwegian, 69n noun phrases (NPs) accessibility hierarchy, 34-36 adjacency condition and Case assignment, 22-23 movement, 27-28, 270n Null Subject Parameter, 34n, 269, 272-273, 277, 278-279, 280-281 a-command (oblique command) principle, 67 objectification of language, 303 objectivity of technical definitions, 92-96 observational data in speech act research, 148, 149, 154 on-line tasks validity check on off-line tasks, 288, 292, 296, 297, 326, 332 very fast sentence matching, 300-301 Opaque/Transparent AGR Parameter, 25 operator-variable binding principle, 34-35 optimal research strategy, 123, 129 oral stimuli, see under modality organizational competence, 135 p PAP, see Proper Antecedent Parameter paradigm case, 99n paragraphing, rhetorical, 124 parallel form reliability, 137 parallelism in verbal elaboration, 106 SUBJECT INDEX parameter models of SLA, 61-87 defined, 62-63 and Government and Binding Theory, 61, 63-64, 65-66 implicit/ explicit knowledge, 332 measurement procedures, 61-62, 74-80 Subset Principle and, 18, 22-34 parametric theory of learnability, 36 paraphrase, 106 "parroting", 237, 250 parsing, 95-96, 248, 258 particle movement, 299n past tense proficiency and marking, 17 4-1 75 for scene-setting, 48 simple/progressive morpheme acquisition order, 41n see also aspect; phonology (tense marking) pattern-matching strategy, 26n Pearson Product-Moment Correlation, 313 perception of task, 251-252, 258 of utterances, 324 perfectivity /imperfectivity, 162-164, 176-177 performance and grammaticality judgments, 307 see also competence (/performance); variation performatives, 144 phi-coefficients, 72 Philadelphia dialect, 167 phonetic plan monitoring, 24 phonology consonant cluster reduction, 162 dialects, 167 natural class, II n tense marking constrained by, 46, Sl-52, 53, 56-57, 159, 161-162, 166, 167, 173-175, 177-178, 334 and saliency, 57, 158, 162, 170-173 phrasal verb constructions, 299n phrase type hierarchy, 35n picture tasks, 32n, 54, 106, 185, 190-191, 211, 213-214, 297 pilot testing, 293n, 298, 300, 333 planning definitions, Ill speech acts, 152 time taken, 158 351 PLATO computer, 292 politeness, 145 Portuguese, 45, 149-150 post-positions, Japanese subject, 291, 292-296 pragmatics, 324 bias, 32, 233 competence, 135 reliability measures for work on, 137 precedence, linear, 65 precision of lL, 120, 128 preference rules in CA, 99 preference judgments, 186, 192, 194, 197, 263n, 310 and elicited imitation tasks, 235, 236, 238, 239, 257 vs grammatical knowledge, 194-203 primacy of aspect hypothesis, 42-43, 44, 46, 158 primary languages, 223, 329, 330 Principles and Parameters Theory, 17 pro/enclitic parameter, 62, 63, 69-70, 74-80, 83, 84 probabilities, 166n problem-solving, collaborative, 263-286 congruence with individual results, 275, 332 methodology, 270-271 sociocultural theory of mind and, 266-267, 268 processing, language, 95, 96 in elicited imitation, 247-248 /non-linguistic processing contrast, 237 NS/NNS comparison, 248, 249 multiple levels of representation, 249 sentence, 248, 288, 298-299 strategy hierarchy, 291 pro-drop parameter, 129, 269, 308-309 production data, 304 in elicited imitation, 230, 247, 258 preventing nonlinguistic strategies, 228 see also spontaneous production proficiency and L2 variation, 168, 227 elicited imitation, 237, 247, 248, 251, 252 Governing Category Parameter and reflexives, 191, 199 grammaticality judgments, 274, 276-281, 282-283 study methodology, 48-49, 50-51, 57, 58 tense/aspect marking, 48-49, SO, 57, 58, 159, 161, 171-173, 174-175 /saliency interaction, 171-173 word order, 274 352 Profligate/Conservative continuum, 327-328 progressive, acquisition of, 41 n, I I pronouns and pronominals adjacency parameter, 63 Binding Theory, I9, 64, 67, 208 Chinese; gender, I2I elicited imitation studies, 258 GCP and, IS-22, 33-34 head-initial/head-final parameter, 63 pro/enclitic parameter, 62, 63 Spanish, I29 Specified Subject Constraint, 67 Subset Principle and, I 8-22 transfer, 84 see also pro-drop parameter; reflexives pronunciation, see phonology Proper Antecedent Parameter, 34n, 207, 208, 2I0-2II, 2II-2I2, 222-223 defined, 2IO /GCP correlation, 2I0-2I I pseudo cleft constructions, 64, 65 psychology bifurcated attention, 265-266 folk, 265 and parameter models, 66 reality, psychological and psychometric, I36, I39 sociocultural theory of mind, 266-267, 268 and Subset Principle, 20-22 validity of tests to participants, 94 see also problem-solving, collaborative purchase, making of, I45 Q qualitative approach, 90, 9I, 324 complementary to quantitative, 91, 32 see also hermeneutic approach quantifiers, 24 quantitative approach, 90, 334 as complementary to qualitative, 91, 325 methodology, 56-57, 58, I59-I60, 324 and variation, I57-I8I see also nomothetic approach questions in conversational repair, I09 in requests, I 45 in spoken definitions, I07 rhetorical, I07-I08 wh-, 3I, 32, I07 word order, 24, 269 SUBJECT INDEX R r-binding, 35, 62, 67, 68-74 study methodology, 74-80 study results, 83, 84 reaction time, 258, 333 reading comprehension, 139-I40 real-time factors, I22, I29 rearrangement of linguistic units, 288-289, 29I recall, serial, see serial recall tasks reconstruction, 246, 250 reflexives binding, 6I-87, 207-225, 258 Principle A, I9, 33-34, 64, 67, I86, 208-209 in embedded clauses, 30, I90, 2II, 277-278, 279-280 r-binding, 62, 70, 72, 74-80, 83 recent studies, I I -2 I c-command properties, 64 cross-linguistic properties, 203n in dislocated constituents, 64, 65 and Governing Category Parameter, 29-34, I85-206, 207, 22I-222 local and long-distance anaphora, 207-225 methodology, 74-80, I92, I94-I96, 2Il, 2I3-214 morphology, 62, 69, 7I, 74, 80, 83 proficiency level and, I I, I 99 Proper Antecedent Parameter, 207, 222-223 Specified Subject Constraint, 67 Subset Principle, IS-22, 29-34 transfer, I96-I97, I99, 22I and UG, 83, 213, 2I4-2I7, 2I8-223 see also under Arabic; Chinese; English; Japanese; Korean; Spanish refusals, I46, I47, I50 register, I46 Relative Clause Parameter, 35-36 relative clauses accessibility hierarchy, I57n, 289-291, 3II-320 elicited imitation, 232-240 grammaticality judgments, 232-240, 3I3-3I9 Ll acquisition, 34-36 markedness, 22 I OS type, 289-29I, 293, 294, 295 SUBJECT INDEX r-binding, 35 restricted, 232n and Subset Principle, 18, 36 reliability measures, 137, 333 and grammaticality judgments, 264, 287-302, 303-322 language tests as, 13 7-138 test-retest procedure, 137, 264, 308 reordering of syntactic units, 109 repair, conversational, 93-94, 96, 99, 106, 108-112 repair offers in speech acts, 144, 145 repeated-measures analysis, 79, 80, 81-82, 84, 300, 332 reports, verbal grammaticality judgments combined with, 263-286, 325 immediate vs delayed, 151, 154, 155 role play combined with, 150-151 in speech acts study, 149-151, 151-154, 155, 324 see also self-report procedure representation in elicited imitation, 247, 249 requests, 143, 144-145, 146, 147, 151 response times, 74, 75, 78, 81, 84, 271, 332 restructuring, 167-169 rhetorical structures domain-particular, 121 IL-particular, 123 paragraphing, 124 rhetorical/grammatical strategies, 119, 121, 123-124, 127, 130 transferability, 121, I 29 role-play interviews, 148-149, I 50-151, 151-154, !55 rote repetition, 237, 250 Russian aspect and tense marking, 46, 53, 159 GCP, 209 pro-drop, 309n s saliency phonetic, and past tense marking, 57, 158, 161-162, 170-173 as possible universal constraint on SLA, 177 /proficiency interaction, 171-173 samples, language size, 57, 58, 257n, 258-259, 300 ]5] task and context affect, I 38 see also modality SAT (Scholastic Aptitude Test), 133 scaffolded talk, I 2n scene-setting, 48 Scholastic Aptitude Test, 133 self-introduction, I 97-198 self-report procedures, 93n, liOn, 140, 324 see also reports, verbal semantics bias of verbs, 193, 196, 197-198, 222 discipline-particular, I 21 formulas, I 44 functional, 42 IL-particular, 123 and temporality, 42 Semi-direct Oral Proficiency Interview, 153 sentence interpretation tests, 195- I 96 sentence matching tasks, 250-251 very fast on-line, 300-301 sentence processing, 248, 288, 298-299 serial order effects on imitation, 237, 253-255, 256-257, 258, 333 serial recall tasks, 237, 252, 253-255, 265 serialization as temporality marker, 42, 57 sets-of-laws theories, 90 significance testing, 166-167 simplification, lexical, 106 simultaneous goal problem, 265-266, 267 SLASH feature, 65 social factors in variation, 135, I 58, 159, 161, 177, 178, 330 and speech act strategies, I 45-146, 146-147, 150, 154 see also culture sociocultural theory of mind, 266-267, 268 SOP! (Semi-direct Oral Proficiency Interview), 153 Spanish adverbial clauses, 255 aspect and tense, 43, 44, 45 definite articles, 63 embedding of clauses, 228-229 pro/enclitic parameter, 69-70, 74-80 pro-drop parameter, 129 pronouns, 129, 255 r-binding, 68-7 reflexives, 30, 191-192, 212, 215, 216, 218, 255 relatives, 237 telic verbs, 55n 354 SPEAK (Test of Spoken English), 126 specific purposes, see language for specific purposes Specified Subject Constraint, 63, 67 speech acts, 143-156 elicitation techniques, 147-149, 152-153, 154-155, 287 multimethod approach, 55, 14 perception, 147, 154 personal reactions, !52 planning, 152 production focus, 147, 154 repair strategies, 144, 145 situational factors, 146-14 sociocultural factors, 145-146, 146-14 7, 150, 151-152, 154, 197-198 speech act sets, 143-145, 154 theory, 106 verbal reports, 149-151, 151-154, !55, 324 see also apologies; complaints; compliments; requests; role-play interviews speech community, 167n, 176 spontaneous production, 98, 136, 148 to cross-validate elicited imitation, 333 vs elicited tasks, 51, 54, 138, 160, 230, 306 SSI, see Subject-Specialist Informant procedures status, interlocutors' social, 145, 146-147, 150, 152 step-up step-down procedure, 166 strategies cognitive, 263-286 communication, 136, 137, 327-328 pattern-matching, 26n non-linguistic in conversational repair, 109 tasks permitting, 186, 191, 228, 230, 237 processing, hierarchy of, 291 stress, emphatic, I 09 Subjacency Principle, 270, 273, 282, 299, 310-311 subjectivity and objectivity in studies, 92-96, 301 subjects (grammatical) accessible, 32-33 relativization, 234-236, 238, 239, 256-257, 289-291 selection, 52, 57, 58 subjects (study participants) language background, 52-53, 139 SUBJECT INDEX protection of, 137 selection, 52-53, 57, 58 size of groups, 57, 97 Subject-Specialist Informant (SSI) procedures, 119, 120-121, 121-122, 127, 129 Subset Condition, 19, 20, 22, 25 subset hypothesis on adjacency, 23-24 Subset Principle, 17-39, 185, 189-190, 331 and Adjacency Parameter, 22-26, 26-27 and Configurationality Parameter, 26-29 and Governing Category Parameter, 29-34, 188-190, 194, 201-203 and Ll acquisition theory, 18-20 and L2 acquisition, 22-36, 194-203 psychological aspects, 20-22 and relative clauses, 18, 36 task design problems, 17, 18, 27-29, 30-32 synonymy, 106 syntactic branching, 258 syntactic-thematic alignment, 26, 29 syntactic theory and parameter models of SLA, 61, 62-74 syntax-in-conversation, 112n T -t, d deletion in past tense, 167, 173-175, 177-178 Tamil, 223 targetlike IL, 120n, 128 task effect of, 53-56, 138 subjects' perception of, 251-252, 258 telicity of verbs, 54-56 tense acquisition of morphology 41 n, 48 see also aspect; phonology (tense marking); past tense Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL), 133, 139, 140, 195 Test of Spoken English (SPEAK), 126 test-retest procedure, 137, 264, 308 tests, language, 133-142 additional procedures needed, 135-136, 140, 333 analysis techniques, 136 contextual variables, 125, 138 contribution of SLA to, 139-140 contribution to SLA, 134-139 355 SUBJECT INDEX cultural influence, 139 data collection, 134, 136-139 discourse analysis, 140 ethics, 137 external context, 133-134 generalization of results, 136 judgment tests, 140 L1 effects, 139, 140 language learning background and, 139 for Language for Specific Purposes, 119, 126-128 method facets, 125, 126, 138 as reliability measure, 137-138 and SLA theory construction and validation, 124-125, 134-139, 140, 333 textual competence, 135 that-trace effects, 69 thematic role (B-role) assignment, 24-25 thematic-morphological alignment, 29, 51 thematic-syntactic alignment, 26, 29 theory, linguistic applicability to SLA, 9, 10, 12, 13-14, 17, 66, 263, 287 303 competence as domain, 9, 10 and parameter models, 62-66 Subset Principle, 18-20 on variation, 12 see also Universal Grammar theory, SLA abstraction, 3, 4, 9-10 domain, see competence (/performance) ethnomethodological approach, 8q-116 language tests and construction/validation, 124-125, 134-139, 140, 333 need for variety, 335 nomothetic approach, 89, 90, 91 parameter models of SLA, 61-87 see also empiricism; hermeneutic approach; nomothetic approach; theory, linguistic (applicability to SLA); Universal Grammar; variation a-role assignment, 24-25, 33 think-aloud tasks, liOn, 264-266, 297n see also introspective measures TOEFL, 133, 139, 140, 195 topicalization constructions, 64, 65 transfer, L1 and aspect/tense marking, 46, 52-53, 159, 164, 174, 176-177 discourse conditions and, 298 and Governing Category Parameter, 196-197, 199 methodology to isolate, 52-53, 73, 271-272 and past-tense phonology, 174 and pronominal systems, 84 and reflexives, 196-197, 199, 221 and UG violations by IL, 221, 222, 223, 331 and variation, 158, 330 transfer, intra-IL, between domains, 119, 121, 123-124, 128, 129 transfer hypothesis, and adjacency, 23-24, 30 translation, L2/Ll in grammaticality judgments, 271-272, 276, 278, 279n, 280, 282 vocabulary elaboration strategy, 106 treatment effect in studies, 79 triangulation of data, 110-111 n, 324 turn-taking, 99, 106, 108, 109-112 u UG, see Universal Grammar Uguisu (Hakuta's subject), 202-203 uncertainty, lexical, 93 understanding, see comprehension United States of America American English, 298 dialects, 167 culture, and speech acts, 145 Universal Grammar, 329-333 constrains grammars, not utterances, 62, 212, 213 context and, 119, 128-129, 334-335 and elicited imitation, 236-237, 325-326 and first language acquisition, 208 grammaticality judgments and theory of, 229-230 incompleteness of data base, 223, 330 methodology for UG-based studies, 127n, 128-129, 229-230, 236-237, 323, 325-326, 331-333 parameters, 18, 208 principles, 18, 61, 208, (see also individual names) and reflexives, 83, 213, 214-217, 218-223 356 SUBJECT INDEX Universal Grammar (cont.) in SLA, 207-208, 212-213, 218-223, 227, 323, 325, 329-333 as not available to adult SL learners, 73, 84-85, 330 violations by ILs, 207, 208, 218-223, 306, 329, 330-331; and markedness, 220-221, 222, 223; and transfer, 221, 222, 223, 331 see also barriers; Case; Government and Binding Theory; parameter models v validity checks, 137-138, 333 concurrent, 137, 288 grammaticality judgments, 157n, 263-286, 287-302, 304 VARBRUL computer program, 158, 161, 164-170, 172, 177, 334 variable rule analysis, 158, 164-169, 178 see also VARBRUL variable rule models, 168-169, 176 variation, 67, 330-331 and aspect and tense, 49-51 and binding, 68 and competence/performance issue in SLA theory, 5-6, 11-12, 157n, 328 in grammaticality judgments, 157n, 298, 316-317, 333 implicit/explicit knowledge and systematic, 334-335 interlanguages as characterized by, 4, 12, 13 linguistic environment and, 165 in linguistic theory, 12 methodological implications, 13, 49-51, 58 multivariate models, 176 parametric, 62 and quantitative paradigm, 157-181 reliability measures for work on, 137 rule-governed, 165 see also proficiency; social factors; transfer, L1 Verb-Movement Parameter, 26n verb phrases, binding of adjunct, 68, 70, 75-83, 84 verbs modal, 109, 145 phrasal, 299n progressive, 311 raising, 24-25, 26n, 33 semantic bias, 193, 196, 197-198, 222 structural government by, 26, 27 telicity, 54-56 verifications of meaning, 93 Vietnamese, 46, 56-57, 159, 166 visual stimuli, see picture tasks vocabulary elaboration strategies, 106, 107 vous/tu distinction (French), 146 w wa (Japanese subject postposition), 291, 292-296 Walpiri, 26 wh-operators, 34-35 movement, 31, 270, 273, 274 questions, 31, 32, 107 word order Case marking by, 28 generalizations, 65 grammaticality judgments, 269, 272-273, 274, 276-277, 288 Japanese NP-movement, 27-28 structural government by verbs and, 26 words, recall of lists of, 237, 253 written language, 51-52, 139-140 Wurzburg School of psychology, 265 z zibun (Japanese reflexive), 194-203, 204-206 ... Tarone/Gass/Cohen: Research Methodology in Second-Language Acquisition Research Methodology in Second-Language Acquisition Edited by Elaine E Tarone University of Minnesota Susan M Gass Michigan... within which a pronominal disallows a c-commanding antecedent, in accordance with Chomsky's (1981) binding principles In accordance with Binding Principle A, an anaphor is bound in its governing... Elaine E Tarone xi xiii I EVALUATING COMPETING FRAMEWORKS The Competence-Performance Issue in Second-Language Acquisition Theory: A Debate Fred R Eckman The Subset Principle in Second-Language Acquisition