Practical Research Methods in Education Practical Research Methods in Education is a hands-on guide which critically explores and scrutinizes research methods used in educational enquiry Drawing on the research, practical experience and reflections of active researchers, each chapter offers explanations, examples, tasks for students to undertake and suggestions for further reading, all of which are designed to strengthen understanding of practical methods of data collection in educational and social-science research This insightful book offers: • • • • • Detailed illustration of a range of data-collection methods and approaches used in educational research Chapters written by active researchers, experienced in addressing challenges of carrying out practical research in education Examples, study tasks and suggestions for further reading in each chapter An exploration of critical reflection and decision-making in relation to research methodology in education Close attention to research ethics Exploring practical methods of data-collection for educational and social-science research, Practical Research Methods in Education is a unique and valuable resource for any students interested and engaged in the planning and completion of their own investigations Mike Lambert was Principal Lecturer in Education at the University of Wolverhampton, UK, where he developed a two-year undergraduate course on doing educational research He has supervised the research work of many undergraduate and postgraduate students Practical Research Methods in Education An Early Researcher’s Critical Guide Edited by Mike Lambert Foreword by Jyothsna Latha Belliappa First published 2019 by Routledge Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN and by Routledge 52 Vanderbilt Avenue, New York, NY 10017 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2019 selection and editorial matter, Mike Lambert; individual chapters, the contributors The right of Mike Lambert to be identified as the author of the editorial material, and of the authors for their individual chapters, has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 All rights reserved No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A catalogue record has been requested for this book ISBN: 978-0-8153-9355-9 (hbk) ISBN: 978-0-8153-9356-6 (pbk) ISBN: 978-1-351-18839-5 (ebk) Typeset in Galliard by Newgen Publishing UK Contents List of illustrations Contributors Foreword ix x xiii J Y O TH S N A L AT H A BEL L IA P PA Editor’s introduction xv M I KE L AM BERT Importance of research methodology xv This book xvi The chapters xvi Using questionnaires BREN D AN B A RT RA M Introduction Merits and limitations Ethics Using written questionnaires to investigate university students’ reasons for non-participation in international placements Using online questionnaires to investigate students’ reasons for entering higher education in England, Germany and Portugal Using a word-association questionnaire to compare school students’ attitudes to modern foreign language learning Conclusion 10 Using interviews JO WINWOOD Introduction 12 Interviews 12 My research 15 Interview schedule 16 Conducting interviews 18 12 vi Contents Analysing interview data 20 Ethics 20 Conclusion 21 Observations 23 TU N D E RO ZS A HEGY I Introduction 23 Observation in educational research 23 Participant or non-participant? 25 Structured or non-structured? 26 Validity and ethics 28 Observation in my own research 29 Conclusion 33 Involving children 35 M I KE L AMBERT Introduction 35 My research 35 Involvement 36 To what extent could I understand the data? 37 What about ‘power’? 38 And what about ethics? 39 Conclusion 42 Using video as data 45 M ARTE BL IKS TA D-B A L A S Introduction 45 Benefits 45 Ethics 48 Challenges 49 Conclusion 52 Using quantitative data M I CH AEL JO P L ING Introduction 55 What is quantitative research? What are quantitative data? 56 Three types of quantitative design 57 Analysing quantitative data 60 Descriptive statistics 61 Inferential statistics 62 Conclusion 64 55 Contents vii Document analysis 67 J AN E O ’ CO N NO R Introduction 67 Discourse and document analysis 67 Using document analysis in a research project . . 68 Data collection 70 Analysis and findings 71 Discussion 72 Conclusion 73 ‘Doing text’: Madness in the methods 76 J U LI AN M CDO U GA L L Introduction 76 Ways of seeing research 77 The third (research) space? 77 Creative visual methods 78 We need to talk about Maggie 81 Wiring the audience 82 Digital transformations 83 (Negatively) Benefits Street 83 Hunger by the Sea 83 Comrades and curators 84 Doing text 85 Wrapping up 85 Q-methodology: A science of subjectivity 88 G AVI N RH O ADES A ND ZETA BRO WN Introduction 88 What is Q-methodology? 88 Developing a Q study 89 Elements of Q 90 Factor analysis 93 Additional research methods 93 Use in an undergraduate dissertation 94 The ‘Explore University’ Q evaluation 96 Conclusion 101 10 Mosaic: Participatory research in the early years H E L EN L Y N D O N Introduction 103 Using Mosaic 104 103 viii Contents Stage 1: Children and adults gather evidence 105 Stage 2: Dialogue, reflection, interpretation 108 Stage 3: Deciding areas of continuity and change 109 Strengths and limitations 111 Conclusion 112 11 Ethnography 114 J O KE D EWIL DE Introduction 114 Ethnography 114 Stages 116 My ethnography 118 Connecting to theory 119 Ethical issues 119 Some recommendations 120 Conclusion 121 12 Case study 124 TU N D E RO ZS A HEGY I Introduction 124 What is case study? 124 Implementing case study 127 Conclusion 130 13 Grounded theory 132 M I KE L AMBERT Introduction 132 Grounded theory 132 Examples 134 Choosing grounded theory 134 Issue 1: How to use the literature? 135 Issue 2: Theory or ‘persuasive perspective’? 137 Outcomes 138 Conclusion 139 Closing words Index 142 144 List of illustrations Figures 2.1 Examples of questions and scales 3.1 Observation template used for doctoral research by Rozsahegyi (2014) 9.1 Example of a forced-distribution grid with condition of instruction 17 31 92 Tables 1.1 Students’ reasons for non-participation in international placements (Bartram, 2013) 1.2 Personal development and altruistic motives for university enrolment: Combined percentage scores for top two boxes: ‘Strongly Agree’ and ‘Agree’ (Bartram, 2016a; 2016b) 1.3 English and Dutch students’ attitudes to their German lessons (Bartram, 2012) 9 9.1 Example of an Explore University Q-sort 98 9.2 Factor Q-sort values for each statement in the Explore University analysis 100 140 Mike Lambert Glaser, B.G. and Strauss, A.L (1967) The Discovery of Grounded Theory: Strategies for Qualitative Research London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson Most academic libraries will have a copy of this seminal work and, despite the host of developments since its first publication, it still provides a clear account of grounded theory’s basic principles Academic phrasebank, University of Manchester: www.phrasebank.manchester.ac.uk Choice and use of language are important parts of grounded-theory research, not least when designing labels and definitions for the categories and properties you discover This online resource may help you in that process, as well as in any more general academic study you are pursuing References Asemani, O., Iman, M.T., Moattari, M., Khayyer, M., Sharif, F and Tabei, S.Z (2015) How Iranian medical trainees approach their responsibilities in clinical settings: A grounded theory research Iranian Journal of Medical Sciences, 40(5), 440–447 Basit, T.N (2010) Conducting Research in Educational Settings London: Continuum Charmaz, K (2005) Grounded theory in the 21st century: Applications for advancing social justice studies In: N.K Denzin and Y.S Lincoln (Eds.) The Sage Handbook of Qualitative Research Third edition London: Sage Cohen, L., Manion, L and Morrison, K (2007) Research Methods in Education Sixth edition Abingdon: Routledge Corbin, J and Holt, N.L (2011) Grounded theory In: B Somekh and C Lewin (Eds.) Theory and Methods in Social Research Second edition London: Sage Corbin, J and Strauss, A (2015) Basics of Qualitative Research: Techniques and Procedures for Developing Grounded Theory London: Sage Cullingworth, E (2014) Caring for Adolescent Students: A Grounded Theory Study of Teachers’ Perspectives on their Relationships with Students in Secondary Schools Master’s thesis for Simon Fraser University, British Columbia, Canada Denscombe, M (2017) The Good Research Guide: For Small-Scale Social Research Projects Sixth edition Maidenhead: Open University Press Dey, I (1999) Grounding Grounded Theory: Guidelines for Qualitative Inquiry London: Academic Press Fontana, A and Frey, J (2008) The interview: From neutral stance to political involvement In: N.K Denzin and Y.S Lincoln (Eds.) Collecting and Interpreting Qualitative Materials Third edition London: Sage Glaser, B.G and Strauss, A.L (1967) The Discovery of Grounded Theory: Strategies for Qualitative Research London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson Karpouza, E and Emvalotis, A (2018) Exploring the teacher-student relationship in graduate education: A constructivist grounded theory Teaching in Higher Education, [Online] DOI: 10.1080/13562517.2018.1468319 Lambert, M (2009) Difficulty and Challenge in Curriculum, Teaching and Learning: A Contribution to Pedagogy, Using Insights from In-School and Out-of-School Education of Gifted and Talented Pupils PhD thesis for University of Warwick, UK McGhee, G., Marland, G.R and Atkinson, J (2007) Grounded theory research: Literature reviewing and reflexivity Journal of Advanced Nursing, 60(3), 334–342 Packirisamy, P., Meenakshy, M and Jagannathan, S (2017) Burnout during early career: Lived experiences of the knowledge workers in India Journal of Enterprise Information Management, 30(1), 96–121 Parker, E.C (2018) A grounded theory of adolescent high school women’s choir singers’ process of social identity development Journal of Research in Music Education, 65(4), 439–460 Grounded theory 141 Pring, R (2004) Philosophy of Educational Research Second edition London: Continuum Schwandt, T.A (2003) ‘Back to the rough ground!’ Beyond theory to practice in evaluation Evaluation, 9(3), 353–364 Strauss, A and Corbin, J (1998) Grounded theory methodology In: N.K Denzin and Y.S Lincoln (Eds.) Strategies of Qualitative Inquiry London: Sage Thomas, G and James, D (2006) Reinventing grounded theory: Some questions about theory, ground and discovery British Educational Research Journal, 32(6), 767–795 Thornberg, R (2008) A categorisation of school rules Educational Studies, 34(1), 25–33 Van Sluys, K., Lewison, M and Flint, A.S (2006) Researching critical literacy: A critical study of analysis of classroom discourse Journal of Literacy Research, 38(2), 197–233 Closing words Decisions, decisions If there is one thing which shines through this book’s examination of practical research methods in education, it is that the researcher’s foremost and continuous task is to make intelligent, informed and sometimes innovative choices about the research process they are pursuing Not just about the big issues: ‘What is my topic?’, ‘What are the best methods to use?’ and ‘What kind of ethical issues arise and how can these be addressed?’, but the smaller, more intricate judgements as well: ‘How does my activity as a researcher affect the methodology I am using?’, ‘How might data from one method relate to data from another?’ and ‘How much conviction can I have in what I think I have found out?’ This book has very much shown how researchers can recognize and address these and many other research challenges The responses which the authors describe in its chapters stem from substantial and continuous critical reflection –making decisions, yes; explaining and justifying them, even more so; but perhaps too, never being wholly comfortable with those that have been reached Part of doing research is retaining some doubt and reservation about your investigation, as long as purpose and assertion are evidently (and within ethical boundaries) there as well All this means, of course, that a single book on research methodology is never going to be enough Readers will surely be consulting other material as well, perhaps some of the further reading which has been recommended in these chapters If you would like something more immediate, then search on Facebook for ‘Practical Research Methods in Education’ –you will find the book’s Facebook page Click the ‘Like’ button to get regular news, queries, responses and recommendations about research methodology on your own newsfeed Finally, some words of thanks To Sarah Tuckwell, Lisa Font and others at Routledge, also to Kelly Winter and colleagues at Newgen Publishing UK, all of whom have provided excellent support throughout the process of preparation and publication Also, to the authors of the chapters, who have not only kept admirably to deadlines but also been prepared to share very honestly close scrutiny of their ideas and research practice in this publication Thank you specifically to Jyothsna Latha Belliappa for her assured, prefacing words which empower all the rest, and to all others who have provided critical guidance during the book’s development Importantly too, thank you to the educators, students, children, parents and others who took part in the investigations upon which the book’s authors have so extensively and bountifully drawn The contribution of participants is the most vital element of all in educational Closing words 143 research and they have contributed in indirect but crucial ways to what I trust is a valuable, energizing analysis of practical research methods in education Finally, appreciation must go to you, the early-researcher readers (and the not-so-early ones), for picking up this book, for scrutinizing the ideas in it, and –it is hoped –for using these to inform and guide your own plans, decision-making and educational investigations Good luck with your research! Mike Lambert https://wlv.academia.edu/MikeLambert March 2019 Index Note: Page locators in bold refer to tables and page locators in italic refer to figures Aarsand, P 50 academic phrasebank 140 active listening 16, 22, 109 Akama, Y 79 Albon, D 27, 106, 128 Alderson, P 20, 40 Algozzine, B 131 Aliaga, M 56 Allan, J 63 analysis: in case study 128; in creative methods 83; of discourse 67–68, 74; of documents 71–72; in ethnography 117; of interview data 20; of observation data 26, 27, 31; in Q-methodology 89, 90, 93, 95, 100, 101; of quantitative data 1, 60–64; of questionnaire data 4, 7, 8–9, 10; of video data 46, 51, 52; see also analysis, types of; comparison; interpretation analysis, types of: conversation 67; corpus linguistic 73; correlation 59; critical discourse 119; factor 63–64, 89, 90, 93; regression 64; text mining 73 annotation 7, 8, 108 Annual Status of Education Report (ASER) xiii anonymity 2, 4, 15, 19, 41, 42, 71, 84, 96, 129 ANOVA (analysis of variance) 63 anthropology 114 Araújo, S.B 107 Archard, D 69 Ariès, P 69 Asemani, O 134 assemblages 77, 78, 81, 84 assent 40, 105–106, 111, 112; see also consent Atkinson, J 136 Atkinson, P 114 Aubrey, C 110 audio recording 18, 25, 27, 81, 116, 121 Australia 69 Baker, L.M 26 Baker, P 68 Barker, J 35 Barron, B 51, 53 Bartlett, S 14 Bartram, B x, 4, 5, 5, 6, 8, 9, Basit, T.N 23, 25, 26, 27, 30, 33, 55, 134 Bassey, M 124, 128, 129 BBC 82 Bednarek, M 74 Bell, J 14, 21 Belliappa, J.L x Benefits Street 83 Bennett, J 81 Bennett, P 76, 77, 85 Bentham, S 69 BERA (British Education Research Association) 29, 36, 39, 71 Berger, R 83 Berliner, D.C 56, 65 Bernhard, H.R Bertram, T 105, 106 Bhabha, H.K 77, 86 bias 8, 18, 51–52, 59, 67 Bierand, D 78 Bill Douglas Museum, Exeter 84 Bjørkvold, T 47 Blackledge, A 121 Blikstad-Balas, M x, 45, 47, 51 blogs as research method 81, 82, 83 Blommaert, J 115, 116, 117, 119 Botturi, L 79 Bowen, G.A 75 Bradbury, A 108 Brazil 79 British Social Attitudes (BSA) survey 59 Index 145 Brown, S.R 101 Brown, Z 89, 90, 91, 92, 94, 96 Bryman, A 12, 15 Burton, D 14 Cain, A 7, cameras: digital 107, 110; scope of 51; video 47, 49–51, 52 Campbell, D.T 57 Canada 134 Caple, H 74 case method 119 case study 124–131; analysis of data 128; boundaries 126; definitions 124–125; ethics 128–129; generalization 129–130; interpretation 130; mixed methods 126, 128; sampling 127–128; types of case 125; types of design 126–127; validity 128; see also case study, types of case study, types of: collective 125, 127; instrumental 125, 127; intrinsic 125, 127; multiple-case 126, 127; single-case 126, 127 categorical data see data, types of categories: of data 6, 7, 9, 9, 26, 60, 61, 71, 115; and properties 132–133, 138, 140 cause and effect 56–57, 59 cellphilms 79 central tendency 61–62 Channel 83 Charmaz, K 70, 133, 135, 139 charts 64, 132, 138–139 childhood as research topic 69, 71–73, 103 children: competence 103; interpreting data from 37–38, 103, 107, 109–110; perspectives on 103–104; vulnerability of xiv, 39, 73; see also childhood as research topic; children with cerebral palsy as research topic; involving children children with cerebral palsy as research topic 29–33, 127–130 chi-square test 63 Christensen, P 42 Clark, A 103, 104, 107, 108, 109, 112 closed questions see questions, types of Clough, P 30 Clyne, M 119 codes and coding 20, 27, 31, 31, 46, 71, 106, 132–133 Coe, R.J 126, 128 Cohen, L 2, 12, 20, 24, 26, 27, 28, 31, 33, 135 collective case study see case study, types of Collins, K 39 Combes, H 89 combined methods see mixed methods comparison: in case study 128; in document analysis 71; in ethnography 114, 121; in observations 27, 31, 32; in Q-methodology 88, 93, 101; in quantitative research 57, 58, 63; in questionnaires 1, 5–9 computer programs see software computers, use of: for analysis 89, 93; as research topic 47; see also software Comrades 84 Comrades and curators project 84 concourse see Q-methodology, key elements condition of instruction see Q-methodology, key elements conferencing as research method 104, 106–108, 109 confidentiality 2, 3, 15, 19, 41, 42; breach of 41 confounding variables see variables, types of Connolly, P 58 consent 28, 112, 128; of children 3, 32, 39–40, 41, 48; denial/withdrawal 21, 40, 48; for document analysis 71; for filming/ photographs 19, 48, 80, 84, 108, 117; letters/forms 40, 49; for observation 29, 32; of parents 32, 48, 49, 105, 111; passive/presumed 32, 40; see also assent Conteh, J 121 continuous data see data, types of control: in quantitative research 56, 57, 58 control group 56, 58 conversation analysis see analysis, types of Copland, F 116, 117, 119, 121 Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 108 copyright laws 108 Corbett-Whittier, C 131 Corbin, J 37, 132, 133, 135, 136 corpus linguistic analysis see analysis, types of correlation 59, 63 correlation analysis see analysis, types of correlation coefficient 63 Corsaro, W.A 35 Couldry, N 76 creative methods 76, 77, 78–81, 81–85; analysis of data 83; ethics 77, 80, 82, 84; mixed methods 79, 80, 82, 83, 84; see also media texts; visual methods Creese, A 116, 117, 119, 121 Creswell, J.W 48, 59, 62, 128 critical discourse analysis see analysis, types of Cross, R.M 88, 89 cross-sectional questionnaire surveys see questionnaires, types of cross-tabulations 61 Cullingworth, E 134 Daniels, H 78 data analysis see analysis 146 Index databases 70, 71 data, types of: categorical 2, 4, 61; continuous 61; non-continuous 61; non-parametric 61, 63; parametric 61, 62 Daugaard, L.M 119 Davis, J 39 DCSF (Department for Children, Schools and Families) (England) 68 debriefing 31, 48, 101; see also participant validation Delamont, S 23, 25, 26 Deleuze, G 77, 78, 80, 81, 85 Denscombe, M 10, 25, 130, 139 Department for Education (England) 105 dependent variables see variables, types of Derry, S.J 47, 53 descriptive statistics 61–62, 64, 65 Dewilde, J xi, 114, 120 Dey, I 133 DfES (Department for Education and Science) (England) 15 diagrams see charts The Diary of Anne Frank 118 difficulty and challenge in curriculum as research topic 35–36, 134–135 digital cameras see cameras digital ethnography see ethnography, types of digital shadow 108, 112 Digital transformations project 83 disability: participants with 39; as research topic 13, 14, 29, 32, 129 discourse analysis 67–68, 74 The Discovery of Grounded Theory: Strategies for Qualitative Research 132, 140 dispersion 62 distribution grid see Q-methodology, key elements document analysis 67–75; advantages 70–71; analysing data 71–72; collecting data 70; and discourse analysis 67–68; ethics 70–71; interpretation 72–74; limitations 72, 74; mixed methods 74; planning 71; recommendations 74; theory development 73; validity 70, 74 drawing as research method 80, 82, 104 Drever, E early-years education as research topic 105–110 Early Years Foundation Stage curriculum guidance see EYFS Eden, S 90, 93 Educational Endowment Foundation (EEF) 58, 63 effect size 62–63 eigenvalue see Q-methodology, key elements Einarsdottir, J 106 Emerson, R.M 117, 122 Emvalotis, A 134 England xv, xvi, 4, 5, 6, 12, 15, 36, 58, 68, 69, 94, 96, 105, 127 Erwin, P 88 ESRC (Education and Social Research Council) 35, 40 ethics: approval 35, 71, 117; in case study 128–129; in creative methods 77, 80, 82, 84; in document analysis 70–71; in ethnography 117, 119–120, 121; in interviews 19, 20–21, 41; of involving children 3, 32, 39–42, 48, 105–106; of Mosaic approach 104, 105–106, 107, 108, 112; of observation 25, 27, 28–29, 30, 32, 33, 41; principles 29; in Q-methodology 96; in quantitative research 58; in questionnaires 2, 3, 40, 41; of recording 27; review 35; sensitive issues 3, 8, 16, 21, 41–42, 80, 96; of using video 48–49, 52, 84; see also consent ethnographical approach see ethnography, types of ethnography 25, 78, 114–123; analysis of data 117; characteristics 114–115; context/scope 116; ethics 117, 119–120, 121; interpretation 114–115, 117, 119; recommendations 120–121; setting 116, 117; stages 116–117; theory development 119; time issues 116, 117, 120; see also ethnography, types of ethnography, types of: digital 83; ethnographical approach 116, 117; short-term 115, 122; team 121; visual 79 European Early Childhood Education Research Journal (EECERJ) 112 evidence-based practice see research-based practice experimental group 56 experiments 57–58 Explore University project 96–101 external validity see validity, types of EYFS (Early Years Foundation Stage curriculum guidance) 105, 108, 110 Facebook 142 factor analysis see analysis, types of factor arrays see Q-methodology, key elements Faulkner, D 35 Fealy, G 68, 72 Feiz, P 75 Field, A 61, 65 fieldnotes 45, 116, 118, 121, 122; see also written notes film-making as research method 83–84 Index 147 Finland Flewitt, R 76, 86 Flick, U 32 focus groups 15, 90, 94, 105, 109; see also groups Fontana, A 132 forced distribution see Q-methodology, key elements forced-distribution grid see distribution grid Formosinho, J 107 Forsberg, L 50 Forster, K xv framework for listening 103, 104 Freire, P 110, 111 Fretz, R.I 122 Frey, J 132 Friedman test 63 Gallacher, L-A 111 Gallagher, M 111 Gardner, D.C 33 gatekeepers 32, 39–40 Gately, Stephen 68 Gauntlett, D 80 Geake, J.G 69 Geertz, C 111 generalization 72, 74, 95, 129–130; naturalistic 130 Germany 5, 6, 6, gifted children as research topic 68–73 Gillam, L 119 Gillham, B 126 Glaser, B.G 132–133, 136, 140 Goldacre, B 58 Goldman, R 53 Goldman, S 50 Gomm, R 124 GoPro cameras 47 graphs see charts Gray, C 112 Greece 134 Greene, S 35, 37 Gross, M.U.M 69 Grosvenor, I 12 grounded theory 132–141; attractions 135; basic tenets 132–133; criticism 133; development 133; examples 134; history 132; interpretation 133; limitations 135; mixed methods 132, 135; presentation of findings 138–139; recommendations 139; strategies 132–133; theory generation 132, 133, 136, 137–138; use of literature 135–137; validity 137; verification 133; see also saturation of data groups: research with 36, 41, 56, 79, 82, 83, 84; see also focus groups Guattari, F 77, 80 Guillemin, M 119 Gunderson, B 56 Gutiérrez, K.D 77 Hadfield, M 51, 56, 59, 60 Haeffele, L.M 33 Hamilton, L 131 Hammersley, M 5, 8, 114, 124 Hancock, D.R 131 handwriting as research topic 127 Hanley, P 58 Han, X 84 Harcourt, D 106 Hargreaves, D.H xv, xvi Harper, T 78, 85 Hart, R 111 Hartas, D 59, 61 Hattie, J 62 Haw, K 51 Hawthorne effect 28, 32; see also observer effect; reactivity HBO television network 82 health-science research see medical research Heath, C 45, 50, 53 Heath, S.B 121 Heller, M 115, 121 Higgins, S 58 higher-education entry as research topic 5–6, 96–101 Hill, M 35, 37, 40, 41 Hindmarsh, J 53 Hockey, J 69 Holt, N.L 132 Hunger by the Sea 83–84 hypothesis 57, 60, 63, 135 Ignatow, G 92 images as research method 67, 77, 78; see also visual methods inclusion as research topic 90–91, 92 independent variables see variables, types of India xiii, 134 inferential statistics 63–64, 65 informed consent see consent insider perspective 21, 25, 111 instrumental case study see case study, types of internal validity see validity, types of International Ethical Research Involving Children (ERIC) project 43 international placements as research topic 4–5, Internet 73, 132, 138 interpretation: in case study 130; of data from children 37–38, 103, 107, 109–110; of documents 72–74; in ethnography 148 Index 114–115, 117, 119; of film data 84; in grounded theory 133; of mixed-methods data 128; in Mosaic approach 104, 105, 108–109; of observation data 119–120; of Q-methodology data 94, 97; of questions 13, 17, 37, 59; by relating to literature 117; of video data 47–48; see also analysis interval scales see scales, types of intervening variables see variables, types of interviewer, role of 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 19, 21 interviews 12–22, 32, 36; analysis of data 20; benefits 12, 13–16; conducting 18–19; ethics 19, 20–21, 41; in ethnography 116; limitations 13–16; mixed methods 4, 12, 15, 38, 74, 90, 94, 95; piloting 13, 17, 18, 22, 95; as professional interactions 19, 21; recommendations 21–22; recording 18–19; validity 14; see also interviews, types of; questions, types of interview schedule 14, 16–18, 21 interviews, types of: with children 36–38; with colleagues 21; email 5; focus-group 15; semi-structured 13–14, 22; structured 13, 14; unstructured 14; see also questions, types of intrinsic case study see case study, types of involving children xiv, 29–30, 35–44, 80, 103–104, 105, 111; in conferences 106–107; ethics 3, 32, 39–42, 48, 105–106; in interviews 36–38; in observation 30, 32, 41, 106; in photography 107–108; in questionnaires 37, 41; recommendations 42; see also children Ioannidis, J.P.A xv Ireland 72 Italy 35, 79 James, A 42, 69, 113 James, D 133, 137 Janesick, V.J 121 Janík, T 45, 46 Jewitt, C 46, 47 Jie, D 115, 116, 117, 119 Jones, K 76, 81, 86 Jopling, M xi, 56 Journal of Case Studies in Education 131 Karachi Circular Railway 78 Karpouza, E 134 Kehler, A 78 Kendall, A 81 Kim, C-Y 35 Klette, K 46, 51 Knoblauch, H 115 Koro-Ljungberg, M 80–81 Kruskal-Wallis test 63 labelling as research topic 68, 69, 72 labels: use of in research 91, 138–139 Laevers, F 106 Lambert, M xi, xvi, 35, 37, 134 language: of children 37; in discourse analysis 67; in document analysis 70, 71–72; in interviews 17; in questionnaires language learning as research topic 6–9, 115, 116, 118–119, 120, 122 L.A Noire 83 Law, J 77 learning journey 105, 107, 109, 110 Lego Serious Play 80 Lemke, J 51, 52 Likert scales see scales, types of Lilyhammer TV series 118 Lindsay, G 40 Linking Instruction and Student Achievement (LISA) study 46, 47, 51 literacy as research concern literacy lessons as research topic 47; see also writing development as research topic literature review 16, 20, 91, 94; in grounded theory 136–137 The Little Prince 42 live data 76, 85 Livingstone, S 78 longitudinal questionnaire surveys see questionnaires, types of longitudinal research 35, 59 Luff, P 33, 53 Lyndon, H xi, 104 McCambridge, J 28 McCartan, K 10, 17, 28, 125 McDermott, R 50 McDougall, J xi, 76, 77, 79, 83, 84, 85 McGhee, G 136 McNamara, M 68, 72 magnification see video Maltese, A.V 50 Mann-Whitney U test 63 Marland, G.R 136 Martyrs’ Museum, Tolpuddle 84 Masson, J 40 Maxwell, J.A 50 May, T 13 Mayall, B 38 mean 61–62 measurement: levels of 60–61 median 61–62 media/press 67, 69, 73, 91; British 68, 70, 72; Dutch 68; Irish 68, 72 media texts 76, 77, 85 medical research xv, 58, 134 Menter, I 108 Index 149 mentor see supervisor Mercer-Mapstone, L 78 Merriam, S.B 125 Microsoft Excel 61, 64 Mihalcea, R.F 74 Millen, D.R 115 Millennium Cohort Study (MCS) 59 Miller, K 52 Mitchell, C 79, 80, 84 mixed methods: in case study 126, 128; in creative methods 79, 80, 82, 83, 84; in document analysis 74; in grounded theory 132, 135; with interviews 4, 12, 15, 38, 74, 90, 94, 95; in Mosaic approach 104, 106–108; with observation 26, 29–30, 31–32, 33, 38, 59, 106, 128; in Q-methodology 90, 93–94, 95, 97, 101; with qualitative data 97, 126, 135; with quantitative data 55, 56, 59, 61; with questionnaires 2, 4, 12, 29, 32, 90, 135 mode 61–62 modelling as research method 80 modern foreign language learning as research topic 6–9, Molinari, L 35 Moline, K 79 Mondario, A Mooney-Somers, J 41 Morgan, J 115 Morley, D 82 Morrison, K 58 Morrow, V 40 Mosaic approach xiv, 103–113; epistemology 103; ethics 104, 105–106, 107, 108, 112; as improvement tool 104, 105, 109–110; interpretation 104, 105, 108–109; limitations 111; mixed methods 104, 106–108; perspectives on children 103–104; recording of observations 106; stages 103, 105–119; strengths 111 mosaics 103, 104, 105, 106, 109, 111 Moss, P 103, 104, 107, 109 Muijs, D 56, 57, 61, 62, 65 Mukherji, P 27, 106, 128 multilingualism see language learning as research topic multiple-case design see case study, types of multiple linear regression see regression analysis multiple review 46 Munn, P Murray, J 112 museums as research venue 84 narrative data 26, 27, 78, 82, 106 National Curriculum (England) as research topic 94–96 National Networks for Collaborative Outreach scheme 96 Nationwide 82 (Negatively) Benefits Street project 83 Neill, J Netherlands 4, 6, Newby, P 22 newspapers see media/press nominal scales see scales, types of non-continuous data see data, types of non-experiments 59–60 non-parametric data see data, types of non-participant observation see observation, types of Norway 114, 118 Norwich, B xv numerical data see quantitative data Nutbrown, C 30, 80 NVivo 71, 117 Oancea, A 56, 60, 64, 65 objectives see research questions observation 23–34; analysis of data 26, 27, 31; attractions 23; ethics 25, 27, 28–29, 30, 32, 33, 41; in ethnography 114–115, 116; interpretation 119–120; limitations 45, 46, 88, 94; mixed methods 26, 29–30, 31–32, 33, 38, 59, 106, 128; piloting 30, 33, 52; recommendations 33; recording 30–31, 106, 116–117; validity 28, 31–32; see also observation, types of; video observation template 30, 31, 60, 80, 106 observation, types of: of children 30, 32, 41, 106; non-participant 25, 26; participant 25–26, 30, 116; semi-structured 27, 30; structured 26–27; unstructured 27; see also video observer effect 116 O’Connor, J xi-xii, 68, 71 OHCHR (Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights) 103 Oliver, P 39, 41 Olsen, A 41 open-ended questions see questions, types of Oppenheim, A.N 59 ordinal scales see scales, types of Osborn, M outdoor learning as research topic 109–110 outliers 62 Packirisamy, P 134 Pahl, K 77 Pakistan 78 Papatheodorou, I 25, 26, 28, 29, 30, 33 paradigms: interpretivist 95, 115, 126, 129, 135; participatory 103; positivist 89, 135; 150 Index see also qualitative research; quantitative research paradigm wars see quantitative-qualitative divide parametric data see data, types of parents and carers: consent of 32, 40, 48, 49, 111; involvement in research 32, 105, 107, 108, 110 Parker, E.C 134 Parry, B 80 participant observation see observation, types of participant validation 95; see also debriefing participatory research 14, 35, 79, 80, 84, 103–113; criticism 111 Pascal, C 105, 106 patterns 6, 9, 46, 71, 103, 117, 118–119; see also mosaics Patton, M.Q 25 Pea, R 53 permission see consent photo-boards 107–108, 109 photography as research method 80, 84, 89, 104, 107–108; ethics 80, 108, 117; see also visual methods Piaget, J 69 de Pietro, J.F 7, piloting: of interviews 13, 17, 18, 22, 95; of observation 30, 33, 52; of questionnaires 2, 3, 8, 59 Pink, S 79, 80, 115 Piper, H 39 Plowright, D 29 Podmore, V.N 33 Portugal 5, positivist research 89, 115, 135 Poth, C.N 48 Potter, J 76, 77, 79, 80 power 21, 37, 105; imbalance 38, 48, 78, 119 PQMethod 93, 95, 97; manual 102 practitioners as co-researchers 110, 111 praxeology 105 pre- and post-testing 58 press see media/press Pring, R 39, 40, 138 Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) xiii Proquest 70 Prout, A 103 Punch, K.F 13, 56, 60, 64, 65, 124 purposeful listening 103, 104 p-value 62 Q-methodology 88–102; analysis of data 89, 90, 93, 95, 100, 101; ethics 96; interpretation 94, 97; main terms 89; mixed methods 90, 93–94, 95, 97, 101; process 88–89; in project evaluation 96–97; recommendations 101; software 93, 95, 97, 101; in undergraduate dissertation 94–96; validity 95; variance 93; see also Q-methodology, key elements Q-methodology, key elements: concourse 89, 90, 91, 101; condition of instruction 89, 91–92, 92; distribution grid 88, 89, 91, 92, 93, 95, 96; eigenvalue 93, 97; factor arrays 93; forced distribution 92; statements 88, 89, 90–91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 97, 99, 100; unique number 89; see also Q-set; Q-sort Q-set: construction 90, 94–95; definition 89, 91, 101; see also Q-methodology Q-sort: analysis of data 93; definition 89; doing 91, 92, 97, 101; example 98; ideal 93; recording 95; see also Q-methodology qualitative data: analysis 20, 27, 71, 93, 97; in document analysis 71, 75; in ethnography 121; in interviews 12, 13, 20; mixed methods 97, 126, 135; in Mosaic approach 106; in observations 26, 27; in Q-methodology 93, 97, 101; see also qualitative research qualitative research xiii, 7, 132, 133; see also paradigms; qualitative data quantitative data: analysis 1, 60–64; in case study 126, 128; in document analysis 71–72; in interviews 26; mixed methods 55, 56, 59, 61; presentation 64; in Q-methodology 97; in questionnaires 7; reasons for using 55; see also quantitative research quantitative-qualitative divide 56 quantitative research xiii; definitions 56; ethics 58; features 56; history 56, 132; recommendations 65; validity 57; variance 62, 63; see also paradigms; quantitative data; variables quasi-experiments 56, 58–59 questionnaires 1–11; analysis of data 4, 7, 8–9, 10; annotation of responses 7, 8; completion rates 2; ethics 2, 3, 40, 41; limitations 2; merits 1–2; mixed methods 2, 4, 12, 29, 32, 90, 135; piloting 2, 3, 8, 59; recommendations 10; validity 3, 8; see also questionnaires, types of; questionnaire surveys; questions, types of questionnaire surveys see questionnaires, types of questionnaires, types of: for children 37, 41; cross-sectional 59; longitudinal 59; online 5–6, 59; surveys 59, 60, 90; word-association 6–8; written 4; see also questions, types of Index 151 questions in interviews: bias 18; examples 17; interpretation 13, 17, 37, 59; phrasing 17, 18; piloting 13, 22; sequencing 16, 17–18; see also questions, types of questions in questionnaires: construction 2, 3; interpretation 37; phrasing 2; sequencing 2; see also questions, types of questions, types of: closed 2, 13, 17; open-ended 2, 4, 17, 18, 97, 101; semistructured 13–14; standardized 1, 7; structured 13; unstructured 14; see also scales, types of randomization 56, 58 randomized controlled trials (RCTs) 58 range 62 Rapley, T 75 rapport 14, 16, 39 rating scales see scales, types of ratio scales see scales, types of reactivity see video reading scheme as research topic 49 Reay, D 85 refugee students as research topic 118–120 Rega, I 79 regression analysis see analysis, types of relatability 5; see also generalization relationship of researcher: with children 106, 107; with professionals/practitioners 15, 21, 41, 105, 111, 121 reliability 9, 13, 25, 59 replication 70 research-based practice xiii, xv, 64 research questions 14, 17, 24, 29, 52, 60, 70, 91, 129 resilience as research topic 57 Rhoades, G xii, 91 Richards, B 77 Roberts, H 42 Roberts-Holmes, G 108, 126 Robson, C 10, 17, 28, 125, 126 role play as research topic 109 Rose, R 12 Rosiers, K 119 Rozsahegyi, T xii, 29, 31, 127, 130 Rubin, H.J 39 Rubin, I.S 39 Rusk, F 50 Ryan, G.W de Saint-Exupéry, Antoine 42 samples: self-selective 6; size 1, 59, 62, 72, 92, 117 sampling 127; activity 29; bias 59; event 27; purposive 5, 128; random 56, 58, 63; representative 52, 59, 91, 121; time 27; in video 51–52 saturation of data 70, 74, 139 Savat, D 78, 85 scales, types of: interval 61, 62; Likert 5, 17, 17, 60–61; nominal 60, 61; ordinal 60, 61; in Q-methodology 91, 97; ratio 61 Schooler, J.W 88 Schwandt, T.A 6, 135 Scott, D 57, 64 search terms 70 Sefton-Green, J 78 Self-Regulated Strategy Development project 58, 63 Selleck, C.L 122 semi-structured interviews see interviews, types of semi-structured observations see observation, types of semi-structured questions see questions, types of sensitive issues see ethics Shaw, L.L 122 Sheares, H 94 Shire Hall Living History project, Dorchester 84 short-term ethnography see ethnography, types of Sidnell, J 67 Sigal, I 78 Silseth, K 48 Silverman, D 7, 14, 48 Simons, H 29, 39, 128, 129, 130 Simpson, A 46 Simpson, M 24, 27 single-case design see case study, types of Snell, J 51 social construction of childhood 69, 71, 72 social-justice objectives 76, 79–80, 84, 85 software: in Q-methodology 89, 93, 95, 97, 101; statistical 6, 61; for textual data 71, 73, 117 South Africa 79 special educational needs: participants with 39; as research topic 13; see also disability Special Educational Needs Code of Practice (England) 15, 18 special educational needs coordinators (SENCOs) as research topic 15–18, 20, 21 SPSS Statistics 61, 62, 63, 64, 65 Stainton Rogers, R 92 Stake, R.E 124, 125, 126, 130 standard deviation (SD) 62 standardized questions see questions, types of standards in education as research topic 91, 92 152 Index Stanley, J.C 57 statements see Q-methodology, key elements statistical significance 7, 62, 63, 93 Stenner, P 89, 90, 91, 92, 102 Stephenson, W 89 Stirling, E 80 storage of data 19, 29, 48, 52, 71, 108 Strauss, A.L 37, 132, 133, 135, 136, 140 Strauss, S 75 structured interviews see interviews, types of structured observations see observation, types of structured questions see questions, types of Sudbury, S 83 supervisor 35, 74, 101, 121, 137, 139 surveys see questionnaire surveys Swanborn, P 125, 130 Sweden 134 Sylva, K 30 Tashakkori, A 56 Teaching and Learning Toolkit 58, 63 team ethnography see ethnography, types of Teddlie, C 56 tests and testing xiii, 56, 57, 58, 63, 137 text mining see analysis, types of theory development: in document analysis 73; in ethnography 119; in grounded theory 132, 133, 136, 137–138 thing-power 81 third space 77–78, 83–84, 86 Thomas, G 133, 137 Thornberg, R 134 Tolpuddle Martyrs 84 Torgerson, C 58 Torgerson, D 58 tours of setting 104, 107 transcription: 19, 20 translation 6, transparency 52, 70, 74, 121 triangulation 31–32, 74, 111, 128 trustworthiness see validity t-test 63 Tuson, J 24, 27 UK 85, 103, 105, 108, 109, 126 UNICEF 36 unique number see Q-methodology, key elements United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child 103 unstructured interviews see interviews, types of unstructured observation see observation, types of unstructured questions see questions, types of Uprichard, E 35 Urquhart, C 133 USA 134 Usher, R 57, 64 validity: in case study 128; in document analysis 70, 74; in grounded theory 137; in interviews 14; in observation 28, 31–32; in Q-methodology 95; in quantitative research 57; in questionnaires 3, 8; in video 47, 50; see also validity, types of validity, types of: internal 57–58; external 58 van Dijk, T.A 68 Van Sluys, K 134 variables 56–57, 93; control of 56–57; relationships between 57, 62, 63, 64, 93; see also variables, types of variables, types of: confounding 57; dependent 56, 57, 64; independent 56, 57, 64; intervening 57 variance: in Q-methodology 93; in quantitative research 62, 63 video 45–54; analysis of data 47, 51, 52; benefits 45–48; challenges 49–53; context/ scope 50–51; discussion of data 47–48; effects 49–50; ethics 48–49, 52, 84; interpretation 47–48; magnification 51–52; reactivity 49–50; recommendations 52; sampling 51–52; validity 47, 50; see also video recordings; visual methods video recordings 18, 27; dissemination 48; storage 48, 108; unanalysed data 51; see also video Visible Learning 62 visual ethnography see ethnography, types of visual methods 78–81; as area of scholarship 79; moving beyond human rationality 80–81; reflexivity 78; socialjustice objectives 76, 79–80, 84, 85; see also creative methods; images as research method; photography as research method; video Vogt, W.P 33 vulnerability see children Vygotsky, L 78 Ward, H xvi Watts, S 89, 90, 91, 92, 102 Weller, S 35 We need to talk about Maggie project 81–82 Werner, V 74 Wilcoxon test 63 Wilson, T.D 88 Winter, R Winwood, J xii, 12 Index 153 The Wire 82, 83 Wiring the audience project 82–83 Woodhead, M 35 Woods, P 38 word-association questionnaire see questionnaires, types of word frequency 72 Wragg, E.C 33 Wrigley, T 58, 63 writing development as research topic 51, 58, 114, 120 written notes 13, 19; see also fieldnotes written texts see document analysis Yamada-Rice, D 80 Yin, R.K 124, 125, 127, 128, 130 Zhou, X 52 .. .Practical Research Methods in Education Practical Research Methods in Education is a hands-on guide which critically explores and scrutinizes research methods used in educational... understanding in how they act and react in practical situations I take this lead further in Chapter 4 by scrutinizing the challenges of involving children in research, drawing on my own experiences including... this is by engaging thoughtfully and critically in an enquiry of one’s own Indeed, a research project, including research- ? ?methods training and a final-year dissertation, now invariably forms